1.
Super 8 film
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Super 8mm film is a motion picture film format released in 1965 by Eastman Kodak as an improvement over the older Double or Regular 8 mm home movie format. The film is nominally 8mm wide, the same as older formatted 8mm film, but the dimensions of the rectangular perforations along one edge are smaller, the Super 8 standard also allocates the border opposite the perforations for an oxide stripe upon which sound can be magnetically recorded. Unlike Super 35, the stock used for Super 8 is not compatible with standard 8mm film cameras. There are several varieties of the system used for shooting. The most popular system by far was the Kodak system and this is enough film for 2.5 minutes at the professional motion picture standard of 24 frames per second, and for 3 minutes and 20 seconds of continuous filming at 18 frames per second for amateur use. In 1973 the system was upgraded with a cartridge, which included film with magnetic sound. In 1975 an even larger 200-foot cartridge became available which could be used in specifically designed cameras, the sound and the 200 foot cartridge system are no longer available, but the 50 foot silent cartridge system is still manufactured. Historically, Super 8 film was a stock for home projection used primarily for the creation of home movies. It became a popular consumer product in the late 1960s through the 1970s. During the mid-to-late 1980s Super 8 began to re-emerge as a method for movie production. This included emulsions from Kodak, Fuji and Ilford, today Super 8 color negative film is the main color stock used. There are also Super 8 reversal films available including 200D Agfa color and black-and-white from Foma, ADOX and ORWO, in addition, coded notches cut into the Super 8 film cartridge exterior allow the camera to recognize the film speed automatically. Not all cameras can all the notches correctly, however. Canon keeps an exhaustive list of their Super 8 cameras with detailed specifications on what film speeds can be used with their cameras, usually, testing one cartridge of film can help handle any uncertainty a filmmaker may have about how well their Super 8 camera reads different film stocks. Color stocks were available only in tungsten, and almost all Super 8 cameras come with a switchable daylight filter built in. The original Super 8 film release was a silent system only, the film with sound had a magnetic soundtrack and came in larger cartridges than the original cartridge in order to accommodate the sound recording head in the film path. Sound film requires a longer path, and a second aperture for the recording head. Sound cameras were compatible with silent cartridges, but not vice versa, Sound film was typically filmed at a speed of 18 or 24 frames per second
2.
Standard 8 mm film
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The format, initially known as Cine Kodak Eight, was developed by Kodak to provide a cheaper and more portable alternative to the 16 mm film format introduced a decade earlier. Standard 8 mm film stock consists of 16 mm film reperforated to have twice the number of perforations along its edges. This film is run through the camera, exposing one edge of the film only, the spool is then reversed and the film run through again, exposing the other edge. After processing the film is cut down the centre and spliced together to give one roll of 8mm wide film. The format was an success, but retains a number of inherent problems and quirks. This procedure is tricky for the user and needs to be carried out in subdued light to avoid fogging of the edges of the film. In addition, the six feet of the finished film includes a characteristic burst of light corresponding to the reversal point. In the early 1960s, a new filming and projection standard of 18 frames per second was introduced, although many cameras, in reality, this was not the case, since the plastic pressure plate could be moulded to far smaller tolerances than their metal counterparts could be machined. Finally, Super 8s smaller sprocket holes, while allowing a larger size, were also inherently more liable to tear. The first camera produced was Kodaks own Cine Kodak Eight Model 20, like many subsequent cameras, it was extremely simple and powered by clockwork. The Swiss company Paillard-Bolex SA introduced its first 8 mm camera in 1938 and its first pocket 8 mm camera aimed squarely at the amateur market, bolex cameras and projectors continued to occupy the high end of the market. In the US, Bell and Howell introduced an 8 mm projector in 1934, and in 1935, Standard 8 mm equipment was also manufactured by Carl Zeiss, the Austrian firm Eumig, Fuji, and Canon, amongst others. Eastman Kodak officially discontinued manufacture of the film in 1992, however, private marketed film by a major U. S. manufacturer has continued at least twelve years into the 21st century sofar. John Schwind, of International Film, is the current supplier for this major US company in the entire world. There are many still in use by film students, hobbyists. This was the first new introduction of a type K-14 stock since 1988 and this film was kept in production until 2006, coinciding with the discontinuation of Kodachrome 40A in that same year. Foma R-100 film also continues to be produced by the European manufacturer Foma, due to aging punch dies, this film does NOT have an advantage over Super 8 film in terms of image steadiness, unfortunately. The most commonly used film stocks were produced by Kodak, in particular, the 10 ASA Kodachrome colour reversal stock, with its distinctive colour rendition and fine grain, was closely associated with the format
3.
Kodak
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Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak, is an American technology company that produces imaging products with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York and is incorporated in New Jersey, Kodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions and it is best known for photographic film products. Kodak was founded by George Eastman and Henry A, during most of the 20th century, Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The companys ubiquity was such that its Kodak moment tagline entered the lexicon to describe a personal event that was demanded to be recorded for posterity. Kodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s, as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film, as a part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak began to focus on digital photography and digital printing, and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would stop making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames, in January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid 2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies under the names Intellectual Ventures, on September 3,2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, on March 12,2014, it announced that the board of directors elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as chief executive officer and a member of its board of directors. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales, Japanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U. S. market with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Fuji won these sponsorship rights. Fuji opened a plant in the U. S. and its aggressive marketing. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997, fujis films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization, on January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the film market in Japan. Although Kodak developed a camera in 1975, the first of its kind. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft, Apples pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak
4.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
5.
Home movies
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Originally, home movies were made on photographic film in formats that usually limited the movie-maker to about three minutes per roll of costly camera film. The popularity of the Internet, and wider availability of high-speed connections has provided new ways of sharing home movies, such as video weblogs, the development of home movie-making has depended critically on availability of equipment and media formats at prices affordable to consumers. Development of film formats suitable for amateur hobbyists began early in the history of cinematography, for example, the 17.5 mm Birtac format was patented by Birt Acres in 1898. This format split the standard 35 mm film into two strips half as wide and was able to be loaded into the camera in daylight. Since the frames were half the height of 35 mm frames. Since the camera doubled as a printer and projector, equipment costs were also reduced, another breakthrough in making film practical for home users was the introduction of safety film in the 1920s. Many competing film formats were introduced in the decades until 16 mm safety film was introduced by Eastman Kodak in 1923. In 1932, Kodak introduced another new format,8 mm, now called Standard 8 or Regular 8, the film usually came in 16 mm wide Double 8 form, which ran through the camera in two passes and was slit in half after processing. The Straight 8 variant came already cut to 8 mm width, in either case, the amount of film stock used per frame was again reduced by 75%. This finally brought home movies within the reach of the average family, the smaller format also made possible smaller and more portable cameras and projectors. The introduction of Kodachrome color reversal film for 16 mm in 1935, the original 8 mm format was largely superseded within a few years of Kodaks 1965 introduction of Super 8 film. The Super 8 format used the film width as standard 8 mm. In addition, Super 8 film came in cartridges for easier loading into the camera, single-8, a competing product from Fujifilm, was also introduced in 1965. It used the new format as Super 8 but on a thinner polyester base. The introduction of the Beta VCR in 1975 and VHS in 1976 heralded a revolution in the making of home movies, videocassettes were extremely inexpensive compared to film and they could even be erased. This had the effect of increasing the hours of footage of most family video libraries. The honeymoon video of Pamela Anderson and Tommy Lee from 1998 was the first highly publicized example, large parts of the incident were captured on the camera phone of another audience member and broadcast widely. Home movies have played important roles in controversial criminal investigations, the prime example is the Zapruder film of the 1963 assassination of U. S. President John F. Kennedy, accidentally captured on Kodachrome film with an 8 mm home movie camera
6.
16 mm film
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16 mm film is a historically popular and economical gauge of film. 16 mm refers to the width of the film, with other film gauges including 8 and 35 mm. It is generally used for film making or for low budget motion pictures. It also existed as an amateur or home movie making format for several decades, alongside 8 mm film. In 1923, Eastman Kodak released the first 16 mm outfit consisting of a camera, projector, tripod, screen, rCA-Victor introduced a 16 mm sound movie projector in 1932 and developed an optical sound-on-film 16 mm camera, released in 1935. Eastman Kodak introduced 16 mm film in 1923 as a less expensive alternative to 35 mm film. During the 1920s, the format was often referred to as sub-standard by the professional industry, Kodak hired Willard Beech Cook from his 28 mm Pathescope of America company to create the new 16 mm Kodascope Library. In addition to making movies, people could buy or rent films from the library. Intended for amateur use,16 mm film was one of the first formats to use acetate safety film as a film base, Kodak never used nitrate film for the format because of the high flammability of the nitrate base. 35 mm nitrate was discontinued in 1952, the silent 16 mm format was initially aimed at the home enthusiast, but by the 1930s it had begun to make inroads into the educational market. The addition of sound tracks and, most notably, Kodachrome in 1935. Used extensively in WW2, there was an expansion of 16 mm professional filmmaking in the post-war years. Films for government, business, medical and industrial clients created a network of 16 mm professional filmmakers. The advent of television production also enhanced the use of 16 mm film, initially for its advantage of cost and portability over 35 mm. At first used as a format, the 16 mm format was also used to create television programming shot outside the confines of the more rigid television studio production sets. The home movie market gradually switched to the less expensive 8 mm film. 16 mm has been used for television production with light cameras in many countries before portable video cameras appeared. Replacing analog video devices, digital video has made significant inroads in television production use, nevertheless,16 mm is still in use in its Super 16 ratio for low cost productions
7.
Universum (UNAM)
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It was opened in 1992 at the Ciudad Universitaria in Mexico City. Today it has thirteen halls divided by theme dedicated to permanent exhibitions. It has worked with public and private entities to develop both permanent and temporary exhibitions and has worked to develop other science museums in other areas of the country. Opened in 1992, Universum is one of the first science museums of its type in Latin America and its facilities cover 25,000 m2 with 12,000 m2 dedicated to permanent exhibitions. These permanent exhibitions are housed in thirteen main halls with various themes and its mission is to contribute to the formation of a scientific and technological culture, and to an interest in science and technology by society in general. For this reason, the exhibitions are designed to increase understanding by using simplified language, another of the museums functions is to archive and make available work done by UNAM’s researchers at the facility’s library and archives. During the institution’s twenty years, it has received over 11 million visitors, Universum has also worked to create extension museums in other parts of the country such as the Museo de Ciencia y Tecnología in Chiapas. Permanent exhibits are housed in thirteen halls on three floors of the main complex, a number of its exhibits have been developed in collaboration with private and public entities. The Paráka Butterfly Exhibit is an area with live butterflies in a designed to imitate their natural habitat. It also works to breed butterflies native to the Valley of Mexico, the Health section focuses on human health and its maintenance, with interactive displays, some of which provide personal information. The hall was sponsored by the Asociación Nacional de Productores de Refrescos y Aguas Carbonatadas, the space exhibit has real moon rocks which were donated to the institution by NASA. The museum also has an artificial intelligence robot, called Golem and it was created by scientists in applied mathematics from UNAM to respond with information modified to the person who is interacting with it. It is the first robot designed to recognize children’s voices speaking Spanish, in addition to its permanent exhibits, the museum also hosts small- and large-scale temporary exhibitions, sometimes in collaboration with other institutions. In 2002, the museum hosted an exhibit called En busca de Teotihuacan, the display was created as a collaboration between the university and the Mexican animation company Animatronix. In 2006, an exhibit demonstrating how a virus infects a cell was created by artist and architect Antonio O’Connell, made with wood, in 2010, Tunnel of Science, and exhibit about the mysteries of the universe, was dedicated to German physicist Max Planck. In 2012, the museum held various small exhibits such as “La ciencia con sabor a chocolate”, Body Worlds is a series of exhibitions of real human bodies which have been “plastified” for display. In this exhibition, it shows the body in movement, the museum seeks to engage the public through exhibitions, activities, workshops, conferences, classes, cinema and theater. It also hosts meetings, congresses, book presentations, seminars, roundtables, award ceremonies, demonstrations, in summer, the museum hosts classes and courses for children, divided by age group, on science topics
8.
Single-8
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Single-8 is a motion picture film format introduced by Fujifilm of Japan in 1965 as an alternative to the Kodak Super 8 format. The company Konan claims in its history page to have developed the Single-8 system in 1959, although the film is thinner, the other dimensions of Single-8 such as the sprocket holes and sound track, are the same as Super 8. Single-8 can be projected in Super 8 projectors and vice versa, Single-8 comes pre-loaded in B-shaped cartridges, with two separate spools unlike the coaxial system of Super 8. The Single 8 cartridge was designed to use the film gate to hold the film in place during exposure. This contrasted with the Kodak system which had a pressure plate built into the cartridge. It has a base that is thinner than the Kodak films. Although never as popular internationally as Super 8, the continued to live in parallel. As of early 2007, Fuji still manufactures two versions of Single-8 film, Fujichrome R25N is Daylight Balanced Filmstock, while Fujichrome RT200N is Tungsten Balanced for indoor filming. The Sound Film brand is no longer made, although a magnetic sound stripe can be added to the film after processing and this option is chosen whenever sending the exposed film to Fuji in Japan. In addition to Fujis own film, black and white film is available from Japanese company Retro Enterprises and this Single-8 black & white reversal film, named Retro X, is of ASA/ISO200 and is manufactured in Germany. Although Fujifilm has stopped exportation of Single-8 Film to other countries, individual companies in the United States, Single-8 is readily available in its home country of Japan where even used cameras can reach high prices in online auctions on Yahoo. A used Fujica ZC1000, the top of the line Single-8 camera, DAICON FILM of Japan produced a series of well-known tokusatsu films in the 1980s using Single-8 film, some now available on DVD. Fujis Single-8 developing process is not the same as Process EM-26, there is more involved in the removal of the remjet antihalation backing than the now long discontinued Kodak Ektachrome Process EM-26 films. The color chemistry while close, is a bit different, particularly the Color Developer and it is often recommended sending Fuji Single-8 film to Fujifilm in Japan for processing. They are a mechanised lab set up to process their own filmstock, list of film formats American website providing Single 8 info and manuals Film formats history Info on Return of Ultraman, movie shot in Single-8 with a Fujica ZC1000 camera. Super8 Reversal Lab Netherlands, a company selling most Single-8 films and processing some stocks Retro Enterprises, in Tokyo, Japan - source Single-8 films and processing
9.
Fujifilm
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Fujifilm Holdings Corporation, better known as Fujifilm or simply Fuji, stylized as FUJiFILM, is a Japanese multinational photography and imaging company headquartered in Tokyo. Fuji Photo Film Co. Ltd. was established in 1934 with the aim of being the first Japanese producer of photographic films, over the following 10 years, the company produced photographic films, motion-picture films and X-ray films. In the 1940s, Fuji Photo entered the optical glasses, lenses, after the Second World War, Fuji Photo diversified, penetrating the medical, printing, electronic imaging and magnetic materials fields. In 1962, Fuji Photo and U. K. -based Rank Xerox Limited launched Fuji Xerox Co. Ltd. through a joint venture, from the mid-1950s, Fuji Photo accelerated the establishment of overseas sales bases. In the 1980s, Fuji Photo expanded its production and other bases overseas, meanwhile, Fuji Photo developed digital technologies for its photo-related, medical and printing businesses. Like its rival Eastman Kodak which dominated in the US, Fuji Photo enjoyed a longtime near-monopoly on camera film in Japan, the complaint was lodged by the US with the World Trade Organization. On January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the market in Japan. The new millennium witnessed the spread of digital technology in cameras. Demand for photographic films plunged in line with the popularity of digital cameras. In response, Fuji Photo implemented management reforms aimed at effecting drastic transformation of its business structures, while both film manufacturers recognized this fundamental change, Fuji Photo adapted to this shift much more successfully than Eastman Kodak. In September 19,2006, Fujifilm announced plans to establish a holding company, Fujifilm and Fuji Xerox would become subsidiaries of the holding company. A representative of the company reconfirmed its commitment to film, which accounts for 3% of sales, Fuji Xerox is a joint venture between Fujifilm and Xerox Corporation of North America. Fujifilm bought Sericol Ltd. a UK-based printing ink company specializing in screen, narrow web, velvia, one of the most saturated and fine-grained slide films, valued by nature and landscape photographers. Fortia, consumer slide film, featuring extremely vivid color rendering suitable for flower photography, Fuji Neopan Professional black & white negative film. As a side note, Neopan 400 and 1600 were designed to use the same developing times, ACROS and SS do not share this feature. This uses the Fuji G-mount lenses, to be released in 2017 The Clear Shot series of 35mm compact cameras Instax series of instant camera, wiki collection of bibliographic works on Fujifilm
10.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
11.
Filmo
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Filmo is a series of 16-mm and 8-mm movie equipment made by the Bell & Howell Company. The line included cameras, projectors and accessories, the Filmo camera series started with the 1923 Filmo 70, beginning a series of models built on the same basic body that was to continued for more than half a century. It was based on Bell & Howells brilliantly designed 1917 prototype for a 17. 5mm camera intended for amateur use. When invited into Kodaks 16mm plans in 1920, the company was quick to see the advantages, the Filmo 70 was the first spring motor-driven 16mm camera. In 1925 the Eyemo, a hand-held 35mm camera based on the design of the Filmo 70 was offered and it was also spring driven, but could be hand-cranked as well. Bell & Howell introduced the first 16mm turret camera with its Model C in 1927. When Kodak introduced 8mm film in 1932, Bell & Howell was slow to take up the new format, the first 8mm Filmo was offered in 1935 as a single run 8mm film camera, the Filmo 127-A called STRAIGHT EIGHT. However, STRAIGHT EIGHT did not appeal to the market as well as double-8, production of Filmos around this body type continued into the 1950s. The 16mm Filmo cameras all take 16-mm film on a 100 ft Daylight spool although some versions can also take 400 ft external magazines, spring wind is standard, although some Filmos have provisions for attachment of a 12V DC or AC motor. A crystal-sync motor was developed for the Eyemo and later adapted to the Filmo, the Camera is configured for C mount lenses and starting in 1927, was equipped with a three lens turret. Early turret models used a variable drum finder or sets of separate finder lenses matched to each focal length on later cameras. Early versions were designed for two speeds, either 8 and 16 frame/s, or 16 and 32 frame/s, with one option for a 12-16-24 frame/s 3-speed camera and this produced an extreme slow-motion effect and was used for motion analysis. The Model 70-E was a version of the Model D. The camera was built to the most precise standards in the industry, durable and ruggedly built, it was standard equipment for U. S. Filmo Operating and Repair Manuals Filmo History Bell & Howell movie cameras
12.
Bell & Howell
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Bell & Howell is a U. S. -based former manufacturer of motion picture machinery, founded in 1907 by two projectionists, and headquartered in Wheeling, Illinois. The company now provides inserting and finishing solutions for letters and parcels, document processing, microfilmers, scanners, the Bell & Howell trademark is also licensed to makers of various electronic consumer products. According to its charter, the Bell & Howell Company was incorporated on February 17,1907 and it was duly recorded in the Cook County Record Book eight days later. The first meeting of stockholders took place in the office of Attorney W. G, strong on February 19 at 10 a. m. The first board of directors was chosen for a term of one year, Donald Joseph Bell, chairman, Albert Summers Howell, secretary, austin Delaney was president of Bell and Howell in Canada in the 1960s and 1970s before moving with his family from England. Historically, Bell & Howell Co. was an important supplier of many different media technologies, the firm dropped the production of movie cameras in the early 1970s. Bell & Howell is a supplier of equipment for schools. The film laboratory line is now a company, BHP Inc. The firm added microfilm products in 1946 and it purchased University Microfilms International in the 1980s. UMI produced a product called ProQuest, in the 2000s, Bell and & Howell decided to focus on their information technology businesses. The imaging business was sold to Eastman Kodak and the mail business was sold to Pitney Bowes. On June 6,2001 Bell & Howell became ProQuest Company, which was then a publicly traded company, in September 2001, the remaining industrial businesses, along with the Bell & Howell name, were sold to private equity firm Glencoe Capital. The company merged with the North American arm of Böwe Systec Inc, in 2003, Böwe Systec later acquired the entire company. It was known as Böwe Bell & Howell until 2011, when Versa Capital Management bought the company from bankruptcy and they also had an Electronics and Instrumentation Division on Lennox Road, Basingstoke, UK. This facility produced several different types of transducers for applications such as North Sea oil platforms, the modified Apple had additional security elements for classroom use such as a tamper-proof cover. The case color was black but the inside was a standard Apple II Plus, Bell & Howell founded an Education Group within their company in 1907. This Education Group created Bell & Howell Schools in 1966, in that same year, the Education Group purchased a controlling share of DeVry Institute of Technology. Two years later in 1968, Bell & Howell’s Education Group, via a controlling interest in DeVry, acquired Ohio Institute of Technology in Columbus, over the years, the Education Group has bought and sold large interests in a variety of educational organizations and institutions
13.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
14.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
15.
Svema
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Svema is a registered trade mark and former name of the Shostka Chemical Plant, located in Shostka, Sumy Oblast, Ukraine. It was founded in 1931 in then Ukrainian SSR, Svema used to be the major photographic film manufacturer in the USSR, but their film lost market share in former Soviet countries to imported products during the late 1990s. They made black-and-white photographic film, photographic paper, B&W/colour cine film, colour film was made with equipment dismantled from the Agfa-Wolfen Factory after World War II. Svema products were known among enthusiasts as an easy and sturdy product for beginners in home film development, reel to reel tapes Type 1981 Svema FN32,32 GOST, ISO 40/17° Svema FN64,64 GOST, ISO 80/20°, sheet films 6. Svema shut down completely in 2006, having served only as a heating source for the town of Shostka in the intervening years. Ru, Свема Astrum a company took over some of Svemas manufacturing equipment after its closure
16.
Zapruder film
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It was an important part of the Warren Commission hearings and all subsequent investigations of the assassination, and is one of the most studied pieces of film in history. Of greatest notoriety is the capture of the fatal shot to President Kennedys head when his presidential limousine was almost exactly in front of. Abraham Zapruder stood on a pedestal along Elm Street in Dealey Plaza holding a high-end Model 414 PD Bell & Howell Zoomatic Director Series Camera. He filmed from the time the presidential limousine turned onto Elm Street for a total of 26.6 seconds, exposing 486 frames of standard 8 mm Kodachrome II safety film, running at 18.3 frames/second. After Secret Service agent Forrest Sorrels promised Zapruder that the film would only be used for an official investigation, as television station WFAAs equipment was incompatible with the format, Eastman Kodaks Dallas film processing facility developed the film and Jamieson Film Company produced three copies. Zapruder gave two of the copies to the Secret Service, on the morning of November 23, CBS lost the bidding for the footage to Life magazines $150,000 offer. According to Hewitt, he realized his mistake after ending their telephone conversation, in a 2015 interview on Opie with Jim Norton, Rather stated that the story was a myth. Frame 313 of the film depicts the fatal shot to the Presidents head, after having a nightmare in which he saw a sign in Times Square, New York City, with the phrase See the Presidents head explode. Zapruder insisted that frame 313 be excluded from publication, the November 29,1963 issue of Life—which featured the LIFE logo in a black box instead of the usual red box—published about 30 frames of the Zapruder film in black and white. Frames were also published in color in the December 6,1963 special John F. Kennedy Memorial Edition, and in issues dated October 2,1964, November 25,1966, and November 24,1967. Zapruder was one of at least 32 people in Dealey Plaza known to have made film or still photographs at or around the time of the shooting. The Zapruder frames used by the Warren Commission were published in black and white as Commission Exhibit 885 in volume XVIII of the Hearings, frames of the film have also been published in several magazines, and the film was featured in several movies. Copies of the film are available on the Internet. One of the first-generation Secret Service copies was lent to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in Washington, after study of that copy in January 1964, the Warren Commission judged the quality to be inadequate, and requested the original. Life brought the original to Washington in February for the Commissions viewing, from those slides, the FBI made a series of black-and-white prints, which were given to the commission for its use. In October 1964, the U. S. Government Printing Office released 26 volumes of testimony, volume 18 of the commissions hearings reproduced 158 frames of the Zapruder film in black and white. However, frames 208–211 were missing, a splice was visible in frames 207 and 212, frames 314 and 315 were switched, and frame 284 was a repeat of 283. In reply to an inquiry, the FBIs J. Edgar Hoover wrote in 1965 that 314 and 315 were switched due to an error
17.
9.5 mm film
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9.5 mm film is an amateur film format introduced by Pathé Frères in 1922 as part of the Pathé Baby amateur film system. It was conceived initially as a format to provide copies of commercially made films to home users. It became very popular in Europe over the few decades and is still used by a small number of enthusiasts today. Over 300,000 projectors were produced and sold mainly in France and England, the single hole allowed more of the film to be used for the actual image, and in fact the image area is almost the same size as 16 mm film. The perforation in the film is invisible to viewers, as the intermittent shutter blocks the light as the film is pulled through the gate to the next frame. The width of 9.5 mm was chosen because three strips of film could be made from one strip of unperforated 35 mm film and this was useful when duplicating films, because only one strip of 35 mm had to be processed. The projection system also incorporated a way to film on non-moving titles. A notch in the film was recognised by the projector, which would project the second frame after it for 10 seconds. By this method,10 seconds of time was available for 1 frame of film. The same principle was used by the Agfa Family system of Super 8 camera, in Britain,9.5 mm film, projectors and cameras were distributed by Pathescope Ltd. During the years leading up to the Second World War, and for years after the war. A notable element in the Pathescope catalogue was pre-war German mountain films by such directors as G. W. Pabst, classics such as Fritz Langs Metropolis, The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari and Duponts Vaudeville attracted many film collectors. Film for home cinematography was usually supplied in rolls approximately 30 feet long and enclosed in a charger or magazine, pre-war the most popular film was Ortho reversal costing only about 4/6 per charger. After the war Panchromatic film became more usual, and around 1953 even Kodachrome I became available, Pathescope Colour Film was introduced in the 1950s. A number of cameras and projectors were produced, the more successful including the Pathescope H camera, optical sound was introduced for 9.5 mm in 1938, but efforts to produce a library of sound films were interrupted by the War. The optical track resulted in a square frame format for the picture. After the war, the 9.5 mm gauge suffered strong competition from Kodaks 8 mm film, which was introduced in 1932. Pathescope found itself struggling to hold its place in the market, nevertheless, the gauge has been kept alive by a dedicated group of enthusiasts who have used methods such as re-perforating 16 mm film to provide continued supplies of material
18.
28 mm film
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28 mm film was introduced by the Pathé Film Company in 1912 under the name Pathé Kok. Geared toward the market,28 mm utilized diacetate film stock rather than the flammable nitrate commonly used in 35 mm. The film gauge was chosen such that it would be uneconomical to slit 35 mm nitrate film. Pathé in France and later Victor in the United States printed reduction prints of films for home rental. World War I stopped European production of 28 mm and it continued in North America until 1920 before ceasing entirely. Shortly after,9.5 mm and 16 mm would take the film gauge role 28 mm had once filled. Main article Pathé Frères Pathé Frères was founded by brothers Charles, the company had two divisions, a phonograph and a cinema portion, which were established in 1894 and 1896 respectively. Within fifteen years of its establishment Pathé Frères was arguably the largest entertainment company in the world and their phonograph materials were available at prices that the general public could afford. The phonograph division along with the industries of the company allowed Pathé Frères to become an international company with offices in Russia. They had purchased all the rights to the films of George Méliès as well as the Lumiere Brothers cine camera/projector patents within the first decade of the twentieth century. Pathé created a studio camera that ruled the market in Europe. In 1902 Pathé Frères opened a facility at Vincennes where they made films in large numbers. In 1906 Pathé Frères began to themselves to the upper-class society in France by building the world’s first luxury cinema. About two years later began trying to bring cinema into the home of those who were visiting their cinema. In 1910 Arthur Roussel was hired to build a machine that would enable the public to view a film inside their home, Pathé Frères introduced a 28 mm film size for home use. 28 mm film was preferable because it wasn’t as flammable as the nitrate based 35 mm film, usage of the 28 mm film also gave Pathé Frères exclusivity, by way of patents. This projector featured dynamo lighting which was “powered by a belt from a large flywheel connected to the main shaft. ”The handle had to be turned in order to project a 30 inch picture. The projector “sold for 30 dollars which included two printed films, a screen, metal carrying case and cleaning outfit. ”Not only were 28 mm printed films safer, they were also more efficient than 35 mm film
19.
35 mm film
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35 mm film is the film gauge most commonly used for motion pictures and chemical still photography. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the photographic film, the standard negative pulldown for movies is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot of film. For still photography, the frame has eight perforations on each side. This resulted in cameras, projectors, and other equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge, the 35 mm width, originally specified as 1.375 inches, was introduced in 1892 by William Dickson and Thomas Edison, using film stock supplied by George Eastman. The gauge has been versatile in application, Eastman Kodak, Fujifilm and Agfa-Gevaert are some companies which offered 35 mm films. Today Kodak is the last remaining manufacturer of motion picture film and it is difficult to compare the quality of film to digital media but a good estimate would be about 20.8 million total pixels would equal one 35 millimeter high quality color frame of film. In 1880, George Eastman began to manufacture gelatin dry plates in Rochester. Along with W. H. Walker, Eastman invented a holder for a roll of picture-carrying gelatin layer coated paper, hannibal Goodwins invention of nitrocellulose film base in 1887 was the first transparent, flexible film. With the advent of film, Thomas Alva Edison quickly set out on his invention, the Kinetoscope. The Kinetoscope was a loop system intended for one-person viewing. Edison, along with assistant W. K. L. Dickson, followed that up with the Kinetophone, beginning in March 1892, Eastman and then, from April 1893 into 1896, New Yorks Blair Camera Co. supplied Edison with film stock. Edisons aperture defined a single frame of film at 4 perforations high, a court judgment in March 1902 invalidated Edisons claim, allowing any producer or distributor to use the Edison 35 mm film design without license. Filmmakers were already doing so in Britain and Europe, where Edison had failed to file patents, at the time, film stock was usually supplied unperforated and punched by the filmmaker to their standards with perforation equipment. A variation developed by the Lumière Brothers used a circular perforation on each side of the frame towards the middle of the horizontal axis.33 aspect ratio. Spehr describes the importance of these developments, The early acceptance of 35 mm as a standard had momentous impact on the development and spread of cinema. The film format was introduced into still photography as early as 1913 but first became popular with the launch of the Leica camera, created by Oskar Barnack in 1925. The costly image-forming silver compounds in a film stocks emulsion meant from the start that 35 mm filmmaking was to be a hobby with a high barrier to entry for the public at large. Furthermore, the film base of all early film stock was highly flammable
20.
70 mm film
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70 mm film is a wide high-resolution film gauge for still and motion picture photography, with higher resolution than the standard 35 mm motion picture film format. As used in cameras, the film is 65 mm wide, for projection, the original 65 mm film is printed on 70 mm film. The additional 5 mm are for 4 magnetic strips holding six tracks of sound, although later 70 mm prints use digital sound encoding, the vast majority of existing and surviving 70 mm prints predate this technology. Each frame is five perforations tall, with a ratio of 2.20,1. Films formatted with a width of 70 mm have existed since the days of the motion picture industry. The first 70 mm format film was most likely footage of the Henley Regatta, which was projected in 1896 and 1897, but may have been filmed as early as 1894. It required a specially built projector built by Herman Casler in Canastota, New York and had a similar to full frame. There were also several film formats of various sizes from 50 to 68 mm which were developed from 1884 onwards, including Cinéorama, in 1914 the Italian Filoteo Alberini invented a panoramic film system utilising a 70 mm wide film called Panoramica. In 1928, Fox Film Corporation started working on a film format using 70 mm film which they named Grandeur. This was one of a number of wide-film processes developed by some of the film studios at about that time. However, due to resistance from movie theater owners, who were in the process of equipping their theaters for sound. Producer Mike Todd had been one of the founders of Cinerama, Cinerama employed three 35 mm film projectors running in synchronism to project a wide image onto a deeply curved screen. Although the results were impressive, the system was expensive, cumbersome and had serious shortcomings due to the need to match up three separate projected images. In collaboration with the American Optical company, Todd developed a system which was to be called Todd-AO and this uses a single 70 mm wide film and was introduced with the film Oklahoma. The 70 mm film is perforated at the pitch as standard 35 mm film. With a five-perforation pull-down, the Todd-AO system provides a frame dimension of 1.912 inch by 0.816 inch giving a ratio of 2.2,1. The Todd-AO format was intended to use a deeply curved Cinerama-type screen. However, in the 1960s and 70s, such films as The Sound of Music and Patton were shown in some Cinerama cinemas, which allowed for deeply curved screens
21.
CinemaScope
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CinemaScope is an anamorphic lens series used, from 1953 to 1967, for shooting widescreen movies. Its creation in 1953 by Spyros P. Skouras, the president of 20th Century Fox, marked the beginning of the modern anamorphic format in both principal photography and movie projection. The anamorphic lenses theoretically allowed the process to create an image of up to a 2.66,1 aspect ratio, although the CinemaScope lens system was made obsolete by new technological developments, primarily advanced by Panavision, the CinemaScope anamorphic format has continued to this day. Bausch & Lomb won a 1954 Oscar for its development of the CinemaScope lens, french inventor Henri Chrétien developed and patented a new film process that he called Anamorphoscope in 1926. It was this process that would form the basis for CinemaScope. He attempted to interest the motion picture industry in his invention, by 1950, however, cinema attendance seriously declined with the advent of a new competitive rival, television. The optical company Bausch & Lomb was asked to produce a prototype anamorphoser lens, test footage shot with these lenses was screened for Skouras, who gave the go-ahead for development of a widescreen process based on Chrétiens invention, which was to be known as CinemaScope. Twentieth Century-Foxs pre-production of The Robe, originally committed to Technicolor Three-Strip origination, was halted so that the film could be changed to a CinemaScope production, two other CinemaScope productions were also planned, How to Marry a Millionaire and Beneath the Twelve-Mile Reef. The introduction of CinemaScope enabled Fox and other studios to reassert its distinction from the new competitor, Chrétiens Hypergonars proved to have significant optical and operational defects. Ultimately Bausch & Lomb formula combined lens designs incorporated both the lens and the anamorphic lens in one unit. These combined lenses continue to be used to day, particularly in special effects units. Other manufacturers lenses are preferred for so-called production applications that benefit from significantly lighter weight or lower distortion. When, however, developers found that magnetic stripes could be added to the film to produce a composite picture/sound print and this reduction was kept to a minimum by reducing the width of the normal KS perforations so that they were nearly square, but of DH height. This was the CinemaScope, or CS, perforation, known colloquially as fox-holes, later still an optical soundtrack was added, reducing the aspect ratio further to 2.35,1. This change also meant a shift in the center of the projected image. All of Foxs CinemaScope films were made using an aperture for the negatives, as was this studios practice for all films. In order to better hide so-called negative assembly splices, the ratio of the image was changed by others to 2.39,1 and, finally. All professional cameras are capable of shooting 2.55,1 or 2.66,1, Fox selected The Robe as the first film to start production in CinemaScope, a project chosen because of its epic nature
22.
VistaVision
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VistaVision is a higher resolution, widescreen variant of the 35 mm motion picture film format which was created by engineers at Paramount Pictures in 1954. As finer-grained film stocks appeared on the market, VistaVision became obsolete, in many ways, Vistavision was a testing ground for cinematography ideas that evolved into 70 mm IMAX and OMNIMAX film formats in the 1970s. Both IMAX and OMNIMAX are oriented sideways, like Vistavision, as a response to an industry recession brought about by the popularity of television, the Hollywood studios turned to large format movies in order to regain audience attendance. As a response, Paramount Pictures devised their own system the month to augment their 3-D process known as Paravision. This process utilized a screen size that yielded an aspect ratio of 5 units wide by 3 units high, by using a different sized aperture plate and wider lens, a normal Academy ratio film could be soft matted to this or any other aspect ratio. Shortly thereafter, it was announced all of their productions would be shot in this ratio. This flat widescreen process was adopted by other studios and by the end of 1953, however, there were drawbacks, because a smaller portion of the image was being used and magnification was increased, excessive grain and soft images plagued early widescreen presentations. Some studios sought to compensate for this by shooting their color pictures with a full aperture gate, and then reducing the image in Technicolors optical printer. This process is a predecessor of todays Super 35 format which uses a 1.85,1 ratio. In shooting VistaVision, the film was run rather than vertically. Because of its horizontal orientation on the negative, VistaVision was sometimes called Lazy 8 by film professionals. This gave a wider ratio of 1.5,1 versus the conventional 1.37,1 Academy ratio. In order to all theaters with all screen sizes, VistaVision films were shot in such a way that they could be shown in one of three recommended aspect ratios,1.66,1,1.85,1 and 2.00,1. The negative was scribed with a new form of cue mark, similar in shape to an F, the cue mark contained staffs that directed the projectionist to the top of the frame for the three recommended aspect ratios. The projectionist racked his framing so that the staff touched the top of his screen, on many home video releases these cue marks have been digitally erased. While most competing widescreen film systems used magnetic audio and true stereophonic sound, early VistaVision carried only Perspecta Stereo, VistaVision did not cut down the number of seats in any theater. VistaVision allowed patrons to see more and therefore gain more enjoyment out of a feature, after months of trade screenings, Paramount introduced VistaVision to the public at Radio City Music Hall on October 14,1954, with their first film shot in the process, White Christmas. White Christmas, Strategic Air Command, To Catch a Thief, Richard III, although the clarity of these 8-perf prints was striking, they were used only for premiere or preview engagements between 1954 and 1956 and required special projection equipment
23.
Anamorphic format
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Anamorphic format is the cinematography technique of shooting a widescreen picture on standard 35 mm film or other visual recording media with a non-widescreen native aspect ratio. It also refers to the format in which a distorted image is stretched by an anamorphic projection lens to recreate the original aspect ratio on the viewing screen. The word anamorphic and its derivatives stem from the Greek words meaning formed again, the process of anamorphosing optics was developed by Henri Chrétien during World War I to provide a wide angle viewer for military tanks. The optical process was called Hypergonar by Chrétien and was capable of showing a field of view of 180 degrees, after the war, the technology was first used in a cinematic context in the short film Construire un Feu in 1927 by Claude Autant-Lara. In the 1920s, phonograph and motion picture pioneer Leon F. Douglass also created special effects, however, how this relates to the earlier French invention, and later development, is unclear. Anamorphic widescreen was not used again for cinematography until 1952 when Twentieth Century-Fox bought the rights to the technique to create its CinemaScope widescreen technique, CinemaScope was one of many widescreen formats developed in the 1950s to compete with the popularity of television and bring audiences back to the cinemas. The Robe, which premiered in 1953, was the first feature film released that was filmed with an anamorphic lens, the development of anamorphic widescreen arose due to a desire for wider aspect ratios while maintaining the use of standard cameras and projectors, and maximising overall image detail. The modern anamorphic format has a ratio of 2.40,1. Academy format 35 mm film has a ratio of 1.37,1. To make full use of the film, thereby increasing overall image detail. Whatever the method used, the anamorphic lens leaves the image on film looking as if it had been stretched vertically and this deliberate geometric distortion is then reversed upon projection, resulting in a wider aspect ratio on-screen than that of the frame as recorded on film. An anamorphic lens consists of a spherical lens, plus an anamorphic attachment that does the anamorphosing. The anamorphic element operates at infinite focal length, but still nevertheless anamorphoses the optical field. When an anamorphic attachment is used, one uses a lens of a different focal length than one would for 1.85,1. Since a larger film area needed to be used in order to record the same picture and it should be noted that the picture is not manipulated in any way in the dimension that is orthogonal to the one anamorphosed. Cinerama was an attempt to solve the problem of high-quality widescreen imaging. Nonetheless, the format was popular enough with audiences to spur studios to the wide screen developments of the early 1950s, a few films were distributed in Cinerama format and shown in special theaters. Anamorphic widescreen was attractive to studios because of its high aspect ratio, without the disadvantages of Cineramas added complexities
24.
Techniscope
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Techniscope or 2-perf is a 35 mm motion picture camera film format introduced by Technicolor Italia in 1960. The Techniscope format uses a two film-perforation negative pulldown per frame, instead of the standard four-perforation frame usually exposed in 35 mm film photography. Techniscopes 2.33,1 aspect ratio is cropped to the 2.39,1 widescreen ratio, because it uses half the amount of 35 mm film stock. Thus, Techniscope release prints are made by anamorphosizing and enlarging each frame by a factor of two, during its primary reign of 1960–1980, more than 350 films were photographed in Techniscope, the first of which was The Pharaohs Woman, released 10 December 1960. Given its considerable savings in production cost but lesser image quality, Techniscope was primarily an alternative format used by film makers, mainly in the horror. Since the format originated in Italy, most Techniscope format films were European productions, in the U. S. Techniscope was used in the low-budget A. C. Lyles Westerns for Paramount Pictures, and Universal Studios briefly used it extensively in the mid to late 1960s. Producer Sid Pink recalled that unlike Europe, the American film studios were charged by the Technicolor company for using Techniscope in their film prints, in this film, as in Harry Frigg, Techniscope causes washed-out color and a loss of detail. Recent films shot with 2-perf 35 mm Techniscope include Im Yours, Silver Linings Playbook and his proposition was that it yielded a 35 mm-quality image for the same cost as Super 16 mm cinematography. Aaton, Panavision, and Arriflex have modern 2-perf cameras either available now or soon to be released, aranda in Australia is also currently converting cameras like Arriflex 2A/B/C Arri 3, Arri BL, Mitchell, Eclair, Moviecam. The Russian cameras, Kinor and Konvas are also converted, factory-made kits for certain Mitchell and Mitchell-derived cameras are occasionally available on auction sites. The camera is erroneously labeled as being Super 35, Super 35 having three perforations per frame, techniscopes advantages over anamorphic CinemaScope are, More economical, half the film stock used in 4-perforation frame cinematography, half the stock, same running time, less negative to develop. Cinematography requires simpler, but technically superior, spherical lenses, film stock loads last twice as long, 2-perf stock shoots at 45 feet per minute, while 4-perf stock shoots at 90 feet per minute. The circle of confusion of Techniscope is circular, whereas that of CinemaScope is elliptical, techniscopes disadvantages against CinemaScope, Two-perf 35 mm is a production-only format, that must be converted to other formats for distribution. For distribution prints for theatrical venues, the frame is enlarged from a 2-perf flat ratio to a 4-perf anamorphic ratio, enlarging the image to the 35 mm print subsequently enlarges the negatives film grain. This step is also an additional production expense, if the enlargement process is done optically, the generation loss will add even more grain and reduce the image sharpness. Alternatively, the enlargement can be done as part of the Digital Intermediate process and this involves digitally scanning the 2-perf film negative. Output to film is done with a recorder, such as the Arrilaser. Two-perforation cameras and telecine installations are rare, the narrower frame line emphasises imperfections
25.
Super 35
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Super 35 was revived from a similar Superscope variant known as Superscope 235, which was originally developed by the Tushinsky Brothers for RKO in 1954. When cameraman Joe Dunton was preparing to shoot Dance Craze in 1982, he chose to revive the Superscope format by using a full silent-standard gate and these two characteristics are central to the format. It was adopted by Hollywood starting with Greystoke in 1984, under the format name Super Techniscope and it is often the standard production format for television shows, music videos, and commercials. Since none of these require a print, it is unnecessary to reserve space for an optical soundtrack. James Cameron was an early, consistent, and vocal supporter of the format, Super 35 is a production format. Theatres do not receive or project Super 35 prints, rather, films are shot in a Super 35 format but are then — either through optical blowdown/matting or digital intermediate — converted into one of the standard formats to make release prints. 4-perf Super 35 is simply the original frame size that was used in 35 mm silent films and that is, it is a return to the way the film stock was used before the frame size was cropped to allow room for a soundtrack. Super 35 competes with the use of the standard 35 mm format used with an anamorphic lens. Super 35 uses standard spherical lenses, which are faster, smaller. The chief advantage of Super 35 for productions is its adaptability to different release formats, Super 35 negatives can be used to produce high-quality releases in any aspect ratio, as the final frame is extracted and converted from the larger full frame negative. This also means that a video release can actually use more of the frame than the theatrical release. Super 35 ratios have included,4,316,91.85,12.00,1 Univisium 2.20,12.39,11.66,1 and 1. Theoretically,2.39,1 release prints made from Super 35 should have slightly lower quality than films produced directly in the anamorphic format. Because part of the Super 35 image is thrown away when printing to this format, films originated with anamorphic lenses use a larger negative area. 3-perf Super 35 has also used for some time for 2.39,1 feature films. List of film formats Full frame Maxivision Negative pulldown James Cameron and Russell Carpenter discuss Super 35 Some Encounters with Super 35 and Other Thoughts at ICG Camera Guild
26.
Todd-AO
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Todd-AO is an American post-production company founded in 1953, providing sound-related services to the motion picture and television industries. The company operates three facilities in the Los Angeles area, Todd-AO is also the name of the widescreen,70 mm film format that was developed by Mike Todd and the American Optical Company in the mid-1950s. Todd-AO had been founded to promote and distribute this system, Todd-AO began as a high resolution widescreen film format. It was co-developed in the early 1950s by Mike Todd, a Broadway producer, in partnership with the American Optical Company in Buffalo, New York. It was developed to provide a high definition single camera widescreen process to compete with Cinerama, or as characterized by its creator, where Cinerama used a complicated setup of three separate strips of film photographed simultaneously, Todd-AO required only a single camera and lens. The companys focus began to shift after Mike Todds sudden death in an accident in 1958. The 70 mm Todd-AO process was adopted by Panavision, Cinerama, in May 2014, Todd-AOs parent company, Todd Soundelux, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. As part of the proceedings, they closed their Hollywood and Santa Monica facilities. On November 17,2014 the Todd-Soundelux Trademarks and Copyrights were acquired in Federal Bankruptcy Court by Rob Nokes of Sounddogs. com, Inc. The Todd-AO process uses two separate stocks, a 65 mm negative is used during production and then used to produce the 70 mm positives for distribution. The image size and sprocket perforations on the two are the same, and the positives are printed using contact printing with the centered on the larger 70 mm film. The extra space on the 70 mm positive lies outside the perforations and this allows the Todd-AO format to support six sound channels and much better fidelity. Four lens options covered a 128,64,48 or 37 degree field of view. The aspect ratio of this format was 2.20,1. Both film sizes had been used in the past, in the 70 mm Fox Grandeur process in 1929–1930, the use of 65 mm photography and 70 mm printing became the standard adopted by others, Super Panavision 70 and Ultra Panavision 70 are both 65/70 processes. The Soviet film industry also copied Todd-AO with their own Sovscope 70 process, identical, the IMAX format also uses 65 mm camera and lab film to create 70 mm prints for projection, conforming to the pitch and perforation standard for 70 mm Todd-AO film. However, IMAX frame is 15-perfs long and runs horizontally through the projector, whereas the Todd-AO frame is only 5-perfs high, the original version of the Todd-AO process used a frame rate of 30 frames per second, faster than the 24 frames per second that was the standard. The original system generated an image that was almost twice as intense as any ever seen onscreen before, only the first two Todd-AO films, Oklahoma. And Around the World in Eighty Days, employed 30 frames per second photography, because of the need for conventional versions at 24 frames per second, every scene of the former film was shot twice in succession, once in Todd-AO and once in 35 mm CinemaScope
27.
Technirama
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Technirama is a screen process that has been used by some film production houses as an alternative to CinemaScope. It was first used in 1957 but fell into disuse in the mid-1960s, the process was invented by Technicolor and is an anamorphic process with a screen ratio the same as revised CinemaScope, but its actually 2.25,1 on the negative. The Technirama process used an area twice that of CinemaScope. Cameras used 35-mm film running horizontally with an 8-perforation frame, double the normal size, Technirama used a 1.5,1 anamorphic optic in front of the lens in order to stretch the vertical image. To achieve the wider format, lenses of shorter focal-length had to be used. These prints could be shown with the same lenses as CinemaScope productions. The name Super Technirama 70 was used on films where the shooting was done in Technirama, such prints would be compatible with those made by such 65-mm negative processes as Todd-AO and Super Panavision. The quality would have very good but perhaps a bit less than those processes, because the negative was not quite as large. After the 1956 delivery by Mitchell Camera Corporation, the converted Technicolor Three-Strip cameras immediately became obsolete, the logistical advantage of using 35mm film, end-to-end, should not be underestimated. A few 8-perf titles have been preserved on 65mm film, the color was enhanced through the use of a special development process that was used to good effect in films such as The Vikings and The Music Man. However, fewer than 40 films were produced using this process in the United States and it was more popular and longer-lasting in Europe. Walt Disney Productions used the process twice for animated features, Sleeping Beauty. The 2008 DVD and Blu-ray Disc release of Walt Disneys Sleeping Beauty was shown at an aspect-ratio of 2.55,1 for the first time, film,35 mm running horizontally using eight perforations at 24 frames per second. Anamorphic power,1.5 Aspect ratio,2.35,12.25,1 See List of Technirama films, List of film formats Widescreen museum Technirama page
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IMAX
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IMAX is a motion picture film format and a set of cinema projection standards developed in Canada by Graeme Ferguson, Roman Kroitor, Robert Kerr, and William C. IMAX has the capacity to record and display images of far greater size, since 2002, some feature films have been converted into IMAX format for displaying in IMAX theatres and some have also been partially shot in IMAX. IMAX is the most widely used system for special-venue film presentations, as of June 2016, there were 1,102 IMAX theatres in 69 countries. The desire to increase the impact of film has a long history. In 1929, Fox introduced Fox Grandeur, the first 70 mm film format, in the 1950s, the potential of 35 mm film to provide wider projected images was explored in the processes of CinemaScope and VistaVision, following multi-projector systems such as Cinerama. While impressive, Cinerama was difficult to install, during Expo 67 in Montreal, the National Film Board of Canadas In the Labyrinth and Fergusons Man and the Polar Regions both used multi-projector, multi-screen systems. Each encountered technical difficulties led them to found a company called Multiscreen. As it became clear that a single, large-screen image had more impact than multiple smaller ones and was a viable product direction. An IMAX 3D theatre also is in operation near the former Expo 67 site at the Montreal Science Centre in the Port of Old Montreal, tiger Child, the first IMAX film, was demonstrated at Expo 70 in Osaka, Japan. The first permanent IMAX installation was built at the Cinesphere theatre at Ontario Place in Toronto and it debuted in May 1971, showing the film North of Superior. The installation is still in place, however, Ontario Place is on hiatus for redevelopment, during Expo 74 in Spokane, Washington, an IMAX screen that measured 27 m ×20 m was featured in the US Pavilion. It became the first IMAX Theatre to not be partnered with any brand of movie theaters. About five million visitors viewed the screen, which covered the total visual field when looking directly forward. This created a sensation of motion in most viewers, and motion sickness in some, much to the dismay of the majority of Spokane and the disapproval of the IMAX Corporation itself, it will be demolished to make way for a parking lot. Another IMAX 3D theater was built in Spokane, not too far from where the original was. However, its screen-size is less than half that of the original, due to protests, the IMAX Corporation has been able to remodel the area with the city, and turn the U. S. Pavilion itself into the first permanent outdoor IMAX screen, the first permanent IMAX Dome installation, the Eugene Heikoff and Marilyn Jacobs Heikoff Dome Theatre at the Reuben H. Fleet Science Center, opened in San Diegos Balboa Park in 1973, the first permanent IMAX 3D theatre was built in Vancouver, British Columbia for Transitions at Expo 86, and was in use until September 30,2009
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Cinerama
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Cinerama is a widescreen process that originally projected images simultaneously from three synchronized 35 mm projectors onto a huge, deeply curved screen, subtending 146° of arc. The trademarked process was marketed by the Cinerama corporation and it was the first of a number of novel processes introduced during the 1950s, when the movie industry was reacting to competition from television. Cinerama was presented to the public as an event, with reserved seating and printed programs. The display is accompanied by a high-quality, seven-track discrete, directional, the original system involved shooting with three synchronized cameras sharing a single shutter. This process was abandoned in favor of a system using a single camera. The latter system lost the 146° field of view of the original three-strip system, three-strip Cinerama did not use anamorphic lenses, although two of the systems used to produce the 70mm prints did employ anamorphics. Later, 35mm anamorphic reduction prints were produced for exhibition in theatres with anamorphic CinemaScope-compatible projection lenses, Cooper, produced a commercially viable demonstration of Cinerama which opened on Broadway on September 30,1952. The film, titled This is Cinerama, was received with enthusiasm and it was the outgrowth of many years of development. Waller had earlier developed an 11-projector system called Vitarama at the Petroleum Industry exhibit in the 1939 New York Worlds Fair, a five-camera version, the Waller Gunnery Trainer, was used during the Second World War. The word Cinerama combines cinema with panorama, the origin of all the -orama neologisms, the photographic system used three interlocked 35 mm cameras equipped with 27 mm lenses, approximately the focal length of the human eye. The three cameras were mounted as one unit, set at 48 degrees to each other, a single rotating shutter in front of the three lenses assured simultaneous exposure on each of the films. The image was photographed six sprocket holes high, rather than the four used in other 35 mm processes. The picture was photographed and projected at 26 frames per second rather than the usual 24 and he further comments on the unreliability of numerous websites and other resources that will tell you that Cinerama had an aspect ratio of up to 3,1. In theaters, Cinerama film was projected from three projection booths arranged in the same pattern as the cameras. This was a big-ticket, reserved-seats spectacle, and the Cinerama projectors were adjusted carefully, great care was taken to match color and brightness when producing the prints. Nevertheless, the seams between panels were usually noticeable, optical limitations with the design of the camera itself meant that if distant scenes joined perfectly, closer objects did not. A nearby object might split into two as it crossed the seams, to avoid calling attention to the seams, scenes were often composed with unimportant objects such as trees or posts at the seams, and action was blocked so as to center actors within panels. This gave a distinctly triptych-like appearance to the composition even when the seams themselves were not obvious and it was often necessary to have actors in different sections cheat where they looked in order to appear to be looking at each other in the final projected picture
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Cinemiracle
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Cinemiracle was a widescreen cinema format competing with Cinerama developed in the 1950s. It was ultimately unsuccessful, with only a film produced and released in the format. Like Cinerama it used 3 cameras to capture a 2.59,1 image, Cinemiracle used two mirrors to give the left and right cameras the same optical center as the middle camera. This made the joins between the projected images much less obvious than with Cinerama, national Theatres acquired the rights to the patents and began development of a three camera system using the same system. An integrated view finder with a 146 degree field of view, the three Eastman Kodak 27 millimeter lenses were electronically controlled—and shifted their optical centers depending on the focus. The mirrors had beveled edges, which feathered the edges of the images, the camera intermettants also employed film milled for Dubray-Howell long-pitch sprockets, unlike that of either Cinerama or Kinopanorama. The system used a 120-degree curved screen—this is somewhat less than Cineramas 146-degree curve, however the smaller curve had the advantage of being cheaper and easier to make and install. They had previously involved with Cinerama Holiday, a travelogue in the similar Cinerama multi-projector format. The world premiere of both Windjammer and the Cinemiracle system was at Graumans Chinese Theatre in Hollywood on 8 April 1958, the film ran for 36 weeks. Windjammer was later transferred to the Cinerama format, and even to Cinemascope, Warner of Warner Brothers expressed an interest in the system and agreed to produce a film entitled The Miracle in the Cinemiracle format. However, it was produced in Technirama instead. The patents for Cinemiracle were bought by Cinerama and effectively brought the format to an end, list of film formats Page about windjammer Widescreen museum page about the Cinemiracle system Windjammer at the Internet Movie Database Windjammer page from Christian Radich website
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Aspect ratio (image)
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The aspect ratio of an image describes the proportional relationship between its width and its height. It is commonly expressed as two separated by a colon, as in 16,9.5 yards high. The most common ratios used today in the presentation of films in cinemas are 1.85,1 and 2.39,1. Two common videographic aspect ratios are 4,3, the video format of the 20th century. Other cinema and video aspect ratios exist, but are used infrequently, in still camera photography, the most common aspect ratios are 4,3,3,2, and more recently being found in consumer cameras 16,9. Other aspect ratios, such as 5,3,5,4, in motion picture formats, the physical size of the film area between the sprocket perforations determines the images size. The universal standard is a frame that is four perforations high, the film itself is 35 mm wide, but the area between the perforations is 24.89 mm×18.67 mm, leaving the de facto ratio of 4,3, or 1.33,1. A4,3 ratio mimics human eyesight visual angle of 155°h x 120°v, the motion picture industry convention assigns a value of 1.0 to the image’s height, an anamorphic frame is often incorrectly described as 2.40,1 or 2.40. After 1952, a number of aspect ratios were experimented with for anamorphic productions, a SMPTE specification for anamorphic projection from 1957 finally standardized the aperture to 2.35,1. An update in 1970 changed the ratio to 2.39,1 in order to make splices less noticeable. This aspect ratio of 2.39,1 was confirmed by the most recent revision from August 1993, in American cinemas, the common projection ratios are 1.85,1 and 2.39,1. Some European countries have 1.66,1 as the wide screen standard, the Academy ratio of 1.375,1 was used for all cinema films in the sound era until 1953. During that time, television, which had a aspect ratio of 1.33,1. Hollywood responded by creating a number of wide-screen formats, CinemaScope, Todd-AO. The flat 1.85,1 aspect ratio was introduced in May 1953, and became one of the most common cinema projection standards in the U. S. and elsewhere. The goal of these lenses and aspect ratios was to capture as much of the frame as possible, onto as large an area of the film as possible. In either case the image was squeezed horizontally to fit the frame size. Development of various film camera systems must ultimately cater to the placement of the frame in relation to the constraints of the perforations
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Academy ratio
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The Academy ratio of 1.375,1 is an aspect ratio of a frame of 35mm film when used with 4-perf pulldown. It was standardized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences as the standard aspect ratio in 1932. Silent films were shot at a 1.33 aspect ratio, the frame line between the silent film frames was very thin. When sound-on-film was introduced in the late 1920s, the soundtrack was recorded in a stripe running just inside of one set of the perforations and cut into the 1.33 image. From studio to studio, the attempt to reduce the image back to a 1.33,1 ratio by decreasing the projector aperture in-house met with conflicting results. Each movie theater chain, furthermore, had its own designated house ratio.800 in ×0.600 in returning to the ratio of 1.33,1. Following this, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences considered further alterations to this 1930 standard, various dimensions were submitted, and the projector aperture plate opening size of 0.825 in ×0.600 in was agreed upon. The resulting 1.375,1 aspect ratio was then dubbed the Academy Ratio, on May 9,1932, the SMPE adopted the same 0.825 in ×0.600 in projector aperture standard. All studio films shot in 35mm from 1932 to 1952 were shot in the Academy ratio, however, following the widescreen revolution of 1953, it quickly became an obsolete production format. The Academy ratio is not created in the camera, which has continued to use the full frame silent aperture gate for all 4-perf spherical filming, rather, it is created in the married print, when the optical soundtrack and frame lines are added. Though most non-anamorphic film prints with a soundtrack are now framed to one of the non-anamorphic widescreen ratios, from 1.66 to 1.85, some still retain Academy-sized frames. These frames are then cropped in the projector by means of aperture masks used in the gate in conjunction with a wider lens than would be used for projecting Academy ratio films. The 3-perf pulldown process was proposed in 1973, developed by Miklos Lente in 1976. Full frame List of film formats Matte
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Widescreen
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Widescreen images are a variety of aspect ratios used in film, television and computer screens. In film, a film is any film image with a width-to-height aspect ratio greater than the standard 1.37,1 Academy aspect ratio provided by 35mm film. For television, the screen ratio for broadcasts was 4,3. Between the 1990s and early 2000s,16,9 TV displays came into wide use and they are typically used in conjunction with high-definition television receivers, or Standard-Definition DVD players and other digital television sources. With computer displays, aspect ratios wider than 4,3 are also called widescreen, widescreen computer displays were previously of 16,10 aspect ratio, but now are usually 16,9. Widescreen was first used in the film of the Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight in 1897 and this was not only the longest film that had been released to date at 100 minutes, it was also the first widescreen film being shot on 63mm Eastman stock with five perforations per frame. Widescreen was first widely used in the late 1920s in some films and newsreels. Claude Autant-Lara released a film Pour construire un feu in the early Henri Chretien widescreen process, in 1927, The American aka The Flag Maker was released. In 1926, Spoor and Berggren had released a Natural Vision film of Niagara Falls, the Natural Vision widescreen process used 63. 5mm film and had a 2,1 aspect ratio. On May 26,1929, Fox Film Corporation released Fox Grandeur News, which premiered at Graumans Chinese Theatre in Hollywood on October 2,1930, all of which were also made in the 70mm Fox Grandeur process. On November 13,1930, United Artists released The Bat Whispers directed by Roland West in a 70mm widescreen process known as Magnafilm, warner Brothers released Song of the Flame and Kismet in a widescreen process they called Vitascope. In 1930, after experimenting with the system called Fanthom Screen for The Trail of 98, MGM filmed The Great Meadow in Realife—however, its unclear if it was ever released in that widescreen process due to declining interest of the movie-going public. S. However, a few producers and directors, among them Alfred Hitchcock, have been reluctant to use the anamorphic widescreen size featured in such formats as Cinemascope. Hitchcock alternatively used VistaVision, a widescreen process developed by Paramount Pictures. Masked widescreen was introduced in April 1953, a detriment is that the film grain size is thus increased because only part of the image is being expanded to full height. Films are designed to be shown in cinemas in masked widescreen format, in such an instance, a photographer will compose for widescreen, but protect the full image from things such as microphones and other filming equipment. Standardized flat wide screen ratios are 1.66,1,1.75,1,1.85,1,1.85,1 has become the predominant aspect ratio for the format. 35mm anamorphic – This type of widescreen is used for CinemaScope, Panavision, the film is essentially shot squeezed, so that the actors appear vertically elongated on the actual film
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Anamorphic widescreen
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Anamorphic widescreen is a process by which a comparatively wide widescreen image is vertically expanded to fit into a storage medium with a narrower aspect ratio. Compatible play-back equipment can then recompress the vertical dimension to show the original widescreen image, the technique originally comes from cinema. A film would be framed and recorded as widescreen, but the picture would be squashed together using a specially crafted concave lens to fit into non-widescreen 1.37,1 aspect ratio film. This film can then be printed and manipulated like any other 1.37,1 film stock, an anamorphic lens on the projector in the cinema corrects the picture by performing exactly the opposite distortion, returning it to its original width and its widescreen aspect ratio. The anamorphic lens on the projector is a specially crafted convex lens that corrects the picture so that the images on the screen look normal, similar operations are performed electronically to allow widescreen material to be stored on formats or broadcast on systems that assume a non-widescreen aspect ratio. Many commercial cinematic presentations are recorded on standard 35 mm ~4,3 aspect ratio film, another anamorphic lens on the movie theatre projector ultimately corrects the picture. Other movies are made using the simpler technique, which involves both filming and projecting without any expensive special lenses. The movie is produced in 1.375 format, and then the image is simply cropped in post-production to fit the desired aspect ratio of 1.85,1 or 1.66,1 or whatever is desired. The anamorphic encoding on DVD is related to the filming technique only by name. For instance, Star Wars was filmed in 2.35,1 ratio using a camera lens. Since it is a film, when encoded on a widescreen-format DVD the studio would almost certainly use the anamorphic encoding process. Monty Python and the Holy Grail was filmed in 1.85,1 ratio without using a lens on the camera. However, since it is also a film, when encoded on a widescreen-format DVD the studio would probably use the anamorphic encoding process. As a sidenote, if a purely non-widescreen version of the analog-anamorphic Star Wars were to be released on DVD, a DVD labeled as Widescreen Anamorphic contains video that has the same frame size in pixels as traditional fullscreen video, but uses wider pixels. The shape of the pixels is called pixel aspect ratio and is encoded in the stream for a DVD player to correctly identify the proportions of the video. If an anamorphic DVD video is played on standard 4,3 television without adjustment, if not so labeled, the DVD is intended for a 4,3 display, and will be letterboxed or panned and scanned. There has been no clear standardization for companies to follow regarding the advertisement of anamorphically enhanced widescreen DVDs, some companies, such as Universal and Disney, include the aspect ratio of the movie. Below are how various companies advertise their anamorphic DVD movies on their packaging, Anchor Bay, Enhanced for 16,9 TVs, artisan Entertainment,16,9 Fullscreen Version or Enhanced for 16,9 Television
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Letterboxing (filming)
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Letterboxing is the practice of transferring film shot in a widescreen aspect ratio to standard-width video formats while preserving the films original aspect ratio. The resulting videographic image has mattes above and below it, these mattes are part of the image, LBX or LTBX are the identifying abbreviations for films and images so formatted. The term refers to the shape of a box, a slot in a wall or door through which mail is delivered, being rectangular. Letterboxing is used as an alternative to a full-screen, pan-and-scan transfer of a film image to videotape or videodisc. This was often done for letterbox widescreen anime on VHS, though the practice of hiding subtitles within the lower matte also is done with symmetrical mattes, albeit with less space available. The placing of soft subtitles within the picture or matte varies according to the DVD player being used, the first use of letterbox in consumer video appeared with the RCA Capacitance Electronic Disc videodisc format. Initially, letterboxing was limited to several key sequences of a such as opening and closing credits. The first fully letterboxed CED release was Amarcord in 1984, and several others followed including The Long Goodbye, Monty Python, each disc contains a label noting the use of RCAs innovative wide-screen mastering technique. In some continents such as North America, almost all VHS titles were released in pan-and-scan versions. However, most later Laserdiscs and some VHS releases were released in their original widescreen versions, some DVD releases of films are in full screen only, due to whatever existing master is available or basing on what format demographics prefer to see on a certain title. In other territories, such as Europe and Asia, widescreen versions of films on VHS and Laserdisc were much more common in those territories and this is more apparent in pan-and-scanned movies that remain entirely on the center area of the film image. The term SmileBox is a trademark used to describe a type of letterboxing for Cinerama films. The image is produced with 3D mapping technology to approximate a curved screen, some titles that were previously released in full screen only on VHS and DVD are now being issued in their original widescreen ratio on recent DVDs and Blu-rays. Digital broadcasting allows 1.78,1 widescreen format transmissions without losing resolution, most television programming in the United States, Britain and France is in standard-definition 16,9 and is transmitted in anamorphic format on digital platforms. When using a 4,3 television, it is possible to display such programming in either a letterbox format or in a 4,3 centre-cut format. A letterboxed 14,9 compromise ratio was often broadcast in analogue transmissions in European countries making the transition from 4,3 to 16,9. Current high-definition television systems use video displays with an aspect ratio than older television sets. In addition to films produced for the cinema, some programming is produced in high definition
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Pillarbox
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The pillarbox effect occurs in widescreen video displays when black bars are placed on the sides of the image.39,1 frame. The original material is shrunk and placed in the middle of the widescreen frame, some older arcade games that had a tall vertical and short horizontal are displayed in pillar box even on 4,3 televisions. Some early sound films made 1928–1931, such as City Lights, were filmed in an even narrower format to make room for the track on then-standard film stock. These will appear pillarboxed even on 4,3 screens, pillarboxing is the vertical equivalent of letterboxing and is sometimes called reverse letterboxing. Its name is derived from its resemblance to pillar box-style mailboxes used in the UK, the four-direction equivalent is called windowboxing, caused when programming is both letterboxed and pillarboxed. In order to use the screen area of a widescreen display, and to prevent a reverse screen burn-in on plasma displays. However, this results in the loss of some of the image within what the producer assumed would be the safe area and this overscan may or may not bother the viewer, but it often cuts-off the channel banner or other on-screen displays. Likewise, the equivalent of pan and scan is called tilt. This moves the window up and down, however it is rarely done. A third option is to stretch the video to fill the screen and this also tells widescreen television sets with automatic resizing not to stretch the video, and instead to present it in the proper aspect ratio. Some TV shows present an echo of the edges of the video in the sidebars. Local TV stations in the U. S. typically use graphics or a color gradient for electronic news-gathering packages shown on their local HDTV news programs. This is because portable ENG cameras are not in HD. Some channels have a format called enhanced HD, in which extra informative graphics and text is shown on the side, such as expanded stock quotes, charts. Some Japanese anime switched from SD to HD during their run, sometimes a flashback to a scene produced in SD had to be shown. For instance, in Naruto, the image of Naruto and Sasuke filled in the gaps as one of the SD-era flashbacks is being shown. Also, in the Family Guy episode Back to the Pilot, Brian and Stewie travel back in time to when the show first premiered, to show that, back then, they produced episodes in standard-definition, the entire scene was pillarboxed. Letterbox Windowbox Widescreen Aspect ratio 14,916,9 Motion picture terminology Stretch-o-Vision The Widescreen and Letterbox Advocacy Page
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Windowbox (filmmaking)
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Windowboxing in the display of film or video occurs when the aspect ratio of the media is such that the letterbox effect and pillarbox effect occur simultaneously. Sometimes, by accident or design, a standard image is presented in the central portion of a letterbox picture. It is generally disliked because it wastes much screen space and reduces the resolution of the original image and it can occur when a 16,9 film is set to 4,3, but then shown on a 16,9 TV or other output device. It can also occur in the opposite direction, few films have been released with this aspect ratio—one example is The Crocodile Hunter, Collision Course, which had numerous scenes with Steve & Terri Irwin using widescreen pillar boxing. On rare occasion, a picture will be windowboxed on purpose.39,1 aspect ratio, another example is in the movie Brother Bear. On the theatrical and Widescreen DVD release, the beginning of the film is windowboxed until Kenai and this is to show that his world-view, and his perspective on nature, has widened. Windowboxing has also used in the instance of transferring films with the academy ratio of 1.37,1 to video. This is to compensate for the overscan on many 4,3 TVs, windowboxing ensures that either more or all of the image is visible on these TVs, in a best case scenario the TV overscan cuts off nothing but the windowbox borders. It originally was used only for the sequences in 4,3 films, where the text could extend out to the very edges of the image. Critics often argue that windowboxing of this ratio is unnecessary due to the loss caused by overscan being negligible. Windowboxing on video also reduces the amount of resolution the image effectively uses. Ultimately, the use of 4,3 windowboxing on video is dependent on whether or not the issue of overscan is better solved via hardware or via software. At the time before widescreen televisions became popular, most video game consoles until the generation were windowboxed when shown on a widescreen display. The windowboxing was done in that overscaning would prevented when playing a game on a 4,3 television unit, so that no on-screen information would be cut off
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Pan and scan
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The most extreme examples remove up to 75% of the original picture on such aspect ratios as 2.75,1 or even 3,1 in epics such as Ben-Hur, King of Kings or Lawrence of Arabia. The vertical equivalent is known as tilt and scan or reverse pan and scan, the method was most common in the days of VHS, before widescreen home media such as DVD and Blu-ray. Center cut is similar with the difference as the name suggests that it is simply a cut of the material from the center of the image with no horizontal panning or vertical tilting involved. This method doesnt require the permission or availability of the maker or director to identify the most important part of each frame. Most video displays have three options for 16,9 widescreen frame formatting, which are either center cut, letterbox or full frame, the first two options are reliant on the video streams aspect ratio flag being set correctly. For the first several decades of broadcasting, sets displayed images with a 4,3 aspect ratio in which the width is 1.33 times the height—similar to most theatrical films prior to 1960. This was fine for pre-1953 films such as The Wizard of Oz or Casablanca, films with these formats might be twice as wide as a TV screen when televised. Pan and scan cuts out as much as half of the image, DVD packaging began to use the expression,16,9 – Enhanced for Widescreen TVs. However, films shot at aspect ratios of 2.20,1,2.35,1,2.39,1,2.55,1, and especially 2.76,1 might still be problematic when displayed on televisions of any type. Though 16,9 remain standard as of 2012, wider-screen consumer TVs in 21,9 have been released to the market by multiple brands. During the pan and scan process, an editor selects the parts of the original filmed composition that seem to be the focus of the shot and makes sure that these are copied. When the important action shifts to a new position in the frame, if the actors are closer together on the screen, the editor may pan slightly, alternately cropping one or the other partially. It also gives an image on a traditional television set. However, it also has several drawbacks, some visual information is necessarily cropped out. It can also change a shot in which the camera was originally stationary to one in which it is frequently panning, or change a single continuous shot into one with frequent cuts. In a shot which was originally panned to show something new, or one in which something enters the shot from off-camera, as an example, in the film Oliver. Made in Panavision, the criminal Bill Sikes commits a murder, the murder takes place mostly offscreen, behind a staircase wall, and Oliver is a witness to it. As Sikes steps back from behind the wall, we see Oliver from the back watching him in terror, in the pan-and-scan version of the film, we see Olivers reaction as the murder is being committed, but not when Sikes steps backward from the wall having done it
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Open matte
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Usually, non-anamorphic 4-perf films are filmed directly on the entire full frame silent aperture gate. When a married print is created, this frame is slightly re-cropped by the frame line, the movie projector then uses an aperture mask to soft matte the Academy frame to the intended aspect ratio. When the 4,3 fullscreen video master is created, many filmmakers may prefer to use the full Academy frame instead of creating a pan and scan version from within the 1.85 framing. Because the framing is increased vertically in the open matte process, additionally, the unmatted 4,3 version will often throw off an otherwise tightly-framed shot and add an inordinate amount of headroom above actors. Many films over the years have used this technique, the most prominent of which include Schindlers List, stanley Kubrick also used this technique for his last five films. OPEN MATTE Master List the most comprehensive list of open matte movies
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