1.
Super 8 (film)
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Super 8 is a 2011 American science-fiction thriller film written, co-produced, and directed by J. J. Abrams and produced by Steven Spielberg. The film was shot in Weirton, West Virginia and surrounding areas, Super 8 was released on June 10,2011, in conventional and IMAX theaters in the United States. T. Stand by Me, and The Goonies and it was also a commercial success, grossing over $260 million against a $50 million budget. The film received awards and nominations, primarily in technical and special effects categories, Giacchinos musical score, as well as for Courtney. In 1979, Deputy Sheriff Jack Lamb of Lillian, Ohio, and his 14-year-old son Joe, mourn the death of his mother Elizabeth in a steel mill accident. Jack blames her co-worker, Louis Dainard, as she was covering his shift while he recovered from a hangover, and all Joe has left is a locket that belonged to her, that he now holds on to. Four months later, Joes best friend Charles Kaznyk decides to make a zombie movie for an international film competition. Charles enlists the help of Preston Scott, Martin Read, and Cary McCarthy, as well as Dainards daughter, though their fathers would be furious, Joe and Alice become close to each other. Charles has them film a scene at a depot at midnight. While they are rehearsing, a train approaches, and Charles has them start filming as the passes to add production value. The children investigate the wreck and find crates full of strange white cubes, then discover the driver is Dr. Woodward. Woodward, barely alive, warns them at gunpoint to forget what they saw that night, or else they, the children flee the scene just as a convoy from the local U. S. Air Force base, led by Col. Nelec, arrives at the scene. Nelec discovers an empty Super 8mm film box, and assumes the event was captured on camera. Overhearing military communications, Jack approaches Nelec to address the rising panic in town, Nelec orders the use of flamethrowers to start wildfires outside of town, as an excuse to evacuate people to the base. Suddenly, soldiers sweep into town to begin the evacuation, meanwhile, Joe and Charles watch the derailment footage and discover that a large creature escaped from the train. At the base, Joe learns from Alices father that she is missing, Joe, Charles, Martin, and Cary convince Jen, Charles older sister, to pretend to hit on Donny in order to get into town to rescue Alice. They break into Dr. Woodwards storage trailer and discover films and they play the film, which reveals that an alien crash-landed in 1958. The Air Force captured the alien and was running experiments on it while keeping it from its ship, Woodward was one of the scientists experimenting on the ship, composed of the white cubes
2.
Film
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A film, also called a movie, motion picture, theatrical film or photoplay, is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon. This optical illusion causes the audience to perceive continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession, the process of filmmaking is both an art and an industry. The word cinema, short for cinematography, is used to refer to the industry of films. Films were originally recorded onto plastic film through a photochemical process, the adoption of CGI-based special effects led to the use of digital intermediates. Most contemporary films are now fully digital through the process of production, distribution. Films recorded in a form traditionally included an analogous optical soundtrack. It runs along a portion of the film exclusively reserved for it and is not projected, Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures. They reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them, Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful medium for educating—or indoctrinating—citizens. The visual basis of film gives it a power of communication. Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles to translate the dialog into the language of the viewer, some have criticized the film industrys glorification of violence and its potentially negative treatment of women. The individual images that make up a film are called frames, the perception of motion is due to a psychological effect called phi phenomenon. The name film originates from the fact that film has historically been the medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for a motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photoplay. The most common term in the United States is movie, while in Europe film is preferred. Terms for the field, in general, include the big screen, the screen, the movies, and cinema. In early years, the sheet was sometimes used instead of screen. Preceding film in origin by thousands of years, early plays and dances had elements common to film, scripts, sets, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, much terminology later used in film theory and criticism apply, such as mise en scène. Owing to the lack of any technology for doing so, the moving images, the magic lantern, probably created by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s, could be used to project animation, which was achieved by various types of mechanical slides
3.
Kodak
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Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak, is an American technology company that produces imaging products with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York and is incorporated in New Jersey, Kodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions and it is best known for photographic film products. Kodak was founded by George Eastman and Henry A, during most of the 20th century, Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The companys ubiquity was such that its Kodak moment tagline entered the lexicon to describe a personal event that was demanded to be recorded for posterity. Kodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s, as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film, as a part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak began to focus on digital photography and digital printing, and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would stop making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames, in January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid 2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies under the names Intellectual Ventures, on September 3,2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, on March 12,2014, it announced that the board of directors elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as chief executive officer and a member of its board of directors. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales, Japanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U. S. market with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Fuji won these sponsorship rights. Fuji opened a plant in the U. S. and its aggressive marketing. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997, fujis films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization, on January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the film market in Japan. Although Kodak developed a camera in 1975, the first of its kind. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft, Apples pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak
4.
8 mm film
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8 mm film is a motion picture film format in which the film strip is eight millimeters wide. It exists in two main versions — the original standard 8 mm film, also known as regular 8 mm or Double 8 mm, and Super 8. Although both standard 8 mm and Super 8 are 8 mm wide, Super 8 has a larger image area because of its smaller and more widely spaced perforations. There are also two varieties of Super 8—Single 8 mm and Straight-8 that require different cameras, but produce a final film with the same dimensions. After the film is developed, the processor splits it down the middle, resulting in two lengths of 8 mm film, each with a single row of perforations along one edge. Each frame is half the width and half the height of a 16 mm frame, so there are four times the number of frames in a film area. Because of the two passes of the film, the format was sometimes called Double 8, the frame size of regular 8 mm is 4.8 mm ×3.5 mm and 1 meter of film contains 264 pictures. Normally Double 8 is filmed at 16 or 18 frames per second, common length film spools allowed filming of about 3 minutes to 4.5 minutes at 12,15,16 and 18 frames per second. Kodak ceased sales of standard 8 mm film under its own brand in the early 1990s, but continued to manufacture the film, some specialists also produce Super 8 mm film from existing 16 mm, or even 35 mm film stock. In 1965, Super-8 film was released and was adopted by the amateur film-maker. It featured a better quality image, and was easier to use due to a cartridge-loading system that did not require reloading and rethreading halfway through. In reality, this was not the case, the plastic pressure plate could be moulded to far tighter tolerances than their metal counterparts could be machined. To easily differentiate Super 8 film from Standard 8, projector spools for the former had larger spindle holes, therefore, it was not possible to mount a Super 8 spool on a Standard 8 projector, and vice versa. Another version of Super-8 film, Single-8, was produced by Fuji in Japan, introduced in 1965 as an alternative to the Kodak Super 8 format, it had the same final film dimensions, but with a different cassette. Unlike the co-axial design of Super 8, the Single 8 cartridge featured one spool above the other. A number of companies offered single width 8 mm film in magazines or spools. The first single run 8mm film was offered in 1935 with a Bell & Howell movie camera Filmo 127-A called Straight Eight. Single width 8 mm film revived in the United States by Bolsey-8 in 1956, introduced in 2011 by Nicholas Kovats, and implemented by Jean-Louis Seguin, this format uses Standard 8 film in a modified Bolex camera
5.
Home movies
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Originally, home movies were made on photographic film in formats that usually limited the movie-maker to about three minutes per roll of costly camera film. The popularity of the Internet, and wider availability of high-speed connections has provided new ways of sharing home movies, such as video weblogs, the development of home movie-making has depended critically on availability of equipment and media formats at prices affordable to consumers. Development of film formats suitable for amateur hobbyists began early in the history of cinematography, for example, the 17.5 mm Birtac format was patented by Birt Acres in 1898. This format split the standard 35 mm film into two strips half as wide and was able to be loaded into the camera in daylight. Since the frames were half the height of 35 mm frames. Since the camera doubled as a printer and projector, equipment costs were also reduced, another breakthrough in making film practical for home users was the introduction of safety film in the 1920s. Many competing film formats were introduced in the decades until 16 mm safety film was introduced by Eastman Kodak in 1923. In 1932, Kodak introduced another new format,8 mm, now called Standard 8 or Regular 8, the film usually came in 16 mm wide Double 8 form, which ran through the camera in two passes and was slit in half after processing. The Straight 8 variant came already cut to 8 mm width, in either case, the amount of film stock used per frame was again reduced by 75%. This finally brought home movies within the reach of the average family, the smaller format also made possible smaller and more portable cameras and projectors. The introduction of Kodachrome color reversal film for 16 mm in 1935, the original 8 mm format was largely superseded within a few years of Kodaks 1965 introduction of Super 8 film. The Super 8 format used the film width as standard 8 mm. In addition, Super 8 film came in cartridges for easier loading into the camera, single-8, a competing product from Fujifilm, was also introduced in 1965. It used the new format as Super 8 but on a thinner polyester base. The introduction of the Beta VCR in 1975 and VHS in 1976 heralded a revolution in the making of home movies, videocassettes were extremely inexpensive compared to film and they could even be erased. This had the effect of increasing the hours of footage of most family video libraries. The honeymoon video of Pamela Anderson and Tommy Lee from 1998 was the first highly publicized example, large parts of the incident were captured on the camera phone of another audience member and broadcast widely. Home movies have played important roles in controversial criminal investigations, the prime example is the Zapruder film of the 1963 assassination of U. S. President John F. Kennedy, accidentally captured on Kodachrome film with an 8 mm home movie camera
6.
Oxide
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An oxide /ˈɒksaɪd/ is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula. Oxide itself is the dianion of oxygen, an O2– atom, Metal oxides thus typically contain an anion of oxygen in the oxidation state of −2. Most of the Earths crust consists of oxides, the result of elements being oxidized by the oxygen in air or in water. Hydrocarbon combustion affords the two principal carbon oxides, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, even materials considered pure elements often develop an oxide coating. For example, aluminium foil develops a skin of Al2O3 that protects the foil from further corrosion. Individual elements can form multiple oxides, each containing different amounts of the element. Certain elements can form many different oxides, such those of nitrogen, due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms stable chemical bonds with almost all elements to give the corresponding oxides. Noble metals are prized because they resist direct chemical combination with oxygen, two independent pathways for corrosion of elements are hydrolysis and oxidation by oxygen. The combination of water and oxygen is even more corrosive, virtually all elements burn in an atmosphere of oxygen, or an oxygen rich environment. In the presence of water and oxygen, some elements— sodium—react rapidly, even dangerously, in part for this reason, alkali and alkaline earth metals are not found in nature in their metallic, i. e. native, form. Caesium is so reactive with oxygen that it is used as a getter in vacuum tubes, the surface of most metals consists of oxides and hydroxides in the presence of air. A well-known example is aluminium foil, which is coated with a film of aluminium oxide that passivates the metal. The aluminium oxide layer can be built to greater thickness by the process of electrolytic anodising, though solid magnesium and aluminium react slowly with oxygen at STP—they, like most metals, burn in air, generating very high temperatures. Finely grained powders of most metals can be explosive in air. Consequently, they are used in Solid-fuel rockets. In dry oxygen, iron forms iron oxide, but the formation of the hydrated ferric oxides, Fe2O3−x2x. Free oxygen production by photosynthetic bacteria some 3.5 billion years ago precipitated iron out of solution in the oceans as Fe2O3 in the important iron ore hematite. Oxides have a range of different structures, from molecules to polymeric
7.
Tape recorder
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In its present-day form, it records a fluctuating signal by moving the tape across a tape head that polarizes the magnetic domains in the tape in proportion to the audio signal. Tape-recording devices include reel-to-reel tape deck and the cassette deck, the use of magnetic tape for sound recording originated around 1930. Magnetizable tape revolutionized both the radio broadcast and music recording industries and it gave artists and producers the power to record and re-record audio with minimal loss in quality as well as edit and rearrange recordings with ease. The alternative recording technologies of the era, transcription discs and wire recorders, since some early refinements improved the fidelity of the reproduced sound, magnetic tape has been the highest quality analog sound recording medium available. As of the first decade of the 21st century, analog magnetic tape has been replaced by digital recording technologies for consumer purposes. Some individuals and organizations developed innovative uses for magnetic wire recorders while others investigated variations of the technology, one particularly important variation was the application of an oxide powder to a long strip of paper. This German invention was the start of a string of innovations that have led to present day magnetic tape recordings. The earliest known audio tape recorder was a non-magnetic, non-electric version invented by Alexander Graham Bells Volta Laboratory and patented in 1886. It employed a 3⁄16-inch-wide strip of wax-covered paper that was coated by dipping it in a solution of beeswax and paraffin and then had one side scraped clean, the machine was of sturdy wood and metal construction, and hand-powered by means of a knob fastened to the flywheel. The tape was taken up on the other reel. The sharp recording stylus, actuated by a vibrating mica diaphragm, in playback mode, a dull, loosely mounted stylus, attached to a rubber diaphragm, carried the reproduced sounds through an ear tube to its listener. Both recording and playback heads, mounted alternately on the two posts, could be adjusted vertically so that several recordings could be cut on the same 3⁄16-inch-wide strip. While the machine was never developed commercially, it was an ancestor to the modern magnetic tape recorder which it resembled somewhat in design. The tapes and machine created by Bells associates, examined at one of the Smithsonian Institutions museums, became brittle, the machines playback head was also missing. Otherwise, with some reconditioning, they could be placed into working condition, during the recording process, the tape moved through a pair of electrodes which immediately imprinted the modulated sound signals as visible black stripes into the paper tapes surface. On 13 August 1931, Duston filed USPTO Patent Application #556,743 for Method Of And Apparatus For Electrically Recording And Reproducing Sound And Other Vibrations, and which was renewed in 1934. Magnetic recording was conceived as early as 1877 by the American engineer Oberlin Smith, Analog magnetic wire recording, and its successor, magnetic tape recording, involve the use of a magnetizable medium which moves with a constant speed past a recording head. An electrical signal, which is analogous to the sound that is to be recorded, is fed to the recording head, inducing a pattern of magnetization similar to the signal
8.
Super 35
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Super 35 was revived from a similar Superscope variant known as Superscope 235, which was originally developed by the Tushinsky Brothers for RKO in 1954. When cameraman Joe Dunton was preparing to shoot Dance Craze in 1982, he chose to revive the Superscope format by using a full silent-standard gate and these two characteristics are central to the format. It was adopted by Hollywood starting with Greystoke in 1984, under the format name Super Techniscope and it is often the standard production format for television shows, music videos, and commercials. Since none of these require a print, it is unnecessary to reserve space for an optical soundtrack. James Cameron was an early, consistent, and vocal supporter of the format, Super 35 is a production format. Theatres do not receive or project Super 35 prints, rather, films are shot in a Super 35 format but are then — either through optical blowdown/matting or digital intermediate — converted into one of the standard formats to make release prints. 4-perf Super 35 is simply the original frame size that was used in 35 mm silent films and that is, it is a return to the way the film stock was used before the frame size was cropped to allow room for a soundtrack. Super 35 competes with the use of the standard 35 mm format used with an anamorphic lens. Super 35 uses standard spherical lenses, which are faster, smaller. The chief advantage of Super 35 for productions is its adaptability to different release formats, Super 35 negatives can be used to produce high-quality releases in any aspect ratio, as the final frame is extracted and converted from the larger full frame negative. This also means that a video release can actually use more of the frame than the theatrical release. Super 35 ratios have included,4,316,91.85,12.00,1 Univisium 2.20,12.39,11.66,1 and 1. Theoretically,2.39,1 release prints made from Super 35 should have slightly lower quality than films produced directly in the anamorphic format. Because part of the Super 35 image is thrown away when printing to this format, films originated with anamorphic lenses use a larger negative area. 3-perf Super 35 has also used for some time for 2.39,1 feature films. List of film formats Full frame Maxivision Negative pulldown James Cameron and Russell Carpenter discuss Super 35 Some Encounters with Super 35 and Other Thoughts at ICG Camera Guild
9.
Standard 8 mm film
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The format, initially known as Cine Kodak Eight, was developed by Kodak to provide a cheaper and more portable alternative to the 16 mm film format introduced a decade earlier. Standard 8 mm film stock consists of 16 mm film reperforated to have twice the number of perforations along its edges. This film is run through the camera, exposing one edge of the film only, the spool is then reversed and the film run through again, exposing the other edge. After processing the film is cut down the centre and spliced together to give one roll of 8mm wide film. The format was an success, but retains a number of inherent problems and quirks. This procedure is tricky for the user and needs to be carried out in subdued light to avoid fogging of the edges of the film. In addition, the six feet of the finished film includes a characteristic burst of light corresponding to the reversal point. In the early 1960s, a new filming and projection standard of 18 frames per second was introduced, although many cameras, in reality, this was not the case, since the plastic pressure plate could be moulded to far smaller tolerances than their metal counterparts could be machined. Finally, Super 8s smaller sprocket holes, while allowing a larger size, were also inherently more liable to tear. The first camera produced was Kodaks own Cine Kodak Eight Model 20, like many subsequent cameras, it was extremely simple and powered by clockwork. The Swiss company Paillard-Bolex SA introduced its first 8 mm camera in 1938 and its first pocket 8 mm camera aimed squarely at the amateur market, bolex cameras and projectors continued to occupy the high end of the market. In the US, Bell and Howell introduced an 8 mm projector in 1934, and in 1935, Standard 8 mm equipment was also manufactured by Carl Zeiss, the Austrian firm Eumig, Fuji, and Canon, amongst others. Eastman Kodak officially discontinued manufacture of the film in 1992, however, private marketed film by a major U. S. manufacturer has continued at least twelve years into the 21st century sofar. John Schwind, of International Film, is the current supplier for this major US company in the entire world. There are many still in use by film students, hobbyists. This was the first new introduction of a type K-14 stock since 1988 and this film was kept in production until 2006, coinciding with the discontinuation of Kodachrome 40A in that same year. Foma R-100 film also continues to be produced by the European manufacturer Foma, due to aging punch dies, this film does NOT have an advantage over Super 8 film in terms of image steadiness, unfortunately. The most commonly used film stocks were produced by Kodak, in particular, the 10 ASA Kodachrome colour reversal stock, with its distinctive colour rendition and fine grain, was closely associated with the format
10.
Reversal film
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In photography, reversal film is a type of photographic film that produces a positive image on a transparent base. The film is processed to produce transparencies or diapositives instead of negatives, Reversal film is produced in various sizes, from 35 mm roll film to 8×10 inch sheet film. A slide is a specially mounted individual transparency intended for projection onto a screen using a slide projector and this allows the photograph to be viewed by a large audience at once. The most common form is the 35 mm slide, with the image framed in a 2×2 inch cardboard or plastic mount. Reversal film is used as motion picture film, mostly in the 16 mm, Super 8 and 8 mm cine formats. This avoids the expense of using film, which requires additional film. The earliest practical and commercially successful color photography reversal process was the Lumière Autochrome and this was an additive method, using a panchromatic emulsion coated on a thin glass plate previously coated with a layer of dyed potato starch grains. Autochrome plates were discontinued in the 1930s after the introduction of Lumière Filmcolor in sheet film, also using the additive principle and reversal processing were the Agfa color screen plates and films and Dufaycolor film, all of which were discontinued by 1961. Leopold Godowsky, Jr. and Leopold Mannes, working with the Eastman Kodak Company, developed Kodachrome, Kodachrome was introduced in 1935 as 16mm motion picture film, and in 1936 as 35mm film for still cameras. The Kodachrome films contained no color dye couplers, these were added during processing, in late 1936, Agfacolor Neu was launched, Agfa having overcome earlier difficulties with color sensitivity problems. This film had the dye couplers incorporated into the emulsion, making processing simpler than for Kodachrome, amateurs who owned projection equipment used reversal films extensively because the cost of projection equipment and slide film was offset by not having to pay for prints. Eventually, print quality improved and prices decreased, and, by the 1970s, color negative film, digital media gradually replaced transparency film. All color reversal film sold today is developed with the E-6 process, the non-substantive Kodachrome films, the last of which was discontinued in 2009, were processed with the K-14 process. Polaroid produced an instant slide film called Polachrome and it was packaged in cassettes like normal 35mm film. A separate processing unit was used to develop it after exposure, black-and-white transparencies can be made directly with some modern black-and-white films, which normally yield negatives. The negative image is developed but not fixed, the remaining silver halide salts are re-exposed to light, developed and fixed, and the film is washed and dried. Black-and-white transparencies were once popular for presentation of materials using 3 1⁄4 by 4 glass-mounted slides. Such positive black-and-white projection is now rarely done, except in motion pictures, even where black-and-white positives are currently used, the process to create them typically uses an internegative with standard processing instead of a chemical reversal process
11.
MTV
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MTV is an American cable and satellite television channel owned by Viacom Media Networks and headquartered in New York City. Launched on August 1,1981, the originally aired music videos as guided by television personalities known as video jockeys. In its early years, MTVs main target demographic was young adults and it has received criticism towards this change of focus, both by certain segments of its audience and musicians. MTVs influence on its audience, including issues involving censorship and social activism, has also been a subject of debate for several years, in recent years, MTV had struggled with the secular decline of music-related cable media. In April 2016, MTV announced it would start to return to its original music roots with the reintroduction of the classic MTV series MTV Unplugged. It was also reported that the series MTV Cribs would be making a return on Snapchat, MTV has spawned numerous sister channels in the US and affiliated channels internationally, some of which have gone independent. As of July 2015, approximately 92,188,000 US households have received MTV, several earlier concepts for music video-based television programming had been around since the early 1960s. The Beatles had used music videos to promote their records starting in the mid-1960s, CBS rejected the idea, but Williams premiered his own musical composition Classical Gas on the Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, where he was head writer. The series featured clips from various popular artists, but was canceled by its distributor in 1971. The channel, which featured video disc jockeys, signed a deal with US Cable in 1978 to expand its audience from retail to cable television, the service was no longer active by the time MTV launched in 1981. The QUBE system offered many specialized channels, One of these specialized channels was Sight on Sound, a music channel that featured concert footage and music-oriented television programs. With the interactive QUBE service, viewers could vote for their favorite songs, the original programming format of MTV was created by media executive Robert W. Pittman, who later became president and chief executive officer of MTV Networks. Pittman had test-driven the music format by producing and hosting a 15-minute show, Album Tracks, the inspiration for PopClips came from a similar program on New Zealands TVNZ network named Radio with Pictures, which premiered in 1976. The concept itself had been in the works since 1966, when record companies began supplying the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation with promotional music clips to play on the air at no charge. Few artists made the trip to New Zealand to appear live. A shortened version of the shuttle launch ID ran at the top of hour in various forms. The first music video shown on MTV was The Buggles Video Killed the Radio Star and this was followed by the video for Pat Benatars You Better Run. Sporadically, the screen would go black when an employee at MTV inserted a tape into a VCR, MTVs lower third graphics that appeared near the beginning and end of music videos would eventually use the recognizable Kabel typeface for about 25 years
12.
Fujifilm
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Fujifilm Holdings Corporation, better known as Fujifilm or simply Fuji, stylized as FUJiFILM, is a Japanese multinational photography and imaging company headquartered in Tokyo. Fuji Photo Film Co. Ltd. was established in 1934 with the aim of being the first Japanese producer of photographic films, over the following 10 years, the company produced photographic films, motion-picture films and X-ray films. In the 1940s, Fuji Photo entered the optical glasses, lenses, after the Second World War, Fuji Photo diversified, penetrating the medical, printing, electronic imaging and magnetic materials fields. In 1962, Fuji Photo and U. K. -based Rank Xerox Limited launched Fuji Xerox Co. Ltd. through a joint venture, from the mid-1950s, Fuji Photo accelerated the establishment of overseas sales bases. In the 1980s, Fuji Photo expanded its production and other bases overseas, meanwhile, Fuji Photo developed digital technologies for its photo-related, medical and printing businesses. Like its rival Eastman Kodak which dominated in the US, Fuji Photo enjoyed a longtime near-monopoly on camera film in Japan, the complaint was lodged by the US with the World Trade Organization. On January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the market in Japan. The new millennium witnessed the spread of digital technology in cameras. Demand for photographic films plunged in line with the popularity of digital cameras. In response, Fuji Photo implemented management reforms aimed at effecting drastic transformation of its business structures, while both film manufacturers recognized this fundamental change, Fuji Photo adapted to this shift much more successfully than Eastman Kodak. In September 19,2006, Fujifilm announced plans to establish a holding company, Fujifilm and Fuji Xerox would become subsidiaries of the holding company. A representative of the company reconfirmed its commitment to film, which accounts for 3% of sales, Fuji Xerox is a joint venture between Fujifilm and Xerox Corporation of North America. Fujifilm bought Sericol Ltd. a UK-based printing ink company specializing in screen, narrow web, velvia, one of the most saturated and fine-grained slide films, valued by nature and landscape photographers. Fortia, consumer slide film, featuring extremely vivid color rendering suitable for flower photography, Fuji Neopan Professional black & white negative film. As a side note, Neopan 400 and 1600 were designed to use the same developing times, ACROS and SS do not share this feature. This uses the Fuji G-mount lenses, to be released in 2017 The Clear Shot series of 35mm compact cameras Instax series of instant camera, wiki collection of bibliographic works on Fujifilm
13.
Ilford Photo
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Ilfochrome was formerly called Cibachrome, developed in partnership with the Swiss company CIBA-Geigy. The company was founded in 1879 by Alfred Hugh Harman as the Britannia Works Company, initially making photographic plates, it grew to occupy a large site in the centre of Ilford. In 1902, it took the name of the town to become Ilford Limited, in 1983, their UK headquarters was moved to Mobberley, Cheshire. In 1989, Ilford was acquired by the USA-based International Paper company, the two companies were merged in 1990 to become Ilford Anitec. In 1996, the sales and administration offices were moved from London to Mobberley. In 2004, the company went into receivership, the UK site was subject to a management buyout, which resulted in the formation of Harman technology Ltd in February 2005. The company, now traded as Ilford Photo, produces high quality monochrome photographic products, the Swiss part of the company was bought by the Oji Paper Company of Japan in July 2005 and by Paradigm Global Partners LLP in May 2010. It produced inkjet products and high quality colour photographic products under the name Ilford Imaging Switzerland GmbH before being declared bankrupt on 9 December 2013, on 14 September 2015, Ilford Photo announced that Harman Technology was acquired by Pemberstone Ventures Limited for an undisclosed amount. Ilford sold a number of cameras under its own name but made for it by other manufacturers, starting with a box camera in 1902, the Ilford Witness was a rangefinder with interchangeable lenses announced in 1947, but not released until 1953 because of manufacturing difficulties. In the meantime, the simpler Advocate series 1 was released in 1949, a pre-release Advocate series 1 camera was given to Princess Elizabeth in 1948. It was stolen, but later recovered when it was sent to be repaired, also released in 1949 was the Craftsman, a twin-lens reflex which took 120 or 620 film. Then 1951 saw the Prentice folding camera which also took 120 film, in 1957, Ilford released the Sportsman, a relabelled West German Dacora Dignette, as a lightly built and cheap 35 mm camera to compete with the better made and more expensive Kodak Retinette. In Germany, a comparative Dignette was about half the price of a Retinette, the Sportsman became a series of camera models produced over the following 10 years. Finally, in 1958, Ilford released the Monobar, a camera manufactured by Kennedy Instruments with a 35 mm back that resembled the earlier Advocate camera. The Monobar allowed the front and rear of the camera to be moved and rotated, unlike most other black and white films, XP2 Super can be processed in the same chemicals as colour print film. It produces a negative, despite the development process. The mail order service offers black-and-white film processing and silver gelatin printing from film or from digital files, the launch saw the introduction of a dedicated website www. ilfordlab. com. The service has continued to expand offering Medium and Large format processing and Digital Black, in 2009, Ilford Lab Direct was awarded a Gold Award by Digital Photo magazine Best online Black and White Printer
14.
Black and white
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Black and white, often abbreviated B/W or B&W, and hyphenated black-and-white when used as an adjective, is any of several monochrome forms in visual arts. Black-and-white images are not usually starkly contrasted black and white and they combine black and white in a continuum producing a range of shades of gray. Even when most studios had the capability to make color films they were not heavily utilized as using the Technicolor process was expensive, for the years 1940–1966, a separate Academy Award for Best Art Direction was given for black-and-white movies along with one for color. Television, Television program was first transmitted in black-and-white, scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrated the worlds first color television transmission on July 3,1928 using a mechanical process. Some color broadcasts in the US began in the 1950s, with color becoming common in industrialized nations during the late 1960s. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission settled on a color NTSC standard in 1953, color television became more widespread in the U. S. between 1963 and 1967, when the CBS and ABC networks joined NBC in broadcasting full color schedules. Canada began airing color television in 1966 while the United Kingdom began to use a different color system from July 1967 known as PAL. The Republic Of Ireland followed in 1970, in China, black and white television sets were the norm until as late as the 1990s, color TVs not outselling them until about 1989. While seldom used now, many consumer camcorders have the ability to record in black-and-white. Photography, Photographs were either black-and-white or shades of sepia, color photography was originally rare and expensive and again often containing inaccurate hues. Color photography became more common from the mid-20th century, Today, black-and-white is a niche market for photographers who use the medium for artistic purposes. This can take the form of film or digital conversion to grayscale. For amateur use certain companies such as Kodak manufactured black-and-white disposable cameras until 2009, also, certain films are produced today which give black-and-white images using the ubiquitous C41 color process. Printing press, Most American newspapers were black-and-white until the early 1980s, The New York Times, some claim that USA Today was the major impetus for the change to color. In the UK, color was only introduced from the mid-1980s. Even today, many newspapers restrict color photographs to the front, similarly, daily comic strips in newspapers were traditionally black-and-white with color reserved for Sunday strips. Sometimes color is reserved for the cover, magazines such as Jet magazine were either all or mostly black-and-white until the end of the 2000s when it became all-color. Manga are typically published in black-and-white although now it is part of its image, many school yearbooks are still entirely or mostly in black-and-white
15.
ADOX
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In photography, ADOX is a trademark with a long history. It was originally a name used by the German company. Schleussner GmbH of Frankfurt am Main, the worlds first photographic materials manufacturer, the companys founder, Dr. Carl Schleussner, did pioneering work on the wet-collodion process during the early years of photography, and formed his manufacturing company in 1860. Working with the physicist Wilhelm Röntgen, discoverer of X-rays, Dr. Schleussner invented the first X-ray plate. The Schleussner firm began marketing cameras under the ADOX brand name in the first third of the 20th century and, recognizing the importance of the brand. In 1952 they introduced a line of very sharp 35 mm films under the ADOX brand, in 1962, the Schleussner family sold its photographic holdings to DuPont, an American company. DuPont became owners of the trademark, and registered it in the United States, DuPont licensed the Adox film technology, but not the trademark, to Fotokemika, a manufacturer in Yugoslavia, who used the technology for films sold under their Efke trademark. DuPont kept the Adox trademark, transferring it to a subsidiary, Sterling Diagnostic Imaging and they still apply it to an industrial chemical, sodium chlorite. In 1999, Sterling was bought by the German company Agfa, in this roundabout way, the Adox photographic trademark once again became German. Agfa did not use the Adox trademark, and the mark was removed from the German Patent Office trademark registry in March,2003. It was almost immediately revived by companies in Canada, the United States,24 x 36, ADOX Polo 6 x 6, ADOX66 The text of this article has been adapted with permission from information published at http, //www. adox. net/about_adox. htm
16.
ORWO
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ORWO is a brand for photographic products and magnetic recording tape. It was established in East Germany as a brand for photographic film and magnetic tape, in 1909 the Filmfabrik Wolfen was founded as part of the Aktien-Gesellschaft für Anilin-Fabrikation and belonged to I. G. The Agfa Wolfen plant developed the first modern film, with incorporated colour couplers, Agfacolor. As the trade agreement seriously hampered the East German companys abilities to sell in the western countries, after the formation of the Combine VEB Fotochemisches Kombinat Wolfen in 1970 the VEB ORWO Filmfabrik Wolfen became its headquarter. Founder members of the new Combine were Fotopapierwerke Dresden, Fotopapierwerke Wernigerode, Gelatinewerke Calbe, Fotochemische Werke Berlin, ORWO branded 35mm colour slide film became available in the United Kingdom in the 1970s through magazine advertisements for mail order suppliers. It was an alternative to the mainstream brands available at the time. Following the merger of East Germany and West Germany, the company was privatized in 1990, after several bankruptcies, a number of companies are continuing the tradition of ORWO. Fact, black and white movies that have been selected by the US Library of Congress for archival in the last 5 years have been most likely reprocessed on to ORWO film, the cellulose triacetate base manufacturing plant of ORWO was sold to Island Pyrochemical Industries, Mineola, NY. The new company, located in the Chemical Park Bitterfeld-Wolfen, Germany, produces high quality TAC for the LCD polarizer market, the Industrie- und Filmmuseum Wolfen provides a permanent exhibition about the history of the Filmfabrik Wolfen and the ORWO products
17.
Compact Cassette
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The Compact Cassette or Musicassette, also commonly called cassette tape, audio cassette, or simply tape or cassette, is an analog magnetic tape recording format for audio recording and playback. It was released by Philips in 1962, having developed in Hasselt. Compact cassettes come in two forms, either already containing content as a cassette, or as a fully recordable blank cassette. Its uses ranged from portable audio to home recording to data storage for early microcomputers, the first cassette player designed for use in car dashes was introduced in 1968. Between the early 1970s and the early 2000s, the cassette was one of the two most common formats for prerecorded music, first alongside the LP record and later the compact disc. Compact Cassettes contain two miniature spools, between which a magnetically coated, polyester-type plastic film is passed and wound and these spools and their attendant parts are held inside a protective plastic shell. This reversal is achieved either by flipping the cassette, or by having the machine itself change the direction of tape movement. In 1935, decades before the introduction of the Compact Cassette, AEG released the first reel-to-reel tape recorder and it was based on the invention of the magnetic tape by Fritz Pfleumer, which used similar technology but with open reels. These instruments were expensive and relatively difficult to use and were therefore used mostly by professionals in radio stations. In 1958, following four years of development, RCA Victor introduced the stereo, quarter-inch, reversible, however, it was a large cassette, and offered few pre-recorded tapes. Despite the multiple versions, it failed, consumer use of tape only took off in the early 1960s, after playback machines reached a comfortable, user-friendly design. This was achieved primarily by the introduction of transistors which replaced the bulky, fragile, reel-to-reel tape then became more suitable to household use, but still remained an esoteric product. The team at Philips was led by Lou Ottens in Hasselt, Philips was competing with Telefunken and Grundig in a race to establish its cassette tape as the worldwide standard, and it wanted support from Japanese electronics manufacturers. However, the Philips Compact Cassette became dominant as a result of Philips decision to license the format free of charge, Philips also released the Norelco Carry-Corder 150 recorder/player in the US in November 1964. By 1966 over 250,000 recorders had been sold in the US alone, by 1968,85 manufacturers had sold over 2.4 million players. By the end of the 1960s, the business was worth an estimated 150 million dollars. In the early years sound quality was mediocre, but it improved dramatically by the early 1970s when it caught up with the quality of 8-track tape, the Compact Cassette went on to become a popular alternative to the 12-inch vinyl LP during the late 1970s. The mass production of blank Compact Cassettes began in 1964 in Hanover, prerecorded music cassettes were launched in Europe in late 1965
18.
Film stock
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Film stock is an analog medium that is used for recording motion pictures or animation. It is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with an emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast, the emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use. Instead, a short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be developed into a visible photograph. In addition to light, all films are sensitive to X-rays. Most are at least slightly sensitive to ultraviolet light. Some special-purpose films are sensitive into the region of the spectrum. In black-and-white photographic film there is one layer of silver salts. When the exposed grains are developed, the salts are converted to metallic silver. Color film has at least three sensitive layers, dyes, which adsorb to the surface of the silver salts, make the crystals sensitive to different colors. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by the green, during development, the exposed silver salts are converted to metallic silver, just as with black-and-white film. Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, following development, the silver is converted back to silver salts in the bleach step. It is removed from the film in the fix step, fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, early motion picture experiments in the 1880s were performed using a fragile paper roll film, with which it was difficult to view a single, continuously moving image without a complex apparatus. The first transparent and flexible film base material was celluloid, which was discovered and refined for use by John Carbutt, Hannibal Goodwin. Eastman Kodak made celluloid film commercially available in 1889, Thomas Henry Blair, the stock had a frosted base to facilitate easier viewing by transmitted light. By November 1891 William Dickson, at Edisons laboratory, was using Blairs stock for Kinetoscope experiments, Blairs company supplied film to Edison for five years
19.
Color temperature
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The color temperature of a light source is the temperature of an ideal black-body radiator that radiates light of comparable color to that of the light source. Color temperature is a characteristic of light that has important applications in lighting, photography, videography, publishing, manufacturing, astrophysics, horticulture. Color temperature is conventionally expressed in kelvins, using the symbol K, Color temperatures over 5000 K are called cool colors, while lower color temperatures are called warm colors. The fact that warm lighting in this sense actually has a color temperature often leads to confusion. The color temperature of the radiation emitted from an ideal black body is defined as its surface temperature in kelvins. This permits the definition of a standard by which light sources are compared, to the extent that a hot surface emits thermal radiation but is not an ideal black-body radiator, the color temperature of the light is not the actual temperature of the surface. An incandescent lamps light is thermal radiation, and the bulb approximates an ideal black-body radiator and this means that the emitted radiation does not follow the form of a black-body spectrum. These sources are assigned what is known as a color temperature. CCT is the temperature of a black-body radiator which to human color perception most closely matches the light from the lamp. Because such an approximation is not required for incandescent light, the CCT for an incandescent light is simply its unadjusted temperature, the Sun closely approximates a black-body radiator. The effective temperature, defined by the radiative power per square unit, is about 5780 K. The color temperature of sunlight above the atmosphere is about 5900 K, as the Sun crosses the sky, it may appear to be red, orange, yellow or white depending on its position. The changing color of the Sun over the course of the day is mainly a result of scattering of light and is not due to changes in black-body radiation. The blue color of the sky is caused by Rayleigh scattering of the sunlight from the atmosphere, some early morning and evening light has a lower color temperature due to increased low-wavelength light scattering by the Tyndall effect. Daylight has a similar to that of a black body with a correlated color temperature of 6500 K or 5500 K. For colors based on theory, blue occurs at higher temperatures. This is the opposite of the cultural associations attributed to colors, in red is hot. For lighting building interiors, it is important to take into account the color temperature of illumination
20.
Photographic filter
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In photography and videography, a filter is a camera accessory consisting of an optical filter that can be inserted into the optical path. Sometimes they are used to make subtle changes to images. In monochrome photography coloured filters affect the brightness of different colours. Others change the balance of images, so that photographs under incandescent lighting show colours as they are perceived. There are filters that distort the image in a way, diffusing an otherwise sharp image, adding a starry effect. Linear and circular polarising filters reduce oblique reflections from non-metallic surfaces, many filters absorb part of the light available, necessitating longer exposure. As the filter is in the path, any imperfections—non-flat or non-parallel surfaces, reflections, scratches. There is no universal naming system for filters. The Wratten numbers adopted in the twentieth century by Kodak. Colour correction filters are often identified by a code of the form CC50Y—CC for colour correction,50 for the strength of the filter, photographic filters sell in larger quantities at correspondingly lower prices than many laboratory filters. The article on optical filters has material relevant to photographic filters, in digital photography the majority of filters used with film cameras have been rendered redundant by digital filters applied either in-camera or during post processing. Exceptions include the ultraviolet filter typically used to protect the front surface of the lens, the neutral density filter, the polarising filter, the only use of a clear filter is to protect the front of a lens. UV filters are used to block ultraviolet light, to which most photographic sensors. Normally, the glass or plastic of a lens is practically opaque to short-wavelength UV. A UV filter passes all or nearly all of the visible spectrum and it can be left on the lens for nearly all shots, UV filters are often used mainly for lens protection in the same way as clear filters. Strong UV filters are sometimes used for warming color photos taken in shade with daylight-type film. While in certain cases, such as harsh environments, a filter may be necessary. Arguments for the use of protection include, If the lens is dropped
21.
Kodachrome
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Kodachrome is a brand name for a non-substantive, color reversal film introduced by Eastman Kodak in 1935. It was one of the first successful color materials and was used for both cinematography and still photography, because of its complex processing requirements, the film was sold process-paid in the United States until 1954 when a legal ruling prohibited this. For many years it was used for color photography, especially for images intended for publication in print media. After announcing the return of Ektachrome at the beginning of 2017, Kodachrome was the first color film that used a subtractive color method to be successfully mass-marketed. Previous materials, such as Autochrome and Dufaycolor, had used the additive screenplate methods, until its discontinuation, Kodachrome was the oldest surviving brand of color film. Kodachrome is appreciated in the archival and professional market for its dark-storage longevity, because of these qualities, it was used by professional photographers such as Steve McCurry, Peter Guttman and Alex Webb. McCurry used Kodachrome for his 1984 portrait of Sharbat Gula, the Afghan Girl and it was used by Walton Sound and Film Services in the UK in 1953 for the official 16 mm film of the coronation of Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. Copies of the film for sale to the public were also produced using Kodachrome and these had several disadvantages because they used a réseau filter made from discrete color elements that were visible upon enlargement. The finished transparencies absorbed between 70% and 80% of light projection, requiring very bright projection lamps, especially for large projections. Using the subtractive method, these disadvantages could be avoided, the first Kodak product called Kodachrome was invented by John Capstaff in 1913. His Kodachrome was a process that used only two colors, blue-green and red-orange. It required two glass plate negatives, one using a panchromatic emulsion and a red filter, the other made using an emulsion insensitive to red light. The two plates could be exposed as a bipack, which eliminated the need for multiple exposures or a color camera. After development, the images were bleached out with chemistry that hardened the bleached portions of the gelatin. Using dyes which were absorbed only by the gelatin, the negative that recorded the blue and green light was dyed red-orange. The result was a pair of positive dye images, the plates were then assembled emulsion to emulsion, producing a transparency that was capable of surprisingly good color rendition of skin tones in portraits. Capstaffs Kodachrome was made available in 1915. It was also adapted for use as a 35 mm motion picture film process, today, this first version of Kodachrome is nearly forgotten, completely overshadowed by the next Kodak product bearing the name Kodachrome
22.
K-14 process
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K-14 was the developing process for Kodaks Kodachrome transparency film, the last version having been designated Process K-14M. The process differed significantly from its contemporary, the E-6 process, Kodachrome film has no integral color couplers, dyes are produced during processing by the reaction of the color couplers with the oxidised developer. Due to declining sales, Kodak discontinued production of all K-14 chemistry in 2009, Dwaynes Photo, which operated the last K-14 line in the world, discontinued sales on December 30,2010, the last roll was processed on January 18,2011. The layers in the film are, top-to-bottom, blue sensitive, yellow filter, blue-green sensitive, blue-red sensitive, acetate base, the processing cycle is as follows, Backing removal, An alkaline bath softens the cellulose acetate phthalate binder. A spray wash and buffer removes the rem-jet anti-halation backing, first Developer, All exposed silver halide crystals are developed to metallic silver via a PQ developer. Cyan developer, The solution contains a color developer and a cyan coupler, after the color developer develops the silver, the oxidized developer reacts with the cyan coupler to form cyan dye. The dye is much less soluble than either the developer or the coupler so it stays in the red layer of the film, Wash Blue light re-exposure from the top, This makes the remaining undeveloped grains in the blue sensitive layer developable. The now opaque yellow filter layers prevents the light from exposing the magenta layer. It is important to avoid stray printing light exposing the film base of film, yellow developer, Analogous to the cyan developer. Wash Magenta developer, This contains a chemical fogging agent that makes all of the remaining undeveloped silver developable, if everything has worked correctly, nearly all of this silver is in the magenta layers. The developer and magenta coupler work just like the cyan and yellow developers to produce magenta dye that is insoluble, Wash Conditioner, Prepares the metallic silver for the bleach step. Bleach, Oxidises the metallic silver to silver halide, the former ferricyanide bleach did not require aeration and did not require a conditioner. Fix, Converts the silver halide to soluble compounds which are dissolved and washed from the film Wash. Rinse, Contains a wetting agent to reduce water spots, dry The result is three different color records each with the appropriate dye, just like other color films. The original Kodachrome process in 1935 used dye bleaches and was a far more complex process, although the formulae have changed over the years, the basic process steps have followed a similar pattern since the introduction of selective re-exposure Kodachrome in 1938. Kodak, Processing Kodachrome film Dwaynes Photo Kodachrome processing K-14 Process Demonstration Kodak Retires KODACHROME Film
23.
International Organization for Standardization
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The International Organization for Standardization is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization promotes worldwide proprietary and it is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and as of March 2017 works in 162 countries. It was one of the first organizations granted general consultative status with the United Nations Economic, ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, is an independent, non-governmental organization, the members of which are the standards organizations of the 162 member countries. It is the worlds largest developer of international standards and facilitates world trade by providing common standards between nations. Nearly twenty thousand standards have been set covering everything from manufactured products and technology to food safety, use of the standards aids in the creation of products and services that are safe, reliable and of good quality. The standards help businesses increase productivity while minimizing errors and waste, by enabling products from different markets to be directly compared, they facilitate companies in entering new markets and assist in the development of global trade on a fair basis. The standards also serve to safeguard consumers and the end-users of products and services, the three official languages of the ISO are English, French, and Russian. The name of the organization in French is Organisation internationale de normalisation, according to the ISO, as its name in different languages would have different abbreviations, the organization adopted ISO as its abbreviated name in reference to the Greek word isos. However, during the meetings of the new organization, this Greek word was not invoked. Both the name ISO and the logo are registered trademarks, the organization today known as ISO began in 1926 as the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations. ISO is an organization whose members are recognized authorities on standards. Members meet annually at a General Assembly to discuss ISOs strategic objectives, the organization is coordinated by a Central Secretariat based in Geneva. A Council with a membership of 20 member bodies provides guidance and governance. The Technical Management Board is responsible for over 250 technical committees, ISO has formed joint committees with the International Electrotechnical Commission to develop standards and terminology in the areas of electrical and electronic related technologies. Information technology ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 was created in 1987 to evelop, maintain, ISO has three membership categories, Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body in each country. These are the members of ISO that have voting rights. Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards organization and these members are informed about ISOs work, but do not participate in standards promulgation. Subscriber members are countries with small economies and they pay reduced membership fees, but can follow the development of standards
24.
Non-linear editing system
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A pointer-based playlist – effectively an edit decision list – for video or a directed acyclic graph for still images is used to keep track of edits. Each time the edited audio, video, or image is rendered, played back, or accessed, it is reconstructed from the original source, a non-linear editing system is a video or audio editing digital audio workstation system that performs non-destructive editing on source material. The name is in contrast to 20th century methods of video editing. When ingesting audio or video feeds, metadata are attached to the clip and those metadata can be attached automatically or manually. It is now possible to access any frame by entering directly the timecode or the descriptive metadata, an editor can, for example at the end of the day in the Olympic Games, easily retrieve all the clips related to the players who received a gold medal. The non-linear editing method is similar in concept to the cut, however, with the use of non-linear editing systems, the destructive act of cutting of film negatives is eliminated. It can also be viewed as the equivalent of word processing. Video and audio data are first captured to video servers, other hard disk-based systems, the data are either direct to disk recording or are imported from another source. Once imported, the material can be edited on a computer using application software. For a comprehensive list of software, see List of video editing software, whereas Comparison of video editing software gives more detail of features. In non-linear editing, the source files are not lost or modified during editing. This is one of the biggest advantages of non-linear editing compared to linear editing, professional editing software records the editors decisions in an edit decision list that is exportable to other editing tools. Many generations and variations of the source files can exist without storing many different copies. It also makes it easy to change cuts and undo previous decisions simply by editing the edit decision list, generation loss is also controlled, due to not having to repeatedly re-encode the data when different effects are applied. Compared to the method of tape-to-tape editing, non-linear editing offers the flexibility of film editing, with random access. With the edit decision lists, the editor can work on low-resolution copies of the video, the costs of editing systems have dropped such that non-linear editing tools are now within the reach of home users. The non-linear editing retrieves video media for editing, the editor previews material directly on the server and edits directly on the server without transcoding or transfer. Shared storage, the video server transfers feeds to and from shared storage that is accessible by all editors, Media in the appropriate codec on the server need only transferred
25.
Single-8
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Single-8 is a motion picture film format introduced by Fujifilm of Japan in 1965 as an alternative to the Kodak Super 8 format. The company Konan claims in its history page to have developed the Single-8 system in 1959, although the film is thinner, the other dimensions of Single-8 such as the sprocket holes and sound track, are the same as Super 8. Single-8 can be projected in Super 8 projectors and vice versa, Single-8 comes pre-loaded in B-shaped cartridges, with two separate spools unlike the coaxial system of Super 8. The Single 8 cartridge was designed to use the film gate to hold the film in place during exposure. This contrasted with the Kodak system which had a pressure plate built into the cartridge. It has a base that is thinner than the Kodak films. Although never as popular internationally as Super 8, the continued to live in parallel. As of early 2007, Fuji still manufactures two versions of Single-8 film, Fujichrome R25N is Daylight Balanced Filmstock, while Fujichrome RT200N is Tungsten Balanced for indoor filming. The Sound Film brand is no longer made, although a magnetic sound stripe can be added to the film after processing and this option is chosen whenever sending the exposed film to Fuji in Japan. In addition to Fujis own film, black and white film is available from Japanese company Retro Enterprises and this Single-8 black & white reversal film, named Retro X, is of ASA/ISO200 and is manufactured in Germany. Although Fujifilm has stopped exportation of Single-8 Film to other countries, individual companies in the United States, Single-8 is readily available in its home country of Japan where even used cameras can reach high prices in online auctions on Yahoo. A used Fujica ZC1000, the top of the line Single-8 camera, DAICON FILM of Japan produced a series of well-known tokusatsu films in the 1980s using Single-8 film, some now available on DVD. Fujis Single-8 developing process is not the same as Process EM-26, there is more involved in the removal of the remjet antihalation backing than the now long discontinued Kodak Ektachrome Process EM-26 films. The color chemistry while close, is a bit different, particularly the Color Developer and it is often recommended sending Fuji Single-8 film to Fujifilm in Japan for processing. They are a mechanised lab set up to process their own filmstock, list of film formats American website providing Single 8 info and manuals Film formats history Info on Return of Ultraman, movie shot in Single-8 with a Fujica ZC1000 camera. Super8 Reversal Lab Netherlands, a company selling most Single-8 films and processing some stocks Retro Enterprises, in Tokyo, Japan - source Single-8 films and processing
26.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
27.
Polyester
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Polyester is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in their main chain. As a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene terephthalate, polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics through step-growth polymerization such as polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not and this material is used very widely in clothing. Depending on the structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset. There are also polyester resins cured by hardeners, however, the most common polyesters are thermoplastics, industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in car tire reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters, Polyester fabrics are highly stain-resistant— in fact, the only class of dyes which can be used to alter the color of polyester fabric are what are known as disperse dyes. Polyester fibers are spun together with natural fibers to produce a cloth with blended properties. Cotton-polyester blends can be strong, wrinkle and tear-resistant, and reduce shrinking, synthetic fibers in polyester also create materials with water, wind and environmental resistance compared to plant-derived fibers. Disadvantages of cotton and polyester blends include being less breathable than cotton and they are also less fire resistant and can melt when ignited. Polyester blends have been renamed so as to suggest their similarity or even superiority to natural fibers. Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire, polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle/yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish. Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially used liquid crystal polymers and they are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines. Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat, while combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water absorption and they are used in the liquid state as casting materials, in sheet molding compounds, as fiberglass laminating resins and in non-metallic auto-body fillers. They are also used as the polymer matrix in pre-pregs. Fiberglass-reinforced unsaturated polyesters find wide application in bodies of yachts and as parts of cars
28.
Acetate
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An acetate /ˈæsᵻteɪt/ is a salt formed by the combination of acetic acid with an alkaline, earthy, or metallic base. Acetate also describes the base or ion typically found in aqueous solution. The neutral molecules formed by the combination of the acetate ion, the simplest of these is hydrogen acetate with corresponding salts, esters, and the polyatomic anion CH3CO2−, or CH3COO−. Most of the approximately 5 billion kilograms of acid produced annually in industry is used in the production of acetates. In nature, acetate is the most common building block for biosynthesis, for example, the fatty acids are produced by connecting the two carbon atoms from acetate to a growing fatty acid. When part of a salt, the formula of the ion is written as CH3CO2−, C2H3O2−. Chemists abbreviate acetate as OAc− or, less commonly, AcO−, thus, HOAc is the abbreviation for acetic acid, NaOAc for sodium acetate, and EtOAc for ethyl acetate. The abbreviation Ac is also encountered in chemical formulas to indicate the acetate ion. This abbreviation is not to be confused with the symbol of actinium, for example, the formula for sodium acetate might be abbreviated as NaAc, rather than NaC2H3O2. Although its systematic name is ethanoate, the common acetate remains the preferred IUPAC name, the acetate anion, −, is one of the carboxylate family. It is the base of acetic acid. Above a pH of 5.5, acetic acid converts to acetate, CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COO− + H+ Many acetate salts are ionic, examples of acetate complexes include chromium acetate and basic zinc acetate. Commercially important acetate salts are aluminium acetate, used in dyeing, ammonium acetate, a precursor to acetamide, all three salts are colourless and highly soluble in water. Acetate esters have the general formula CH3CO2R, where R is an organyl group, the esters are the dominant forms of acetate in the marketplace. Unlike the acetate salts, acetate esters are often liquids, lipophilic and they are popular because they have inoffensive, often sweet odors, they are inexpensive, and they are usually of low toxicity. Almost half of acetic acid production is consumed in the production of acetate, precursor to polyvinyl alcohol. The second largest use of acid is consumed in the production of cellulose acetate. In fact, acetate is jargon for cellulose acetate, which is used in the production of fibres or diverse products, Cellulose acetate can be found in many household products
29.
Polavision
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Polavision was an instant movie camera system launched by Polaroid in 1977. Unlike other motion-picture film stock of the time, Polavision generated color using an additive process and it consisted of a black-and-white film base and three-color filter layer. In this sense, it was similar to the much earlier Dufaycolor process. The Polavision cartridge was a rectangular box with the film reels self-contained, along with a small lens. The Polavision system was a commercial failure, and was discontinued in 1979. However, the technology was improved and used as the basis for the Polachrome instant color transparency system in 1983. Due to the light-loss caused by the layer, the resulting film had relatively low light sensitivity. As a result, Polaroid designed a standalone table-top projector/viewer, which was intended to reduce the problems inherent in projecting such dense film, the viewer used a translucent screen, projecting the image from behind, but critics from publications like Consumer Reports called the images murky and dark. Despite this, the format was used by artists, including Charles and Ray Eames, Stan Brakhage, one market niche Polaroid promoted was the field of industrial testing, where the camera would record, for example, the destruction of a pipe under pressure. This type of use was moderately price insensitive, with the ability to get the images quickly a very positive selling feature, in addition to the density problems, the process was late to market and had to compete with upcoming videocassette-based systems like Betamax and VHS. Unlike videotape, Polavision films, once developed, could not be reused nor played on a television, Polavision proved to be an expensive failure, and most of the manufactured equipment was sold off in 1979 as a job lot at a loss of $68.5 million. In the wake of those losses, Polaroid chairman and founder Edwin H, Land resigned the chief executive position in 1980 and left the company two years later. There just werent enough customers out there on whom to work the magic, video transfers of Andy Warhols footage have been shown at the Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh, and at the San Francisco Lesbian & Gay Film Festival in 2001. In 1983 Polaroid introduced an instant transparency system for still photography, the unexposed 35 mm films came with their own processing pack. The films were processed within a dedicated, hand-powered, mechanical-cranked processing machine called an AutoProcessor, into which an exposed film and its processing pack had to be loaded. The time to get from an undeveloped film to a fully developed film ready for mounting varied from between two and five minutes, depending on the type of film. Polaroid produced several types of AutoProcess-compatible film, Polachrome was an instant 35mm color transparency film and it was descended from the Polavision system and used the same additive color process. One difference was that with Polavision, the negative layer remained as part of the film after processing and it was of low optical density, but nevertheless reduced the contrast of the image
30.
EBay
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EBay Inc. is a multinational e-commerce corporation, facilitating online consumer-to-consumer and business-to-consumer sales. It is headquartered in San Jose, California, eBay was founded by Pierre Omidyar in 1995, and became a notable success story of the dot-com bubble. Today it is a business with operations in about 30 countries. The company manages eBay. com, an auction and shopping website in which people and businesses buy and sell a broad variety of goods. It previously offered online money transfers, which was a wholly owned subsidiary of eBay from 2002 until 2015, the website is free to use for buyers, but sellers are charged fees for listing items and again when those items are sold. The AuctionWeb was founded in California on September 3,1995 by French-born Iranian-American computer programmer Pierre Omidyar as part of a personal site. One of the first items sold on AuctionWeb was a laser pointer for $14.83. Astonished, Omidyar contacted the winning bidder to ask if he understood that the pointer was broken. In his responding email, the buyer explained, Im a collector of broken laser pointers and this was revealed in Adam Cohens book, The Perfect Store, and confirmed by eBay. Reportedly, eBay was simply a hobby for Omidyar until his Internet service provider informed him he would need to upgrade to a business account due to the high volume of traffic to his website. The resulting price increase forced him to start charging those who used eBay and it resulted in the hiring of Chris Agarpao as eBays first employee to handle the number of checks coming in for fees. Jeffrey Skoll was hired as the first president of the company in early 1996, growth was phenomenal, in January 1997 the site hosted 2,000,000 auctions, compared with 250,000 during the whole of 1996. The company officially changed the name of its service from AuctionWeb to eBay in September 1997, originally, the site belonged to Echo Bay Technology Group, Omidyars consulting firm. Omidyar had tried to register the domain name echobay. com, but found it already taken by the Echo Bay Mines, in 1997, the company received $6.7 million in funding from the venture capital firm Benchmark Capital. Meg Whitman was hired as eBay President and CEO in March 1998, at the time, the company had 30 employees, half a million users and revenues of $4.7 million in the United States. EBay went public on September 21,1998, and both Omidyar and Skoll became instant billionaires, eBays target share price of $18 was all but ignored as the price went to $53.50 on the first day of trading. As the company expanded product categories beyond collectibles into almost any saleable item, in February 2002, the company purchased iBazar, a similar European auction web site founded in 1998, and then bought PayPal on October 3,2002. By early 2008, the company had expanded worldwide, counted hundreds of millions of registered users,15, after nearly ten years at eBay, Whitman decided to enter politics
31.
Stereophonic sound
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Stereophonic sound or, more commonly, stereo, is a method of sound reproduction that creates an illusion of multi-directional audible perspective. Thus the term applies to so-called quadraphonic and surround-sound systems as well as the more common two-channel. It is often contrasted with monophonic, or mono sound, where audio is heard as coming from one position, in the 2000s, stereo sound is common in entertainment systems such as broadcast radio and TV, recorded music and the cinema. The word stereophonic derives from the Greek στερεός, firm, solid + φωνή, sound, tone, voice and it was coined in 1927 by Western Electric, the signal is then reproduced over multiple loudspeakers to recreate, as closely as possible, the live sound. Secondly artificial or pan-pot stereo, in which a sound is reproduced over multiple loudspeakers. By varying the amplitude of the signal sent to each speaker an artificial direction can be suggested. The control which is used to vary this relative amplitude of the signal is known as a pan-pot, by combining multiple pan-potted mono signals together, a complete, yet entirely artificial, sound field can be created. In technical usage, true stereo sound recording and sound reproduction that uses stereographic projection to encode the relative positions of objects and events recorded. During two-channel stereo recording, two microphones are placed in strategically chosen locations relative to the source, with both recording simultaneously. The two recorded channels will be similar, but each will have distinct time-of-arrival and sound-pressure-level information, during playback, the listeners brain uses those subtle differences in timing and sound level to triangulate the positions of the recorded objects. Stereo recordings often cannot be played on systems without a significant loss of fidelity. This phenomenon is known as phase cancellation and this two-channel telephonic process was commercialized in France from 1890 to 1932 as the Théâtrophone, and in England from 1895 to 1925 as the Electrophone. Both were services available by coin-operated receivers at hotels and cafés, modern stereophonic technology was invented in the 1930s by British engineer Alan Blumlein at EMI, who patented stereo records, stereo films, and also surround sound. In early 1931, Blumlein and his wife were at a local cinema, Blumlein declared to his wife that he had found a way to make the sound follow the actor across the screen. The genesis of ideas is uncertain, but he explained them to Isaac Shoenberg in the late summer of 1931. His earliest notes on the subject are dated 25 September 1931, the application was dated 14 December 1931, and was accepted on 14 June 1933 as UK patent number 394,325. The patent covered many ideas in stereo, some of which are used today and these discs used the two walls of the groove at right angles in order to carry the two channels. Much of the development work on this system for cinematic use did not reach completion until 1935, in Blumleins short test films, his original intent of having the sound follow the actor was fully realised
32.
Charlie Chaplin
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Sir Charles Spencer Charlie Chaplin, KBE was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame during the era of silent film. Chaplin became an icon through his screen persona the Tramp and is considered one of the most important figures in the history of the film industry. His career spanned more than 75 years, from childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977, Chaplins childhood in London was one of poverty and hardship. As his father was absent and his mother struggled financially, he was sent to a workhouse twice before the age of nine, when he was 14, his mother was committed to a mental asylum. Chaplin began performing at an age, touring music halls and later working as a stage actor. At 19 he was signed to the prestigious Fred Karno company, Chaplin was scouted for the film industry, and began appearing in 1914 for Keystone Studios. He soon developed the Tramp persona and formed a fan base. Chaplin directed his own films from a stage, and continued to hone his craft as he moved to the Essanay, Mutual. By 1918, he was one of the best known figures in the world, in 1919, Chaplin co-founded the distribution company United Artists, which gave him complete control over his films. His first feature-length was The Kid, followed by A Woman of Paris, The Gold Rush and he refused to move to sound films in the 1930s, instead producing City Lights and Modern Times without dialogue. Chaplin became increasingly political, and his film, The Great Dictator. The 1940s were a decade marked with controversy for Chaplin, and he was accused of communist sympathies, while his involvement in a paternity suit and marriages to much younger women caused scandal. An FBI investigation was opened, and Chaplin was forced to leave the United States and he abandoned the Tramp in his later films, which include Monsieur Verdoux, Limelight, A King in New York, and A Countess from Hong Kong. Chaplin wrote, directed, produced, edited, starred in and he was a perfectionist, and his financial independence enabled him to spend years on the development and production of a picture. His films are characterised by slapstick combined with pathos, typified in the Tramps struggles against adversity, many contain social and political themes, as well as autobiographical elements. In 1972, as part of an appreciation for his work. He continues to be held in regard, with The Gold Rush, City Lights, Modern Times. Charles Spencer Chaplin was born on 16 April 1889 to Hannah Chaplin, there is no official record of his birth, although Chaplin believed he was born at East Street, Walworth, in South London
33.
Castle Films
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Castle Films was a home video distributor founded in California by former newsreel cameraman Eugene W. Castle in 1924. The company originally produced business and advertising films, by 1931 it had moved its principal office to New York City. In 1937, Castle branched out into 8 mm and 16 mm home movies, buying newsreel footage, castles first home movie was a newsreel of the Hindenburg explosion. That same year, Castle launched his News Parade series, a year-in-review newsreel, Castle also released sports films, animal adventures, and old time movies. Castle Films also distributed many childrens Christmas shorts, some of which have recently released on cheaply priced DVDs. The films were sold at shops, in department stores. Castle Films were extensively advertised in national magazines, Castle obtained home-movie rights to cartoons from several animation studios, including Terrytoons, Ub Iwerks, and Walter Lantz Productions. During World War II it produced numerous documentary and training films for the U. S. armed services, in the late 1940s and early 50s, Castle released a series of 16mm Music Albums assembled from the Soundies musical shorts, combining three 3-minute items into each nine-minute subject. In 1947, United World Films, Inc. the non-theatrical division of Universal Pictures, Castle subsequently became a Universal subsidiary, drawing upon the studios library of vintage films. The merger with Universal also brought to Castle the Walter Lantz cartoons with Woody Woodpecker, Andy Panda, Oswald Rabbit and Chilly Willy. When Universal was purchased by MCA Inc. in 1962, Castle also gained access to the pre-1950 Paramount Pictures sound feature films owned by MCAs TV division, de Milles spectaculars, the Marx Brothers comedies and others. In the 1950s, Castle released a successful series of Hopalong Cassidy excerpts. Newsreels edited from NASA footage of U. S. space flights were best sellers in the 60s, Castle Films changed its name to Universal 8 in 1977, but the era of home video brought an end to Universals home-movie enterprise in 1984. The complete inventory of Castle Films is listed in Scott MacGillivrays book Castle Films, A Hobbyists Guide, the largest U. S. competitor of Castle Films was Official Films. The News Parade of the Year 1942 Author Mark Evaniers in-depth history of Castle Films, plus cover gallery
34.
The Walt Disney Company
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The Walt Disney Company, commonly known as Disney, is an American diversified multinational mass media and entertainment conglomerate, headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, California. It is the second largest media conglomerate in terms of revenue. Disney was founded on October 16,1923 – by brothers Walt Disney, the company also operated under the names The Walt Disney Studio and then Walt Disney Productions. Taking on its current name in 1986, it expanded its operations and also started divisions focused upon theater, radio, music, publishing. In addition, Disney has since created corporate divisions in order to more mature content than is typically associated with its flagship family-oriented brands. The company is best known for the products of its studio, Walt Disney Studios. Disneys other three divisions are Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, Disney Media Networks, and Disney Consumer Products. The company has been a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average since May 6,1991, Mickey Mouse, an early and well-known cartoon creation of the company, is a primary symbol and mascot for Disney. In early 1923, Kansas City, Missouri, animator Walt Disney created a film entitled Alices Wonderland. After the bankruptcy in 1923 of his previous firm, Laugh-O-Gram Studios, Disney moved to Hollywood to join his brother, Walt and Roy Disney formed Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio that same year. More animated films followed after Alice, in January 1926, with the completion of the Disney studio on Hyperion Street, the Disney Brothers Studios name was changed to the Walt Disney Studio. The distributor owned Oswald, so Disney only made a few hundred dollars, Disney completed 26 Oswald shorts before losing the contract in February 1928, due to a legal loophole, when Winklers husband Charles Mintz took over their distribution company. After failing to take over the Disney Studio, Mintz hired away four of Disneys primary animators to start his own animation studio, Snappy Comedies. In 1928, to recover from the loss of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, Disney came up with the idea of a character named Mortimer while on a train headed to California. The mouse was later renamed Mickey Mouse and starred in several Disney produced films, ub Iwerks refined Disneys initial design of Mickey Mouse. Disneys first sound film Steamboat Willie, a cartoon starring Mickey, was released on November 18,1928 through Pat Powers distribution company and it was the first Mickey Mouse sound cartoon released, but the third to be created, behind Plane Crazy and The Gallopin Gaucho. Disney used Pat Powers Cinephone system, created by Powers using Lee De Forests Phonofilm system, Steamboat Willie premiered at B. S. Mosss Colony Theater in New York City, now The Broadway Theatre. Disneys Plane Crazy and The Galloping Gaucho were then retrofitted with synchronized sound tracks, Disney continued to produce cartoons with Mickey Mouse and other characters, and began the Silly Symphonies series with Columbia Pictures signing on as Symphonies distributor in August 1929
35.
In-flight entertainment
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In-flight entertainment refers to the entertainment available to aircraft passengers during a flight. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg offered passengers a piano, lounge, dining room, smoking room, after the Second World War, IFE was delivered in the form of food and drink services, along with an occasional projector movie during lengthy flights. In 1985 the first personal audio player was offered to passengers, during the 1990s the demand for better IFE was a major factor in the design of aircraft cabins. Before then, the most a passenger could expect was a movie projected on a screen at the front of a cabin, now, in most aircraft, private IFE TV screens are offered on most airlines. The current European trend is to implement bring your own device systems that provide intranet connectivity, following this trend, companies such as Immfly are advancing at a fast pace to deliver on-board entertainment on short-haul commercial flights. Design issues for IFE include system safety, cost efficiency, software reliability, hardware maintenance, the in-flight entertainment onboard airlines is frequently managed by content service providers. The first in-flight movie was in 1921 on Aeromarine Airways showing a film called Howdy Chicago to its passengers as the airplane flew around Chicago. The film The Lost World was shown to passengers of an Imperial Airways flight in April 1925 between London and Paris, eleven years later in 1932, the first in-flight television called media event was shown on a Western Air Express Fokker F.10 aircraft. However, it was not until the 1960s that in-flight entertainment was becoming mainstream, in 1961, David Flexer of Inflight Motion Pictures developed the 16mm film system using a 25-inch reel for a wide variety of commercial aircraft. Capable of holding the film, and mounted horizontally to maximize space. In 1961, TWA committed to Flexers technology and was first to debut a film in flight. ”Amerlon Productions. In 1963, AVID Airline Products developed and manufactured the first pneumatic headset used on board the airlines and these early systems consisted of in-seat audio that could be heard with hollow tube headphones. In 1979 pneumatic headsets were replaced by electronic headsets, the electronic headsets were initially available only on selected flights and premium cabins whereas economy class still had to make do with the old pneumatic headsets. The audio was played back through the headsets, in 1971, TRANSCOM developed the 8mm film cassette. Flight attendants could now change movies in-flight and add short subject programming, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, CRT-based projectors began to appear on newer widebody aircraft, such as the Boeing 767. These used LaserDiscs or video cassettes for playback, some airlines upgraded the old film IFE systems to the CRT-based systems in the late 1980s and early 1990s on some of their older widebodies. In 1985, Avicom introduced the first audio player system, based on the Philips Tape Cassette technology, in 1988, the Airvision company introduced the first in-seat audio/video on-demand systems using 2.7 inches LCD technology for Northwest Airlines. The trials, which were run by Northwest Airlines on its Boeing 747 fleet, as a result, this completely replaced the CRT technology
36.
16 mm
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16 mm film is a historically popular and economical gauge of film. 16 mm refers to the width of the film, with other film gauges including 8 and 35 mm. It is generally used for film making or for low budget motion pictures. It also existed as an amateur or home movie making format for several decades, alongside 8 mm film. In 1923, Eastman Kodak released the first 16 mm outfit consisting of a camera, projector, tripod, screen, rCA-Victor introduced a 16 mm sound movie projector in 1932 and developed an optical sound-on-film 16 mm camera, released in 1935. Eastman Kodak introduced 16 mm film in 1923 as a less expensive alternative to 35 mm film. During the 1920s, the format was often referred to as sub-standard by the professional industry, Kodak hired Willard Beech Cook from his 28 mm Pathescope of America company to create the new 16 mm Kodascope Library. In addition to making movies, people could buy or rent films from the library. Intended for amateur use,16 mm film was one of the first formats to use acetate safety film as a film base, Kodak never used nitrate film for the format because of the high flammability of the nitrate base. 35 mm nitrate was discontinued in 1952, the silent 16 mm format was initially aimed at the home enthusiast, but by the 1930s it had begun to make inroads into the educational market. The addition of sound tracks and, most notably, Kodachrome in 1935. Used extensively in WW2, there was an expansion of 16 mm professional filmmaking in the post-war years. Films for government, business, medical and industrial clients created a network of 16 mm professional filmmakers. The advent of television production also enhanced the use of 16 mm film, initially for its advantage of cost and portability over 35 mm. At first used as a format, the 16 mm format was also used to create television programming shot outside the confines of the more rigid television studio production sets. The home movie market gradually switched to the less expensive 8 mm film. 16 mm has been used for television production with light cameras in many countries before portable video cameras appeared. Replacing analog video devices, digital video has made significant inroads in television production use, nevertheless,16 mm is still in use in its Super 16 ratio for low cost productions
37.
Video
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Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of moving visual media. Video systems vary greatly in the resolution of the display and refresh rate, video can be carried on a variety of media, including radio broadcast, tapes, DVDs, computer files etc. Video was originally exclusively a live technology, charles Ginsburg led an Ampex research team developing one of the first practical video tape recorder. In 1951 the first video tape recorder captured live images from television cameras by converting the electrical impulses. Video recorders were sold for $50,000 in 1956, however, prices gradually dropped over the years, in 1971, Sony began selling videocassette recorder decks and tapes into the consumer market. The use of techniques in video created digital video, which allowed higher quality and, eventually. After the invention of the DVD in 1997 and Blu-ray Disc in 2006, sales of videotape, the advent of digital broadcasting and the subsequent digital television transition is in the process of relegating analog video to the status of a legacy technology in most parts of the world. PAL standards and SECAM specify 25 frame/s, while NTSC standards specify 29.97 frames, film is shot at the slower frame rate of 24 frames per second, which slightly complicates the process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame rate to achieve a comfortable illusion of an image is about sixteen frames per second. Video can be interlaced or progressive, analog display devices reproduce each frame in the same way, effectively doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. NTSC, PAL and SECAM are interlaced formats, abbreviated video resolution specifications often include an i to indicate interlacing. For example, PAL video format is specified as 576i50, where 576 indicates the total number of horizontal scan lines, i indicates interlacing. In progressive scan systems, each refresh period updates all scan lines in each frame in sequence, when displaying a natively progressive broadcast or recorded signal, the result is optimum spatial resolution of both the stationary and moving parts of the image. Deinterlacing cannot, however, produce video quality that is equivalent to true progressive scan source material, aspect ratio describes the dimensions of video screens and video picture elements. All popular video formats are rectilinear, and so can be described by a ratio between width and height, the screen aspect ratio of a traditional television screen is 4,3, or about 1.33,1. High definition televisions use a ratio of 16,9. The aspect ratio of a full 35 mm film frame with soundtrack is 1.375,1. Therefore, a 720 by 480 pixel NTSC DV image displayes with the 4,3 aspect ratio if the pixels are thin, the popularity of viewing video on mobile phones has led to the growth of vertical video
38.
Oliver Stone
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William Oliver Stone is an American screenwriter, film director, and producer. Stone won an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay as writer of Midnight Express and he also wrote the acclaimed gangster movie Scarface. As a director, Stone achieved prominence as director/writer of the war drama Platoon, for which Stone won the Academy Award for Best Director, Platoon was the first in a trilogy of films based on the Vietnam War, in which Stone served as an infantry soldier. He continued the series with Born on the Fourth of July —for which Stone won his second Best Director Oscar—and Heaven & Earth. Many of Stones films focus on controversial American political issues during the late 20th century and they often combine different camera and film formats within a single scene, as evidenced in JFK, Natural Born Killers, and Nixon. Stone was born September 15,1946, in New York City, the son of Jacqueline and Louis Stone and he grew up in Manhattan and Stamford, Connecticut. His parents met during World War II, when his father was fighting as a part of the Allied force in France and his American-born father was a non-practicing Jew, and his French-born mother was a non-practicing Roman Catholic. Stone was raised in the Episcopal Church, and now practices Buddhism, Stone attended Trinity School in New York City before his parents sent him away to The Hill School, a college-preparatory school in Pottstown, Pennsylvania. His parents were divorced abruptly while he was away at school, Stones mother was often absent and his father made a big impact on his life, father-son relationships were to feature heavily in Stones films. He often spent parts of his vacations with his maternal grandparents in France. Stone also worked at 17 in the Paris mercantile exchange in sugar, Stone graduated from The Hill School in 1964. Stone was admitted into Yale University, but left in June 1965 at age 18 to teach school students English for six months in Saigon at the Free Pacific Institute in South Vietnam. Afterwards, he worked as a wiper on a United States Merchant Marine ship in 1966 and he returned to Yale, where he dropped out a second time. In April 1967, Stone enlisted in the United States Army, from September 16,1967 to April 1968, he served in Vietnam with 2nd Platoon, B Company, 3rd Battalion, 25th Infantry Division and was twice wounded in action. He was then transferred to the First Cavalry Division participating in long range patrols before being transferred again to drive for an infantry unit of the division until November 1968. Stone graduated from New York University with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in film in 1971, Stone made a short, well received 12-minute film Last Year in Viet Nam. In 1979, Stone won his first Academy Award, after adapting true-life prison story Midnight Express into a hit film for British director Alan Parker. Stones screenplay for Midnight Express was criticized by some for its inaccuracies in portraying the events described in the book, the original author, Billy Hayes, around whom the film is set, spoke out against the film, protesting that he had many Turkish friends while in jail
39.
JFK (film)
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JFK is a 1991 American conspiracy-thriller film directed by Oliver Stone. It examines the events leading to the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the film was adapted by Stone and Zachary Sklar from the books On the Trail of the Assassins by Jim Garrison and Crossfire, The Plot That Killed Kennedy by Jim Marrs. Stone described this account as a counter-myth to the Warren Commissions fictional myth, the film became embroiled in controversy. After a slow start at the box office, the film picked up momentum. JFK was nominated for eight Academy Awards and won two for Best Cinematography and Best Film Editing. It was the most successful of three films Stone made about American presidents, followed by Nixon with Anthony Hopkins in the title role and W. with Josh Brolin as George W. Bush. The film opens with footage, including the farewell address in 1961 of outgoing President Dwight D. Eisenhower. This is followed by a summary of John F. Kennedys years as president, emphasizing the events that, in Stones thesis and this builds to a reconstruction of the assassination on November 22,1963. New Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison subsequently learns about potential links to the assassination in New Orleans, Kennedys suspected assassin Lee Harvey Oswald is killed by Jack Ruby, and Garrison closes the investigation. The investigation is reopened in 1966 after Garrison reads the Warren Report, Garrison and his staff interrogate several witnesses to the Kennedy assassination, and others involved with Oswald, Ruby, and Ferrie. One such witness is Willie OKeefe, a male prostitute serving five years in prison for soliciting, as well as briefly meeting Oswald, OKeefe was romantically involved with a man called Clay Bertrand. Garrisons staff also test the single bullet theory by aiming an empty rifle from the window through which Oswald was alleged to have shot Kennedy and they conclude that Oswald was too poor a marksman to make the shots, indicating someone else, or multiple marksmen, were involved. In 1968, Garrison meets a figure in Washington D. C. who identifies himself as X. X explains that the President was killed because he wanted to pull the United States out of the Vietnam War, X encourages Garrison to keep digging and prosecute New Orleans-based international businessman Clay Shaw for his alleged involvement. Upon interrogating Shaw, the businessman denies any knowledge of meeting Ferrie, OKeefe or Oswald, some of Garrisons staff begin to doubt his motives and disagree with his methods, and leave the investigation. Garrisons marriage is strained when his wife Liz complains that he is spending time on the case than with his own family. After a sinister phone call is made to their daughter, Liz accuses Garrison of being selfish, in addition, the media launches attacks on television and in newspapers attacking Garrisons character and criticizing the way his office is spending taxpayers money. Some key witnesses become scared and refuse to testify while others, before his death, Ferrie tells Garrison that he believes people are after him, and reveals there was a conspiracy around Kennedys death
40.
Cinematographer
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The study and practice of this field is referred to as cinematography. The cinematographer selects the camera, film stock, lens, filters, in the infancy of motion pictures, the cinematographer was usually also the director and the person physically handling the camera. As the art form and technology evolved, a separation between director and camera operator began to emerge, with the advent of artificial lighting and faster film stocks, in addition to technological advancements in optics, the technical aspects of cinematography necessitated a specialist in that area. Cinematography was key during the silent movie era, with no sound apart from music and no dialogue, the films depended on lighting, acting. Similar trade associations have been established in other countries too, there are a number of national associations of cinematographers which represent members and which are dedicated to the advancement of cinematography. S. C. Defines cinematography as, A creative and interpretive process that culminates in the authorship of a work of art rather than the simple recording of a physical event. Cinematography is not a subcategory of photography
41.
PBS
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The Public Broadcasting Service is an American public broadcaster and television program distributor. PBS is funded by member dues, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, government agencies, corporations, foundations. All proposed funding is subjected to a set of standards to ensure the program is free of influence from the funding source, since the mid-2000s, Roper polls commissioned by PBS have consistently placed the service as the most-trusted national institution in the United States. This arbitrary distinction is a frequent source of viewer confusion and it also operates National Datacast, a subsidiary which offers datacasting services via member stations, and provides additional revenue for PBS and its member stations. In 1973, it merged with Educational Television Stations, each station is charged with the responsibility of programming local content for their individual market or state that supplements content provided by PBS and other public television distributors. By contrast, PBS member stations pay fees for the acquired and distributed by the national organization. Under this relationship, PBS member stations have greater latitude in local scheduling than their commercial broadcasting counterparts, scheduling of PBS-distributed series may vary greatly depending on the market. This can be a source of tension as stations seek to preserve their localism, however, PBS has a policy of common carriage, which requires most stations to clear the national prime time programs on a common programming schedule to market them nationally more effectively. Management at former Los Angeles member KCET cited unresolvable financial and programming disputes among its reasons for leaving PBS after over 40 years in January 2011. Most PBS stations timeshift some distributed programs, once PBS accepts a program offered for distribution, PBS, rather than the originating member station, retains exclusive rebroadcasting rights during an agreed period. Suppliers retain the right to sell the program in non-broadcast media such as DVDs, books, in 1991, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting resumed production for most PBS shows that debuted prior to 1977, with the exceptions of Washington Week in Review and Wall Street Week. In 1994, The Chronicle of Philanthropy released the results of the largest study on the popularity and credibility of charitable, the strategy began that fall, with the intent to expand the in-program breaks to the remainder of the schedule if successful. In 2011, PBS released apps for iOS and Android to allow viewing of videos on mobile devices. An update in 2015 added Chromecast support, PBS initially struggled to compete with online media such as YouTube for market share. In a 2012 speech to 850 top executives from PBS stations, in the speech, later described as a “seminal moment” for public television, he laid out his vision for a new style of PBS digital video production. Station leadership rallied around his vision and Seiken formed PBS Digital Studios, which began producing educational but edgy videos, something Seiken called “PBS-quality with a YouTube sensibility. ”The studio’s first hit, in 2012, PBS began organizing much of its prime time programming around a genre-based schedule. PBS broadcasts childrens programming as part of the morning and afternoon schedule. Unlike its radio counterpart, National Public Radio, PBS does not have a program production arm or news division
