1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
Anti-aircraft warfare
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Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is defined by NATO as all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action. They include ground-and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and it may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries the main effort has tended to be homeland defence, NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare. Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight, a surface-based air defence capability can also be deployed offensively to deny the use of airspace to an opponent. Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions ranging from 20 mm to 150 mm were the weapons, guided missiles then became dominant. The term air defence was probably first used by Britain when Air Defence of Great Britain was created as a Royal Air Force command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called anti-aircraft, abbreviated as AA, after the First World War it was sometimes prefixed by Light or Heavy to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include AA, AAA or triple-A, an abbreviation of anti-aircraft artillery, ack-ack, NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare as measures taken to defend a maritime force against attacks by airborne weapons launched from aircraft, ships, submarines and land-based sites. In some armies the term All-Arms Air Defence is used for air defence by nonspecialist troops, other terms from the late 20th century include GBAD with related terms SHORAD and MANPADS. Anti-aircraft missiles are variously called surface-to-air missile, abbreviated and pronounced SAM, non-English terms for air defence include the German FlaK, whence English flak, and the Russian term Protivovozdushnaya oborona, a literal translation of anti-air defence, abbreviated as PVO. In Russian the AA systems are called zenitnye systems, in French, air defence is called DCA. The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure, however, many different definitions are used but unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only the part of the trajectory can be usefully used. By the late 1930s the British definition was that height at which an approaching target at 400 mph can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation. However, effective ceiling for heavy AA guns was affected by nonballistic factors, The maximum running time of the fuse, the capability of fire control instruments to determine target height at long range. The essence of air defence is to detect aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space, Air defence evolution covered the areas of sensors and technical fire control, weapons, and command and control. At the start of the 20th century these were very primitive or non-existent
3.
RAF Bentwaters
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Its name was taken from two cottages that had stood on the site of the main runway during its construction in 1943. For many years the 81st Fighter Wing also operated RAF Woodbridge, with Bentwaters, RAF Bentwaters is also near the location for the alleged December 1980 UFO incident in Rendlesham Forest. The site is now known as Bentwaters Parks, the Bentwaters Cold War Museum is located on the site, there are offices and warehouses, and the site is also used for television and film making. Bentwaters airfields origin dates to 1942 when construction began on a Royal Air Force station called Royal Air Force Butley for use by RAF Bomber Command, on 28 January 1943 the station was renamed Royal Air Force Bentwaters. It was opened for use in April 1944. In December it was transferred to No.11 Group, RAF Fighter Command, during the Second World War, RAF squadrons at Bentwaters were, No.64 Squadron RAF between 29 December 1944 and 15 August 1945 with North American Mustang III moved to RAF Horsham St Faith. No.65 Squadron RAF between 15 May 1945 and 13 August 1945 with Mustang IV moved to RAF Fairwood Common, No.118 Squadron RAF between 15 December 1944 and 11 August 1945 with re-equipped Mustang III moved to RAF Fairwood Common. No.126 Squadron RAF between 30 December 1944 and 5 September 1945 with Mustang III then upgrading to Mustang IV in August 1945, No.129 Squadron RAF between 11 December 1944 and 26 May 1945 with Mustang III, swapping to Supermarine Spitfire IXE in May 1945. No.165 Squadron RAF between 15 December 1944 and 29 May 1945 with Mustang III until May 1945 then the Spitfire IXE, two other units were also based at Bentwaters, these were No.226 Operational Conversion Unit RAF and No.7 Fighter Command Servicing Unit. In addition to its RAF use, United States Army Air Forces fighters flew escort missions for RAF Bomber Command from Bentwaters beginning on 4 May 1945, the USAAF designation for Bentwaters was AAF Station 151. During the postwar years, the RAF retained Bentwaters for flying various aircraft, before finally closing the facility on 26 August 1949 when it was placed into care and maintenance status. The squadrons were, No.56 Squadron RAF reformed here on 1 April 1946, No.74 Squadron RAF between 2 June 1946 and 9 June 1945 with Meteor F. 3s moved to RAF Colerne. No.124 Squadron RAF between 5 October 1945 and 18 February 1946 with Meteor F. 3s moving to RAF Fairwood Common, the squadron returned on 20 March 1946 and stayed until 1 April 1946 still with the Meteor F.3 before being renamed 56 Squadron. Bentwaters was to play a key role in the defence of Western Europe during the Cold War when large numbers of USAF aircraft were assigned as part of the air arm of NATO, on 16 March 1951, the USAF 7506th Air Support Group was assigned to Bentwaters. Their mission was to bring the facility up to NATO standards, during most of 1951 and 1952 USAF construction upgraded the operational facilities, as well as the construction of support facilities. Early USAF units at Bentwaters were as follows, 9th Air Rescue Squadron and this unit flew air-sea rescue missions with aging B-29 aircraft adapted to drop airborne lifeboats. It received its nickname from earlier Dumbo missions that picked airmen up when they crashed at sea, the unit departed in November 1952 for RAF Burtonwood. This unit flew aerial targets for practice by NATO aircraft
4.
81st Training Wing
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The 81st Training Wing is a wing of the United States Air Force and the host wing at Keesler Air Force Base, Mississippi. The 81st Training Wing has the Air Force’s largest Technical Training Group, see 81st Fighter-Bomber Group for related lineage and timeline information. Established as 81st Fighter Wing on 15 April 1948 and activated on 1 May at Wheeler Air Force Base, the 81st Wing commanded the functions of both the support groups as well as the flying combat 81st Fighter Group and the squadrons assigned to it. The wing was attached to the Air Defense Command Western Air Defense Force on 19 January 1950, after fourteen months at now redesignated Larson Air Force Base, the 81st received movement orders to deploy to England. The 81st Fighter-Bomber Group was inactivated on 16 June 1952 when the group was considered redundant as part of the Air Force tri-deputate reorganization. The 81st was the first Sabre Jet unit to be based in Europe, in this role, the wing came under the operational control of the Royal Air Force Fighter Command No.11 Group during the actual defense of the United Kingdom, and for combined operational training. Under USAFE, the 81st came under the control of Third Air Force which coordinated its activities with the RAF, although the pilots had a relatively short time to acquaint themselves with RAF techniques and procedures and the methods of fighter control, the unit made and excellent showing. The 78th moved to RAF Sculthorpe in May 1956, the 78th briefly returned to Shepherds Grove in May 1957 before being reassigned to RAF Woodbridge in December 1958 when the USAF turned Shepherds Grove to the British Ministry of Defence. In October 1954 the mission of the 81st changed from fighter-interceptor to fighter-bomber operations, the wing was charged with tactical operations in support of USAFE and NATO, with air defense as a secondary mission. To reflect this change, the unit was redesignated the 81st Fighter-Bomber Wing, on 8 July 1958 Bentwaters was operated as twin base with RAF Woodbridge and as a single unit under the newly designated 81st Tactical Fighter Wing. Along with the 91st and 92d Tactical Fighter Squadrons, the 78th Tactical Fighter Squadron was transferred from RAF Shepherds Grove when the USAF returned Shepherds Grove to the Ministry of Defense, the 78th TFS operated from Woodbrige, while the 91st and 92d squadrons operated from Bentwaters. Beginning in the fall of 1958, the 81st TFW was requipped with the McDonnell F-101 Voodoo, the F-101 was configured as a fighter bomber, intended to carry a single nuclear weapon for use against battlefield targets such as airfields. The Voodos were equipped with Low Angle Drogued Delivery and Low Altitude Bombing System equipment for its mission of delivering nuclear weapons at extremely low altitudes. Pilots were trained for one-way missions into Soviet territory to increase range at some cost in negating pilot recovery. In November 1965, the 81st received McDonnell F-4 Phantom IIs to replace the Voodoos, initially receiving the F-4C this was later upgraded to the more capable F-4D during late 1972 and 1973. The 81st began conversion to the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II in June 1979, the A-10 being a single-seat, twin-engine jet aircraft designed to provide close air support of ground forces by attacking tanks, armored vehicles, and other ground targets. With the A-10, the mission changed to close air support. With the transfer of the A-10s to Alconbury, the 527th Aggressor Squadron was transferred to Bentwaters, the mission of the 527th was to provide dissimilar air combat training for NATO pilots, using Soviet tactics
5.
92d Cyberspace Operations Squadron
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The 92d Information Operations Squadron is a United States Air Force unit. + It was formerly a fighter unit and its last assignment as a fighter unit was with the 81st Tactical Fighter Wing at RAF Bentwaters, England, where it was inactivated on 31 March 1993. The squadron was activated in early 1942 under III Fighter Command in North Carolina, initially trained with Bell P-39 Airacobras, re-equipped with Lockheed P-38 Lightnings. Began combat with Twelfth Air Force in January 1943, supported ground operations during the Allied drive against Axis forces in Tunisia. Patrolled the coast of North Africa and protected Allied shipping in the Mediterranean Sea, provided cover for the convoys that landed troops on Pantelleria on 11 June and on Sicily on 10 July 1943. Supported the landings at Anzio on 22 January 1944 and flew patrols in that area for a short time, transferred to the China-Burma-India Theater and moved to India, February–March 1944. Initially performed training with Curtiss P-40 Warhawk and Republic P-47 Thunderbolt aircraft, moved to China in May and became part of Fourteenth Air Force. Continued training and on occasion flew patrol and escort missions before returning to combat duty in January 1945. Inactivated in China on 27 December 1945, reactivated at Wheeler Field, Hawaii in late 1946. Equipped with North American P-51 Mustangs and performed air defence of the Hawaiian Islands until 1949, was reassigned to Continental Air Command Ninth Air Force, being stationed in New Mexico. Re-equipped with Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star jet aircraft, trained as a fighter squadron. Upgraded to North American F-86 Sabres in 1950, reassigned to Air Defense Command, becoming part of the Western Air Defense Force, being moved to Moses Lake Air Force Base, Washington. In Washington the squadrons mission was the air defence of eastern Washington, including the Grand Coulee Dam, ordered to the United Kingdom in 1951, mission to assist the Royal Air Force in the Air Defense of East Anglia, being assigned to the newly refurbished RAF Bentwaters. Also operated from a station, RAF Shepherds Grove about forty miles apart. The squadron was one of the first Sabre Jet unit to be based in Europe, in this role, the squadron came under the operational control of the RAF Fighter Command No.11 Group during the actual defense of the United Kingdom, and for combined operational training. Under USAFE, the squadron came under the control of Third Air Force which coordinated its activities with the RAF, in October 1954 the mission of the squadron changed from fighter-interceptor to fighter-bomber operations, carrying both conventional and nuclear weapons. The squadron was charged with operations in support of USAFE and NATO. To reflect this change, the unit traded in its F-86s for the F-84F Thunderstreak, beginning in the fall of 1958, the squadron was re-equipped with the McDonnell F-101 Voodoo
6.
Bell P-39 Airacobra
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The Bell P-39 Airacobra was one of the principal American fighter aircraft in service when the United States entered World War II. The P-39 was used by the Soviet Air Force, which scored the highest number of individual kills attributed to any U. S. fighter type in the Eastern European theatre. Other major users of the type included the Free French, the Royal Air Force, the United States Army Air Forces, and the Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force. Designed by Bell Aircraft, it had a layout, with the engine installed in the center fuselage, behind the pilot. It was also the first fighter fitted with a tricycle undercarriage, although its mid-engine placement was innovative, the P-39 design was handicapped by the absence of an efficient turbo-supercharger, preventing it from performing high-altitude work. As such it was rejected by the RAF for use over western Europe but adopted by the USSR where most air combat took place at medium, together with the derivative P-63 Kingcobra, the P-39 was one of the most successful fixed-wing aircraft manufactured by Bell. It was a request for a single-engine high-altitude interceptor having the mission of interception. Despite being called an interceptor, the aircrafts role was simply an extension of the traditional pursuit role, using a heavier. This was the most demanding set of fighter specifications USAAC had presented to that date and this happened because H. M. Poyer, designer for project leader Robert Woods, was impressed by the power of this weapon and pressed for its incorporation. This was unusual, because fighter design had previously driven by the intended engine. Although devastating when it worked, the T9 had very limited ammunition, a low rate of fire, a secondary benefit of the mid-engine arrangement was that it created a smooth and streamlined nose profile. Much was made of the fact that this resulted in a configuration “with as trim, entry to the cockpit was through side doors rather than a sliding canopy. There were no problems with propeller shaft failure, the XP-39 made its maiden flight on 6 April 1938. At Wright Field, Ohio, achieving 390 mph at 20,000 ft, however, the XP-39 was found to be short on performance at altitude. Flight testing had found its top speed at 20,000 feet to be lower than the 400 mph claimed in the original proposal, as originally specified by Kelsey and Saville, the XP-39 had a turbo-supercharger to augment its high-altitude performance. Bell cooled the turbo with a scoop on the side of the fuselage. Kelsey wished to shepherd the XP-39 through its early engineering teething troubles, the XP-39 project was handed over to others, and in June 1939 the prototype was ordered by General Henry H. Arnold to be evaluated in NACA wind tunnels to find ways of increasing its speed, tests were carried out, and Bell engineers followed the recommendations of NACA and the Army to reduce drag such that the top speed was increased 16%
7.
French protectorate in Morocco
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The French Protectorate in Morocco, Arabic, حماية فرنسا في المغرب Ḥimāyat Faransā fi-l-Maḡrib) was established by the Treaty of Fez. It existed from 1912, when a protectorate was established, until independence. However, in the part of the 19th century Morocco’s weakness and instability invited European intervention to protect threatened investments. The first years of the 20th century witnessed a rush of diplomatic maneuvering through which the European powers, French activity in Morocco began during the end of the 19th century. France and Spain secretly partitioned the territory of the sultanate, with Spain receiving concessions in the far north and south of the country. The First Moroccan Crisis grew out of the rivalries of the great powers, in this case. Germany took immediate action to block the new accord from going into effect. Although the Algeciras Conference temporarily solved the First Moroccan Crisis it only worsened international tensions between the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente, in 1911, a rebellion broke out in Morocco against the Sultan, Abdelhafid. By early April 1911, the Sultan was besieged in his palace in Fez, the French dispatched a flying column at the end of April 1911 and Germany gave approval for the occupation of the city. Moroccan forces besieged the French-occupied city, approximately one month later, French forces brought the siege to an end. On 5 June 1911 the Spanish occupied Larache and Ksar-el-Kebir, on 1 July 1911 the German gunboat Panther arrived at the port of Agadir. There was a reaction from the French, supported by the British. France officially established a protectorate over Morocco with the Treaty of Fez, from a strictly legal point of view, the treaty did not deprive Morocco of its status as a sovereign state. The Sultan reigned but did not rule, Sultan Abdelhafid abdicated in favor of his brother Yusef after signing the treaty. On April 17,1912, Moroccan infantrymen mutinied in the French garrison in Fez, in late May 1912, Moroccan forces again unsuccessfully attacked the enhanced French garrison at Fez. First, the protectorate was established two years before the outbreak of World War I, which brought with it a new attitude toward colonial rule. Second, Morocco had a tradition of independence, though it had been strongly influenced by the civilization of Muslim Iberia. These circumstances and the proximity of Morocco to Spain created a relationship between the two countries
8.
Twelfth Air Force
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The Twelfth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Air Combat Command. It is headquartered at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, the command serves as a primary conventional fighter and bomber warfighting headquarters trained and ready for worldwide employment of airpower. It is responsible for the readiness of 10 active-duty wings. These subordinate commands operate more than 520 combat aircraft with more than 42,000 uniformed and civilian Airmen. It takes part in a multitude of operations in the United States Southern Command area of focus alongside partner nations in Central and South America, ensuring a safe, secure, and stable region. Established on 20 August 1942 at Bolling Field, District of Columbia and it engaged in operations in North Africa, the Mediterranean, and Western Europe. As a result of the Global War on Terrorism, most 12th Air Force units have operated in the United States Central Command AOR. Since 1987, Twelfth Air Force trains, equips, and prepares assigned units from Air Combat Command and also serves as the air, Twelfth Air Force serves as a primary conventional fighter and bomber WFHQ trained and ready for worldwide employment of airpower. It is responsible for the readiness of seven active-duty wings. The command is also leading the way in bringing the Chief of Staff of the Air Forces Warfighting Headquarters concept to life, the WFHQ is composed of a command and control element, an Air Force forces staff and an Air Operations Center. Operating as a WFHQ since June 2004, Twelfth Air Force has served as the Air Force model for the future of Combined Air and Space Operations Centers and WFHQ Air Force forces. 12 AF command is responsible for the operational readiness of 13 Twelfth Air Force-gained wings and other units of the Air Force Reserve. These units include more than 220 aircraft and 18,900 Total Force Airmen, the mission of AFSOUTH is to conduct Air Force, joint and combined air and space operations in addition to information operations in the USSOUTHCOM Area of Responsibility. To fulfill these responsibilities AFSOUTH employs a full spectrum of Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance, intra-theatre airlift, in addition the AOC is responsible for developing strategy and plans to execute air and space operations in support of USSOUTHCOM objectives. The AOC also provides command and control of all AFSOUTH air, Twelfth Air Force is also responsible for the combat readiness of one of five Falconer AOC weapons systems in the Air Force. Typically, the 12 AF/CC and his command and control organization form the core of the AFSOUTH command section. Unlike the 12 AF/CC, who reports to COMACC and has only a training mission, AFSOUTH has no organic assets, but draws on forces provided to it by CDRUSSOUTHCOM. Currently, AFSOUTH manages four rotational Air Force Reserve Command and Air National Guard C-130s based out of Muniz Air National Guard Base, the SOUTHCOM JFACC is a warfighting commander who reports to CDRUSSOUTHCOM and directs air and air defence forces provided to him for tasking by CDRUSSOUTHCOM
9.
Tunisia
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Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia is the northernmost country in Africa, covering 165,000 square kilometres. Its northernmost point, Cape Angela, is the northernmost point on the African continent and it is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisias population was estimated to be just under 11 million in 2014, Tunisias name is derived from its capital city, Tunis, which is located on Tunisias northeast coast. Geographically, Tunisia contains the end of the Atlas Mountains. Much of the rest of the land is fertile soil. Tunisia is a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic and it is considered to be the only full democracy in the Arab World. It has a human development index. In addition, Tunisia is also a state of the United Nations. Close relations with Europe – in particular with France and with Italy – have been forged through economic cooperation, privatisation, in ancient times, Tunisia was primarily inhabited by Berbers. Phoenician immigration began in the 12th century BC, these immigrants founded Carthage, a major mercantile power and a military rival of the Roman Republic, Carthage was defeated by the Romans in 146 BC. The Romans, who would occupy Tunisia for most of the eight hundred years, introduced Christianity. After several attempts starting in 647, the Arabs conquered the whole of Tunisia by 697, the Ottomans held sway for over three hundred years. The French colonization of Tunisia occurred in 1881, Tunisia gained independence with Habib Bourguiba and declared the Tunisian Republic in 1957. In 2011, the Tunisian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, the country voted for parliament again on 26 October 2014, and for President on 23 November 2014. The word Tunisia is derived from Tunis, an urban hub. The present form of the name, with its Latinate suffix -ia, the French derivative Tunisie was adopted in some European languages with slight modifications, introducing a distinctive name to designate the country. Other languages remained untouched, such as the Russian Туни́с and Spanish Túnez, in this case, the same name is used for both country and city, as with the Arabic تونس, and only by context can one tell the difference. The name Tunis can be attributed to different origins and it is generally associated with the Berber root ⵜⵏⵙ, transcribed tns, which means to lay down or encampment
United States
United States Air Force
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http://www.afhra.af.mil/.
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