1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
3.
Anti-aircraft warfare
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Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is defined by NATO as all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action. They include ground-and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and it may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries the main effort has tended to be homeland defence, NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare. Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight, a surface-based air defence capability can also be deployed offensively to deny the use of airspace to an opponent. Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions ranging from 20 mm to 150 mm were the weapons, guided missiles then became dominant. The term air defence was probably first used by Britain when Air Defence of Great Britain was created as a Royal Air Force command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called anti-aircraft, abbreviated as AA, after the First World War it was sometimes prefixed by Light or Heavy to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include AA, AAA or triple-A, an abbreviation of anti-aircraft artillery, ack-ack, NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare as measures taken to defend a maritime force against attacks by airborne weapons launched from aircraft, ships, submarines and land-based sites. In some armies the term All-Arms Air Defence is used for air defence by nonspecialist troops, other terms from the late 20th century include GBAD with related terms SHORAD and MANPADS. Anti-aircraft missiles are variously called surface-to-air missile, abbreviated and pronounced SAM, non-English terms for air defence include the German FlaK, whence English flak, and the Russian term Protivovozdushnaya oborona, a literal translation of anti-air defence, abbreviated as PVO. In Russian the AA systems are called zenitnye systems, in French, air defence is called DCA. The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure, however, many different definitions are used but unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only the part of the trajectory can be usefully used. By the late 1930s the British definition was that height at which an approaching target at 400 mph can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation. However, effective ceiling for heavy AA guns was affected by nonballistic factors, The maximum running time of the fuse, the capability of fire control instruments to determine target height at long range. The essence of air defence is to detect aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space, Air defence evolution covered the areas of sensors and technical fire control, weapons, and command and control. At the start of the 20th century these were very primitive or non-existent
4.
81st Fighter-Bomber Wing
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The 81st Training Wing is a wing of the United States Air Force and the host wing at Keesler Air Force Base, Mississippi. The 81st Training Wing has the Air Force’s largest Technical Training Group, see 81st Fighter-Bomber Group for related lineage and timeline information. Established as 81st Fighter Wing on 15 April 1948 and activated on 1 May at Wheeler Air Force Base, the 81st Wing commanded the functions of both the support groups as well as the flying combat 81st Fighter Group and the squadrons assigned to it. The wing was attached to the Air Defense Command Western Air Defense Force on 19 January 1950, after fourteen months at now redesignated Larson Air Force Base, the 81st received movement orders to deploy to England. The 81st Fighter-Bomber Group was inactivated on 16 June 1952 when the group was considered redundant as part of the Air Force tri-deputate reorganization. The 81st was the first Sabre Jet unit to be based in Europe, in this role, the wing came under the operational control of the Royal Air Force Fighter Command No.11 Group during the actual defense of the United Kingdom, and for combined operational training. Under USAFE, the 81st came under the control of Third Air Force which coordinated its activities with the RAF, although the pilots had a relatively short time to acquaint themselves with RAF techniques and procedures and the methods of fighter control, the unit made and excellent showing. The 78th moved to RAF Sculthorpe in May 1956, the 78th briefly returned to Shepherds Grove in May 1957 before being reassigned to RAF Woodbridge in December 1958 when the USAF turned Shepherds Grove to the British Ministry of Defence. In October 1954 the mission of the 81st changed from fighter-interceptor to fighter-bomber operations, the wing was charged with tactical operations in support of USAFE and NATO, with air defense as a secondary mission. To reflect this change, the unit was redesignated the 81st Fighter-Bomber Wing, on 8 July 1958 Bentwaters was operated as twin base with RAF Woodbridge and as a single unit under the newly designated 81st Tactical Fighter Wing. Along with the 91st and 92d Tactical Fighter Squadrons, the 78th Tactical Fighter Squadron was transferred from RAF Shepherds Grove when the USAF returned Shepherds Grove to the Ministry of Defense, the 78th TFS operated from Woodbrige, while the 91st and 92d squadrons operated from Bentwaters. Beginning in the fall of 1958, the 81st TFW was requipped with the McDonnell F-101 Voodoo, the F-101 was configured as a fighter bomber, intended to carry a single nuclear weapon for use against battlefield targets such as airfields. The Voodos were equipped with Low Angle Drogued Delivery and Low Altitude Bombing System equipment for its mission of delivering nuclear weapons at extremely low altitudes. Pilots were trained for one-way missions into Soviet territory to increase range at some cost in negating pilot recovery. In November 1965, the 81st received McDonnell F-4 Phantom IIs to replace the Voodoos, initially receiving the F-4C this was later upgraded to the more capable F-4D during late 1972 and 1973. The 81st began conversion to the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II in June 1979, the A-10 being a single-seat, twin-engine jet aircraft designed to provide close air support of ground forces by attacking tanks, armored vehicles, and other ground targets. With the A-10, the mission changed to close air support. With the transfer of the A-10s to Alconbury, the 527th Aggressor Squadron was transferred to Bentwaters, the mission of the 527th was to provide dissimilar air combat training for NATO pilots, using Soviet tactics
5.
RAF Bentwaters
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Its name was taken from two cottages that had stood on the site of the main runway during its construction in 1943. For many years the 81st Fighter Wing also operated RAF Woodbridge, with Bentwaters, RAF Bentwaters is also near the location for the alleged December 1980 UFO incident in Rendlesham Forest. The site is now known as Bentwaters Parks, the Bentwaters Cold War Museum is located on the site, there are offices and warehouses, and the site is also used for television and film making. Bentwaters airfields origin dates to 1942 when construction began on a Royal Air Force station called Royal Air Force Butley for use by RAF Bomber Command, on 28 January 1943 the station was renamed Royal Air Force Bentwaters. It was opened for use in April 1944. In December it was transferred to No.11 Group, RAF Fighter Command, during the Second World War, RAF squadrons at Bentwaters were, No.64 Squadron RAF between 29 December 1944 and 15 August 1945 with North American Mustang III moved to RAF Horsham St Faith. No.65 Squadron RAF between 15 May 1945 and 13 August 1945 with Mustang IV moved to RAF Fairwood Common, No.118 Squadron RAF between 15 December 1944 and 11 August 1945 with re-equipped Mustang III moved to RAF Fairwood Common. No.126 Squadron RAF between 30 December 1944 and 5 September 1945 with Mustang III then upgrading to Mustang IV in August 1945, No.129 Squadron RAF between 11 December 1944 and 26 May 1945 with Mustang III, swapping to Supermarine Spitfire IXE in May 1945. No.165 Squadron RAF between 15 December 1944 and 29 May 1945 with Mustang III until May 1945 then the Spitfire IXE, two other units were also based at Bentwaters, these were No.226 Operational Conversion Unit RAF and No.7 Fighter Command Servicing Unit. In addition to its RAF use, United States Army Air Forces fighters flew escort missions for RAF Bomber Command from Bentwaters beginning on 4 May 1945, the USAAF designation for Bentwaters was AAF Station 151. During the postwar years, the RAF retained Bentwaters for flying various aircraft, before finally closing the facility on 26 August 1949 when it was placed into care and maintenance status. The squadrons were, No.56 Squadron RAF reformed here on 1 April 1946, No.74 Squadron RAF between 2 June 1946 and 9 June 1945 with Meteor F. 3s moved to RAF Colerne. No.124 Squadron RAF between 5 October 1945 and 18 February 1946 with Meteor F. 3s moving to RAF Fairwood Common, the squadron returned on 20 March 1946 and stayed until 1 April 1946 still with the Meteor F.3 before being renamed 56 Squadron. Bentwaters was to play a key role in the defence of Western Europe during the Cold War when large numbers of USAF aircraft were assigned as part of the air arm of NATO, on 16 March 1951, the USAF 7506th Air Support Group was assigned to Bentwaters. Their mission was to bring the facility up to NATO standards, during most of 1951 and 1952 USAF construction upgraded the operational facilities, as well as the construction of support facilities. Early USAF units at Bentwaters were as follows, 9th Air Rescue Squadron and this unit flew air-sea rescue missions with aging B-29 aircraft adapted to drop airborne lifeboats. It received its nickname from earlier Dumbo missions that picked airmen up when they crashed at sea, the unit departed in November 1952 for RAF Burtonwood. This unit flew aerial targets for practice by NATO aircraft
6.
81st Training Wing
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The 81st Training Wing is a wing of the United States Air Force and the host wing at Keesler Air Force Base, Mississippi. The 81st Training Wing has the Air Force’s largest Technical Training Group, see 81st Fighter-Bomber Group for related lineage and timeline information. Established as 81st Fighter Wing on 15 April 1948 and activated on 1 May at Wheeler Air Force Base, the 81st Wing commanded the functions of both the support groups as well as the flying combat 81st Fighter Group and the squadrons assigned to it. The wing was attached to the Air Defense Command Western Air Defense Force on 19 January 1950, after fourteen months at now redesignated Larson Air Force Base, the 81st received movement orders to deploy to England. The 81st Fighter-Bomber Group was inactivated on 16 June 1952 when the group was considered redundant as part of the Air Force tri-deputate reorganization. The 81st was the first Sabre Jet unit to be based in Europe, in this role, the wing came under the operational control of the Royal Air Force Fighter Command No.11 Group during the actual defense of the United Kingdom, and for combined operational training. Under USAFE, the 81st came under the control of Third Air Force which coordinated its activities with the RAF, although the pilots had a relatively short time to acquaint themselves with RAF techniques and procedures and the methods of fighter control, the unit made and excellent showing. The 78th moved to RAF Sculthorpe in May 1956, the 78th briefly returned to Shepherds Grove in May 1957 before being reassigned to RAF Woodbridge in December 1958 when the USAF turned Shepherds Grove to the British Ministry of Defence. In October 1954 the mission of the 81st changed from fighter-interceptor to fighter-bomber operations, the wing was charged with tactical operations in support of USAFE and NATO, with air defense as a secondary mission. To reflect this change, the unit was redesignated the 81st Fighter-Bomber Wing, on 8 July 1958 Bentwaters was operated as twin base with RAF Woodbridge and as a single unit under the newly designated 81st Tactical Fighter Wing. Along with the 91st and 92d Tactical Fighter Squadrons, the 78th Tactical Fighter Squadron was transferred from RAF Shepherds Grove when the USAF returned Shepherds Grove to the Ministry of Defense, the 78th TFS operated from Woodbrige, while the 91st and 92d squadrons operated from Bentwaters. Beginning in the fall of 1958, the 81st TFW was requipped with the McDonnell F-101 Voodoo, the F-101 was configured as a fighter bomber, intended to carry a single nuclear weapon for use against battlefield targets such as airfields. The Voodos were equipped with Low Angle Drogued Delivery and Low Altitude Bombing System equipment for its mission of delivering nuclear weapons at extremely low altitudes. Pilots were trained for one-way missions into Soviet territory to increase range at some cost in negating pilot recovery. In November 1965, the 81st received McDonnell F-4 Phantom IIs to replace the Voodoos, initially receiving the F-4C this was later upgraded to the more capable F-4D during late 1972 and 1973. The 81st began conversion to the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II in June 1979, the A-10 being a single-seat, twin-engine jet aircraft designed to provide close air support of ground forces by attacking tanks, armored vehicles, and other ground targets. With the A-10, the mission changed to close air support. With the transfer of the A-10s to Alconbury, the 527th Aggressor Squadron was transferred to Bentwaters, the mission of the 527th was to provide dissimilar air combat training for NATO pilots, using Soviet tactics
7.
91st Fighter Squadron
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The 91st Tactical Fighter Squadron is an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its last assignment was with the 81st Tactical Fighter Wing, stationed at RAF Bentwaters and it was inactivated on 14 August 1992. The squadron was activated in early 1942 under III Fighter Command in North Carolina, initially trained with P-39 Airacobras, re-equipped with P-38 Lightnings. Began combat with Twelfth Air Force in January 1943, supported ground operations during the Allied drive against Axis forces in Tunisia. Patrolled the coast of North Africa and protected Allied shipping in the Mediterranean Sea, provided cover for the convoys that landed troops on Pantelleria on 11 June and on Sicily on 10 July 1943. Supported the landings at Anzio on 22 January 1944 and flew patrols in that area for a short time, reassigned to the China-Burma-India Theater and moved to India, February–March 1944. Initially performed training with P-40 and P-47 aircraft, moved to China in May and became part of Fourteenth Air Force. Continued training and on occasion flew patrol and escort missions before returning to combat duty in January 1945. Inactivated in China on 27 December 1945, reactivated at Wheeler Field, Hawaii Territory in late 1946. Equipped with P-51 Mustangs and performed air defense of the Hawaiian Islands until 1949, was reassigned to the Tactical Air Command Ninth Air Force, being stationed in New Mexico. Re-equipped with F-80 Shooting Star jet aircraft, trained as a fighter squadron. Upgraded to F-86 Sabres in 1950, reassigned to Air Defense Command, becoming part of the Western Air Defense Force, being moved to Moses Lake AFB, Washington. In Washington the squadrons mission was the air defense of eastern Washington, including the Grand Coulee Dam, ordered to the United Kingdom in 1951, mission to assist the Royal Air Force in the Air Defense of East Anglia, being assigned to the newly refurbished RAF Bentwaters. Also operated from a station, RAF Shepherds Grove about forty miles apart. The squadron was one of the first Sabre Jet unit to be based in Europe, in this role, the squadron came under the operational control of the RAF Fighter Command No.11 Group during the actual defense of the United Kingdom, and for combined operational training. Under USAFE, the squadron came under the control of Third Air Force which coordinated its activities with the RAF, in October 1954 the mission of the squadron changed from fighter-interceptor to fighter-bomber operations, carrying both conventional and nuclear weapons. The squadron was charged with operations in support of USAFE and NATO. To reflect this change, the unit traded in its F-86s for the F-84F Thunderstreak, beginning in the fall of 1958, the squadron was reequipped with the McDonnell F-101 Voodoo
8.
92d Cyberspace Operations Squadron
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The 92d Information Operations Squadron is a United States Air Force unit. + It was formerly a fighter unit and its last assignment as a fighter unit was with the 81st Tactical Fighter Wing at RAF Bentwaters, England, where it was inactivated on 31 March 1993. The squadron was activated in early 1942 under III Fighter Command in North Carolina, initially trained with Bell P-39 Airacobras, re-equipped with Lockheed P-38 Lightnings. Began combat with Twelfth Air Force in January 1943, supported ground operations during the Allied drive against Axis forces in Tunisia. Patrolled the coast of North Africa and protected Allied shipping in the Mediterranean Sea, provided cover for the convoys that landed troops on Pantelleria on 11 June and on Sicily on 10 July 1943. Supported the landings at Anzio on 22 January 1944 and flew patrols in that area for a short time, transferred to the China-Burma-India Theater and moved to India, February–March 1944. Initially performed training with Curtiss P-40 Warhawk and Republic P-47 Thunderbolt aircraft, moved to China in May and became part of Fourteenth Air Force. Continued training and on occasion flew patrol and escort missions before returning to combat duty in January 1945. Inactivated in China on 27 December 1945, reactivated at Wheeler Field, Hawaii in late 1946. Equipped with North American P-51 Mustangs and performed air defence of the Hawaiian Islands until 1949, was reassigned to Continental Air Command Ninth Air Force, being stationed in New Mexico. Re-equipped with Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star jet aircraft, trained as a fighter squadron. Upgraded to North American F-86 Sabres in 1950, reassigned to Air Defense Command, becoming part of the Western Air Defense Force, being moved to Moses Lake Air Force Base, Washington. In Washington the squadrons mission was the air defence of eastern Washington, including the Grand Coulee Dam, ordered to the United Kingdom in 1951, mission to assist the Royal Air Force in the Air Defense of East Anglia, being assigned to the newly refurbished RAF Bentwaters. Also operated from a station, RAF Shepherds Grove about forty miles apart. The squadron was one of the first Sabre Jet unit to be based in Europe, in this role, the squadron came under the operational control of the RAF Fighter Command No.11 Group during the actual defense of the United Kingdom, and for combined operational training. Under USAFE, the squadron came under the control of Third Air Force which coordinated its activities with the RAF, in October 1954 the mission of the squadron changed from fighter-interceptor to fighter-bomber operations, carrying both conventional and nuclear weapons. The squadron was charged with operations in support of USAFE and NATO. To reflect this change, the unit traded in its F-86s for the F-84F Thunderstreak, beginning in the fall of 1958, the squadron was re-equipped with the McDonnell F-101 Voodoo
9.
93d Fighter Squadron
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It operates the F-16 Fighting Falcon aircraft conducting air superiority missions. Activated in June 1943 under I Troop Carrier Command and equipped with C-47 Skytrains, trained in various parts of the eastern United States until the end of 1943. Deployed to England and assigned to IX Troop Carrier Command, Ninth Air Force, prepared for the invasion of Nazi-occupied Europe. Began operations by dropping paratroops of the 101st Airborne Division in Normandy on D-Day, the unit received a Distinguished Unit Citation and a French citation for these missions. After the Normandy invasion the squadron ferried supplies in the United Kingdom, after moving to France in September, the unit dropped paratroops of the 82nd Airborne Division near Nijmegen and towed gliders carrying reinforcements during the airborne attack on the Netherlands. In December, it participated in the Battle of the Bulge by releasing gliders with supplies for the 101st Airborne Division near Bastogne. When the Allies made the air assault across the Rhine River in March 1945, the squadron also hauled food, clothing, medicine, gasoline, ordnance equipment, and other supplies to the front lines and evacuated patients to rear zone hospitals. It converted from C-47s to C-46s and the new aircraft to transport displaced persons from Germany to France, returned to the U. S. during the period July–September 1945, and trained with C-46 aircraft until inactivated. The squadron trained in carrier operations from, 1949–1951 and fighter-bomber operations from. Since 1978, it has trained to combat readiness in tactical fighter operations. The 93d periodically deployed to Turkey to enforce the no-fly zone over northern Iraq from, combat Operations, Airborne assaults on Normandy, the Netherlands, and Germany, relief of Bastogne, transportation of personnel and cargo in ETO during World War II. Trained in troop carrier operations, 1949-1951 and fighter-bomber operations, 1952-1957, since 1978, trained to maintain combat readiness in tactical fighter operations. Periodically deployed to Turkey to enforce the no-fly zone over northern Iraq Campaigns, World War II, Normandy, Northern France, Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, decorations, Distinguished Unit Citation, France, Jun 1944. Air Force Outstanding Unit Awards,1 Jul 1981 –5 Oct 1982,1 Jan 1989-31 Jul 1990,2 Oct 1991 –1 Oct 1993,1 Nov 1993-30 Aug 1995, French Croix de Guerre with Palm, Jun 1944. afhra. af. mil/
United States
United States Air Force
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http://www.afhra.af.mil/.
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