1.
Super 8 (film)
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Super 8 is a 2011 American science-fiction thriller film written, co-produced, and directed by J. J. Abrams and produced by Steven Spielberg. The film was shot in Weirton, West Virginia and surrounding areas, Super 8 was released on June 10,2011, in conventional and IMAX theaters in the United States. T. Stand by Me, and The Goonies and it was also a commercial success, grossing over $260 million against a $50 million budget. The film received awards and nominations, primarily in technical and special effects categories, Giacchinos musical score, as well as for Courtney. In 1979, Deputy Sheriff Jack Lamb of Lillian, Ohio, and his 14-year-old son Joe, mourn the death of his mother Elizabeth in a steel mill accident. Jack blames her co-worker, Louis Dainard, as she was covering his shift while he recovered from a hangover, and all Joe has left is a locket that belonged to her, that he now holds on to. Four months later, Joes best friend Charles Kaznyk decides to make a zombie movie for an international film competition. Charles enlists the help of Preston Scott, Martin Read, and Cary McCarthy, as well as Dainards daughter, though their fathers would be furious, Joe and Alice become close to each other. Charles has them film a scene at a depot at midnight. While they are rehearsing, a train approaches, and Charles has them start filming as the passes to add production value. The children investigate the wreck and find crates full of strange white cubes, then discover the driver is Dr. Woodward. Woodward, barely alive, warns them at gunpoint to forget what they saw that night, or else they, the children flee the scene just as a convoy from the local U. S. Air Force base, led by Col. Nelec, arrives at the scene. Nelec discovers an empty Super 8mm film box, and assumes the event was captured on camera. Overhearing military communications, Jack approaches Nelec to address the rising panic in town, Nelec orders the use of flamethrowers to start wildfires outside of town, as an excuse to evacuate people to the base. Suddenly, soldiers sweep into town to begin the evacuation, meanwhile, Joe and Charles watch the derailment footage and discover that a large creature escaped from the train. At the base, Joe learns from Alices father that she is missing, Joe, Charles, Martin, and Cary convince Jen, Charles older sister, to pretend to hit on Donny in order to get into town to rescue Alice. They break into Dr. Woodwards storage trailer and discover films and they play the film, which reveals that an alien crash-landed in 1958. The Air Force captured the alien and was running experiments on it while keeping it from its ship, Woodward was one of the scientists experimenting on the ship, composed of the white cubes
2.
Film
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A film, also called a movie, motion picture, theatrical film or photoplay, is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon. This optical illusion causes the audience to perceive continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession, the process of filmmaking is both an art and an industry. The word cinema, short for cinematography, is used to refer to the industry of films. Films were originally recorded onto plastic film through a photochemical process, the adoption of CGI-based special effects led to the use of digital intermediates. Most contemporary films are now fully digital through the process of production, distribution. Films recorded in a form traditionally included an analogous optical soundtrack. It runs along a portion of the film exclusively reserved for it and is not projected, Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures. They reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them, Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful medium for educating—or indoctrinating—citizens. The visual basis of film gives it a power of communication. Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles to translate the dialog into the language of the viewer, some have criticized the film industrys glorification of violence and its potentially negative treatment of women. The individual images that make up a film are called frames, the perception of motion is due to a psychological effect called phi phenomenon. The name film originates from the fact that film has historically been the medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for a motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photoplay. The most common term in the United States is movie, while in Europe film is preferred. Terms for the field, in general, include the big screen, the screen, the movies, and cinema. In early years, the sheet was sometimes used instead of screen. Preceding film in origin by thousands of years, early plays and dances had elements common to film, scripts, sets, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, much terminology later used in film theory and criticism apply, such as mise en scène. Owing to the lack of any technology for doing so, the moving images, the magic lantern, probably created by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s, could be used to project animation, which was achieved by various types of mechanical slides
3.
Kodak
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Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak, is an American technology company that produces imaging products with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York and is incorporated in New Jersey, Kodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions and it is best known for photographic film products. Kodak was founded by George Eastman and Henry A, during most of the 20th century, Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The companys ubiquity was such that its Kodak moment tagline entered the lexicon to describe a personal event that was demanded to be recorded for posterity. Kodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s, as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film, as a part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak began to focus on digital photography and digital printing, and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would stop making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames, in January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid 2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies under the names Intellectual Ventures, on September 3,2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, on March 12,2014, it announced that the board of directors elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as chief executive officer and a member of its board of directors. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales, Japanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U. S. market with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Fuji won these sponsorship rights. Fuji opened a plant in the U. S. and its aggressive marketing. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997, fujis films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization, on January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the film market in Japan. Although Kodak developed a camera in 1975, the first of its kind. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft, Apples pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak
4.
8 mm film
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8 mm film is a motion picture film format in which the film strip is eight millimeters wide. It exists in two main versions — the original standard 8 mm film, also known as regular 8 mm or Double 8 mm, and Super 8. Although both standard 8 mm and Super 8 are 8 mm wide, Super 8 has a larger image area because of its smaller and more widely spaced perforations. There are also two varieties of Super 8—Single 8 mm and Straight-8 that require different cameras, but produce a final film with the same dimensions. After the film is developed, the processor splits it down the middle, resulting in two lengths of 8 mm film, each with a single row of perforations along one edge. Each frame is half the width and half the height of a 16 mm frame, so there are four times the number of frames in a film area. Because of the two passes of the film, the format was sometimes called Double 8, the frame size of regular 8 mm is 4.8 mm ×3.5 mm and 1 meter of film contains 264 pictures. Normally Double 8 is filmed at 16 or 18 frames per second, common length film spools allowed filming of about 3 minutes to 4.5 minutes at 12,15,16 and 18 frames per second. Kodak ceased sales of standard 8 mm film under its own brand in the early 1990s, but continued to manufacture the film, some specialists also produce Super 8 mm film from existing 16 mm, or even 35 mm film stock. In 1965, Super-8 film was released and was adopted by the amateur film-maker. It featured a better quality image, and was easier to use due to a cartridge-loading system that did not require reloading and rethreading halfway through. In reality, this was not the case, the plastic pressure plate could be moulded to far tighter tolerances than their metal counterparts could be machined. To easily differentiate Super 8 film from Standard 8, projector spools for the former had larger spindle holes, therefore, it was not possible to mount a Super 8 spool on a Standard 8 projector, and vice versa. Another version of Super-8 film, Single-8, was produced by Fuji in Japan, introduced in 1965 as an alternative to the Kodak Super 8 format, it had the same final film dimensions, but with a different cassette. Unlike the co-axial design of Super 8, the Single 8 cartridge featured one spool above the other. A number of companies offered single width 8 mm film in magazines or spools. The first single run 8mm film was offered in 1935 with a Bell & Howell movie camera Filmo 127-A called Straight Eight. Single width 8 mm film revived in the United States by Bolsey-8 in 1956, introduced in 2011 by Nicholas Kovats, and implemented by Jean-Louis Seguin, this format uses Standard 8 film in a modified Bolex camera
5.
Home movies
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Originally, home movies were made on photographic film in formats that usually limited the movie-maker to about three minutes per roll of costly camera film. The popularity of the Internet, and wider availability of high-speed connections has provided new ways of sharing home movies, such as video weblogs, the development of home movie-making has depended critically on availability of equipment and media formats at prices affordable to consumers. Development of film formats suitable for amateur hobbyists began early in the history of cinematography, for example, the 17.5 mm Birtac format was patented by Birt Acres in 1898. This format split the standard 35 mm film into two strips half as wide and was able to be loaded into the camera in daylight. Since the frames were half the height of 35 mm frames. Since the camera doubled as a printer and projector, equipment costs were also reduced, another breakthrough in making film practical for home users was the introduction of safety film in the 1920s. Many competing film formats were introduced in the decades until 16 mm safety film was introduced by Eastman Kodak in 1923. In 1932, Kodak introduced another new format,8 mm, now called Standard 8 or Regular 8, the film usually came in 16 mm wide Double 8 form, which ran through the camera in two passes and was slit in half after processing. The Straight 8 variant came already cut to 8 mm width, in either case, the amount of film stock used per frame was again reduced by 75%. This finally brought home movies within the reach of the average family, the smaller format also made possible smaller and more portable cameras and projectors. The introduction of Kodachrome color reversal film for 16 mm in 1935, the original 8 mm format was largely superseded within a few years of Kodaks 1965 introduction of Super 8 film. The Super 8 format used the film width as standard 8 mm. In addition, Super 8 film came in cartridges for easier loading into the camera, single-8, a competing product from Fujifilm, was also introduced in 1965. It used the new format as Super 8 but on a thinner polyester base. The introduction of the Beta VCR in 1975 and VHS in 1976 heralded a revolution in the making of home movies, videocassettes were extremely inexpensive compared to film and they could even be erased. This had the effect of increasing the hours of footage of most family video libraries. The honeymoon video of Pamela Anderson and Tommy Lee from 1998 was the first highly publicized example, large parts of the incident were captured on the camera phone of another audience member and broadcast widely. Home movies have played important roles in controversial criminal investigations, the prime example is the Zapruder film of the 1963 assassination of U. S. President John F. Kennedy, accidentally captured on Kodachrome film with an 8 mm home movie camera
6.
Oxide
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An oxide /ˈɒksaɪd/ is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula. Oxide itself is the dianion of oxygen, an O2– atom, Metal oxides thus typically contain an anion of oxygen in the oxidation state of −2. Most of the Earths crust consists of oxides, the result of elements being oxidized by the oxygen in air or in water. Hydrocarbon combustion affords the two principal carbon oxides, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, even materials considered pure elements often develop an oxide coating. For example, aluminium foil develops a skin of Al2O3 that protects the foil from further corrosion. Individual elements can form multiple oxides, each containing different amounts of the element. Certain elements can form many different oxides, such those of nitrogen, due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms stable chemical bonds with almost all elements to give the corresponding oxides. Noble metals are prized because they resist direct chemical combination with oxygen, two independent pathways for corrosion of elements are hydrolysis and oxidation by oxygen. The combination of water and oxygen is even more corrosive, virtually all elements burn in an atmosphere of oxygen, or an oxygen rich environment. In the presence of water and oxygen, some elements— sodium—react rapidly, even dangerously, in part for this reason, alkali and alkaline earth metals are not found in nature in their metallic, i. e. native, form. Caesium is so reactive with oxygen that it is used as a getter in vacuum tubes, the surface of most metals consists of oxides and hydroxides in the presence of air. A well-known example is aluminium foil, which is coated with a film of aluminium oxide that passivates the metal. The aluminium oxide layer can be built to greater thickness by the process of electrolytic anodising, though solid magnesium and aluminium react slowly with oxygen at STP—they, like most metals, burn in air, generating very high temperatures. Finely grained powders of most metals can be explosive in air. Consequently, they are used in Solid-fuel rockets. In dry oxygen, iron forms iron oxide, but the formation of the hydrated ferric oxides, Fe2O3−x2x. Free oxygen production by photosynthetic bacteria some 3.5 billion years ago precipitated iron out of solution in the oceans as Fe2O3 in the important iron ore hematite. Oxides have a range of different structures, from molecules to polymeric
7.
Tape recorder
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In its present-day form, it records a fluctuating signal by moving the tape across a tape head that polarizes the magnetic domains in the tape in proportion to the audio signal. Tape-recording devices include reel-to-reel tape deck and the cassette deck, the use of magnetic tape for sound recording originated around 1930. Magnetizable tape revolutionized both the radio broadcast and music recording industries and it gave artists and producers the power to record and re-record audio with minimal loss in quality as well as edit and rearrange recordings with ease. The alternative recording technologies of the era, transcription discs and wire recorders, since some early refinements improved the fidelity of the reproduced sound, magnetic tape has been the highest quality analog sound recording medium available. As of the first decade of the 21st century, analog magnetic tape has been replaced by digital recording technologies for consumer purposes. Some individuals and organizations developed innovative uses for magnetic wire recorders while others investigated variations of the technology, one particularly important variation was the application of an oxide powder to a long strip of paper. This German invention was the start of a string of innovations that have led to present day magnetic tape recordings. The earliest known audio tape recorder was a non-magnetic, non-electric version invented by Alexander Graham Bells Volta Laboratory and patented in 1886. It employed a 3⁄16-inch-wide strip of wax-covered paper that was coated by dipping it in a solution of beeswax and paraffin and then had one side scraped clean, the machine was of sturdy wood and metal construction, and hand-powered by means of a knob fastened to the flywheel. The tape was taken up on the other reel. The sharp recording stylus, actuated by a vibrating mica diaphragm, in playback mode, a dull, loosely mounted stylus, attached to a rubber diaphragm, carried the reproduced sounds through an ear tube to its listener. Both recording and playback heads, mounted alternately on the two posts, could be adjusted vertically so that several recordings could be cut on the same 3⁄16-inch-wide strip. While the machine was never developed commercially, it was an ancestor to the modern magnetic tape recorder which it resembled somewhat in design. The tapes and machine created by Bells associates, examined at one of the Smithsonian Institutions museums, became brittle, the machines playback head was also missing. Otherwise, with some reconditioning, they could be placed into working condition, during the recording process, the tape moved through a pair of electrodes which immediately imprinted the modulated sound signals as visible black stripes into the paper tapes surface. On 13 August 1931, Duston filed USPTO Patent Application #556,743 for Method Of And Apparatus For Electrically Recording And Reproducing Sound And Other Vibrations, and which was renewed in 1934. Magnetic recording was conceived as early as 1877 by the American engineer Oberlin Smith, Analog magnetic wire recording, and its successor, magnetic tape recording, involve the use of a magnetizable medium which moves with a constant speed past a recording head. An electrical signal, which is analogous to the sound that is to be recorded, is fed to the recording head, inducing a pattern of magnetization similar to the signal
8.
Super 35
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Super 35 was revived from a similar Superscope variant known as Superscope 235, which was originally developed by the Tushinsky Brothers for RKO in 1954. When cameraman Joe Dunton was preparing to shoot Dance Craze in 1982, he chose to revive the Superscope format by using a full silent-standard gate and these two characteristics are central to the format. It was adopted by Hollywood starting with Greystoke in 1984, under the format name Super Techniscope and it is often the standard production format for television shows, music videos, and commercials. Since none of these require a print, it is unnecessary to reserve space for an optical soundtrack. James Cameron was an early, consistent, and vocal supporter of the format, Super 35 is a production format. Theatres do not receive or project Super 35 prints, rather, films are shot in a Super 35 format but are then — either through optical blowdown/matting or digital intermediate — converted into one of the standard formats to make release prints. 4-perf Super 35 is simply the original frame size that was used in 35 mm silent films and that is, it is a return to the way the film stock was used before the frame size was cropped to allow room for a soundtrack. Super 35 competes with the use of the standard 35 mm format used with an anamorphic lens. Super 35 uses standard spherical lenses, which are faster, smaller. The chief advantage of Super 35 for productions is its adaptability to different release formats, Super 35 negatives can be used to produce high-quality releases in any aspect ratio, as the final frame is extracted and converted from the larger full frame negative. This also means that a video release can actually use more of the frame than the theatrical release. Super 35 ratios have included,4,316,91.85,12.00,1 Univisium 2.20,12.39,11.66,1 and 1. Theoretically,2.39,1 release prints made from Super 35 should have slightly lower quality than films produced directly in the anamorphic format. Because part of the Super 35 image is thrown away when printing to this format, films originated with anamorphic lenses use a larger negative area. 3-perf Super 35 has also used for some time for 2.39,1 feature films. List of film formats Full frame Maxivision Negative pulldown James Cameron and Russell Carpenter discuss Super 35 Some Encounters with Super 35 and Other Thoughts at ICG Camera Guild
9.
Standard 8 mm film
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The format, initially known as Cine Kodak Eight, was developed by Kodak to provide a cheaper and more portable alternative to the 16 mm film format introduced a decade earlier. Standard 8 mm film stock consists of 16 mm film reperforated to have twice the number of perforations along its edges. This film is run through the camera, exposing one edge of the film only, the spool is then reversed and the film run through again, exposing the other edge. After processing the film is cut down the centre and spliced together to give one roll of 8mm wide film. The format was an success, but retains a number of inherent problems and quirks. This procedure is tricky for the user and needs to be carried out in subdued light to avoid fogging of the edges of the film. In addition, the six feet of the finished film includes a characteristic burst of light corresponding to the reversal point. In the early 1960s, a new filming and projection standard of 18 frames per second was introduced, although many cameras, in reality, this was not the case, since the plastic pressure plate could be moulded to far smaller tolerances than their metal counterparts could be machined. Finally, Super 8s smaller sprocket holes, while allowing a larger size, were also inherently more liable to tear. The first camera produced was Kodaks own Cine Kodak Eight Model 20, like many subsequent cameras, it was extremely simple and powered by clockwork. The Swiss company Paillard-Bolex SA introduced its first 8 mm camera in 1938 and its first pocket 8 mm camera aimed squarely at the amateur market, bolex cameras and projectors continued to occupy the high end of the market. In the US, Bell and Howell introduced an 8 mm projector in 1934, and in 1935, Standard 8 mm equipment was also manufactured by Carl Zeiss, the Austrian firm Eumig, Fuji, and Canon, amongst others. Eastman Kodak officially discontinued manufacture of the film in 1992, however, private marketed film by a major U. S. manufacturer has continued at least twelve years into the 21st century sofar. John Schwind, of International Film, is the current supplier for this major US company in the entire world. There are many still in use by film students, hobbyists. This was the first new introduction of a type K-14 stock since 1988 and this film was kept in production until 2006, coinciding with the discontinuation of Kodachrome 40A in that same year. Foma R-100 film also continues to be produced by the European manufacturer Foma, due to aging punch dies, this film does NOT have an advantage over Super 8 film in terms of image steadiness, unfortunately. The most commonly used film stocks were produced by Kodak, in particular, the 10 ASA Kodachrome colour reversal stock, with its distinctive colour rendition and fine grain, was closely associated with the format
10.
Reversal film
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In photography, reversal film is a type of photographic film that produces a positive image on a transparent base. The film is processed to produce transparencies or diapositives instead of negatives, Reversal film is produced in various sizes, from 35 mm roll film to 8×10 inch sheet film. A slide is a specially mounted individual transparency intended for projection onto a screen using a slide projector and this allows the photograph to be viewed by a large audience at once. The most common form is the 35 mm slide, with the image framed in a 2×2 inch cardboard or plastic mount. Reversal film is used as motion picture film, mostly in the 16 mm, Super 8 and 8 mm cine formats. This avoids the expense of using film, which requires additional film. The earliest practical and commercially successful color photography reversal process was the Lumière Autochrome and this was an additive method, using a panchromatic emulsion coated on a thin glass plate previously coated with a layer of dyed potato starch grains. Autochrome plates were discontinued in the 1930s after the introduction of Lumière Filmcolor in sheet film, also using the additive principle and reversal processing were the Agfa color screen plates and films and Dufaycolor film, all of which were discontinued by 1961. Leopold Godowsky, Jr. and Leopold Mannes, working with the Eastman Kodak Company, developed Kodachrome, Kodachrome was introduced in 1935 as 16mm motion picture film, and in 1936 as 35mm film for still cameras. The Kodachrome films contained no color dye couplers, these were added during processing, in late 1936, Agfacolor Neu was launched, Agfa having overcome earlier difficulties with color sensitivity problems. This film had the dye couplers incorporated into the emulsion, making processing simpler than for Kodachrome, amateurs who owned projection equipment used reversal films extensively because the cost of projection equipment and slide film was offset by not having to pay for prints. Eventually, print quality improved and prices decreased, and, by the 1970s, color negative film, digital media gradually replaced transparency film. All color reversal film sold today is developed with the E-6 process, the non-substantive Kodachrome films, the last of which was discontinued in 2009, were processed with the K-14 process. Polaroid produced an instant slide film called Polachrome and it was packaged in cassettes like normal 35mm film. A separate processing unit was used to develop it after exposure, black-and-white transparencies can be made directly with some modern black-and-white films, which normally yield negatives. The negative image is developed but not fixed, the remaining silver halide salts are re-exposed to light, developed and fixed, and the film is washed and dried. Black-and-white transparencies were once popular for presentation of materials using 3 1⁄4 by 4 glass-mounted slides. Such positive black-and-white projection is now rarely done, except in motion pictures, even where black-and-white positives are currently used, the process to create them typically uses an internegative with standard processing instead of a chemical reversal process
11.
MTV
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MTV is an American cable and satellite television channel owned by Viacom Media Networks and headquartered in New York City. Launched on August 1,1981, the originally aired music videos as guided by television personalities known as video jockeys. In its early years, MTVs main target demographic was young adults and it has received criticism towards this change of focus, both by certain segments of its audience and musicians. MTVs influence on its audience, including issues involving censorship and social activism, has also been a subject of debate for several years, in recent years, MTV had struggled with the secular decline of music-related cable media. In April 2016, MTV announced it would start to return to its original music roots with the reintroduction of the classic MTV series MTV Unplugged. It was also reported that the series MTV Cribs would be making a return on Snapchat, MTV has spawned numerous sister channels in the US and affiliated channels internationally, some of which have gone independent. As of July 2015, approximately 92,188,000 US households have received MTV, several earlier concepts for music video-based television programming had been around since the early 1960s. The Beatles had used music videos to promote their records starting in the mid-1960s, CBS rejected the idea, but Williams premiered his own musical composition Classical Gas on the Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, where he was head writer. The series featured clips from various popular artists, but was canceled by its distributor in 1971. The channel, which featured video disc jockeys, signed a deal with US Cable in 1978 to expand its audience from retail to cable television, the service was no longer active by the time MTV launched in 1981. The QUBE system offered many specialized channels, One of these specialized channels was Sight on Sound, a music channel that featured concert footage and music-oriented television programs. With the interactive QUBE service, viewers could vote for their favorite songs, the original programming format of MTV was created by media executive Robert W. Pittman, who later became president and chief executive officer of MTV Networks. Pittman had test-driven the music format by producing and hosting a 15-minute show, Album Tracks, the inspiration for PopClips came from a similar program on New Zealands TVNZ network named Radio with Pictures, which premiered in 1976. The concept itself had been in the works since 1966, when record companies began supplying the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation with promotional music clips to play on the air at no charge. Few artists made the trip to New Zealand to appear live. A shortened version of the shuttle launch ID ran at the top of hour in various forms. The first music video shown on MTV was The Buggles Video Killed the Radio Star and this was followed by the video for Pat Benatars You Better Run. Sporadically, the screen would go black when an employee at MTV inserted a tape into a VCR, MTVs lower third graphics that appeared near the beginning and end of music videos would eventually use the recognizable Kabel typeface for about 25 years
12.
Fujifilm
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Fujifilm Holdings Corporation, better known as Fujifilm or simply Fuji, stylized as FUJiFILM, is a Japanese multinational photography and imaging company headquartered in Tokyo. Fuji Photo Film Co. Ltd. was established in 1934 with the aim of being the first Japanese producer of photographic films, over the following 10 years, the company produced photographic films, motion-picture films and X-ray films. In the 1940s, Fuji Photo entered the optical glasses, lenses, after the Second World War, Fuji Photo diversified, penetrating the medical, printing, electronic imaging and magnetic materials fields. In 1962, Fuji Photo and U. K. -based Rank Xerox Limited launched Fuji Xerox Co. Ltd. through a joint venture, from the mid-1950s, Fuji Photo accelerated the establishment of overseas sales bases. In the 1980s, Fuji Photo expanded its production and other bases overseas, meanwhile, Fuji Photo developed digital technologies for its photo-related, medical and printing businesses. Like its rival Eastman Kodak which dominated in the US, Fuji Photo enjoyed a longtime near-monopoly on camera film in Japan, the complaint was lodged by the US with the World Trade Organization. On January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the market in Japan. The new millennium witnessed the spread of digital technology in cameras. Demand for photographic films plunged in line with the popularity of digital cameras. In response, Fuji Photo implemented management reforms aimed at effecting drastic transformation of its business structures, while both film manufacturers recognized this fundamental change, Fuji Photo adapted to this shift much more successfully than Eastman Kodak. In September 19,2006, Fujifilm announced plans to establish a holding company, Fujifilm and Fuji Xerox would become subsidiaries of the holding company. A representative of the company reconfirmed its commitment to film, which accounts for 3% of sales, Fuji Xerox is a joint venture between Fujifilm and Xerox Corporation of North America. Fujifilm bought Sericol Ltd. a UK-based printing ink company specializing in screen, narrow web, velvia, one of the most saturated and fine-grained slide films, valued by nature and landscape photographers. Fortia, consumer slide film, featuring extremely vivid color rendering suitable for flower photography, Fuji Neopan Professional black & white negative film. As a side note, Neopan 400 and 1600 were designed to use the same developing times, ACROS and SS do not share this feature. This uses the Fuji G-mount lenses, to be released in 2017 The Clear Shot series of 35mm compact cameras Instax series of instant camera, wiki collection of bibliographic works on Fujifilm
13.
Ilford Photo
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Ilfochrome was formerly called Cibachrome, developed in partnership with the Swiss company CIBA-Geigy. The company was founded in 1879 by Alfred Hugh Harman as the Britannia Works Company, initially making photographic plates, it grew to occupy a large site in the centre of Ilford. In 1902, it took the name of the town to become Ilford Limited, in 1983, their UK headquarters was moved to Mobberley, Cheshire. In 1989, Ilford was acquired by the USA-based International Paper company, the two companies were merged in 1990 to become Ilford Anitec. In 1996, the sales and administration offices were moved from London to Mobberley. In 2004, the company went into receivership, the UK site was subject to a management buyout, which resulted in the formation of Harman technology Ltd in February 2005. The company, now traded as Ilford Photo, produces high quality monochrome photographic products, the Swiss part of the company was bought by the Oji Paper Company of Japan in July 2005 and by Paradigm Global Partners LLP in May 2010. It produced inkjet products and high quality colour photographic products under the name Ilford Imaging Switzerland GmbH before being declared bankrupt on 9 December 2013, on 14 September 2015, Ilford Photo announced that Harman Technology was acquired by Pemberstone Ventures Limited for an undisclosed amount. Ilford sold a number of cameras under its own name but made for it by other manufacturers, starting with a box camera in 1902, the Ilford Witness was a rangefinder with interchangeable lenses announced in 1947, but not released until 1953 because of manufacturing difficulties. In the meantime, the simpler Advocate series 1 was released in 1949, a pre-release Advocate series 1 camera was given to Princess Elizabeth in 1948. It was stolen, but later recovered when it was sent to be repaired, also released in 1949 was the Craftsman, a twin-lens reflex which took 120 or 620 film. Then 1951 saw the Prentice folding camera which also took 120 film, in 1957, Ilford released the Sportsman, a relabelled West German Dacora Dignette, as a lightly built and cheap 35 mm camera to compete with the better made and more expensive Kodak Retinette. In Germany, a comparative Dignette was about half the price of a Retinette, the Sportsman became a series of camera models produced over the following 10 years. Finally, in 1958, Ilford released the Monobar, a camera manufactured by Kennedy Instruments with a 35 mm back that resembled the earlier Advocate camera. The Monobar allowed the front and rear of the camera to be moved and rotated, unlike most other black and white films, XP2 Super can be processed in the same chemicals as colour print film. It produces a negative, despite the development process. The mail order service offers black-and-white film processing and silver gelatin printing from film or from digital files, the launch saw the introduction of a dedicated website www. ilfordlab. com. The service has continued to expand offering Medium and Large format processing and Digital Black, in 2009, Ilford Lab Direct was awarded a Gold Award by Digital Photo magazine Best online Black and White Printer
14.
Black and white
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Black and white, often abbreviated B/W or B&W, and hyphenated black-and-white when used as an adjective, is any of several monochrome forms in visual arts. Black-and-white images are not usually starkly contrasted black and white and they combine black and white in a continuum producing a range of shades of gray. Even when most studios had the capability to make color films they were not heavily utilized as using the Technicolor process was expensive, for the years 1940–1966, a separate Academy Award for Best Art Direction was given for black-and-white movies along with one for color. Television, Television program was first transmitted in black-and-white, scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrated the worlds first color television transmission on July 3,1928 using a mechanical process. Some color broadcasts in the US began in the 1950s, with color becoming common in industrialized nations during the late 1960s. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission settled on a color NTSC standard in 1953, color television became more widespread in the U. S. between 1963 and 1967, when the CBS and ABC networks joined NBC in broadcasting full color schedules. Canada began airing color television in 1966 while the United Kingdom began to use a different color system from July 1967 known as PAL. The Republic Of Ireland followed in 1970, in China, black and white television sets were the norm until as late as the 1990s, color TVs not outselling them until about 1989. While seldom used now, many consumer camcorders have the ability to record in black-and-white. Photography, Photographs were either black-and-white or shades of sepia, color photography was originally rare and expensive and again often containing inaccurate hues. Color photography became more common from the mid-20th century, Today, black-and-white is a niche market for photographers who use the medium for artistic purposes. This can take the form of film or digital conversion to grayscale. For amateur use certain companies such as Kodak manufactured black-and-white disposable cameras until 2009, also, certain films are produced today which give black-and-white images using the ubiquitous C41 color process. Printing press, Most American newspapers were black-and-white until the early 1980s, The New York Times, some claim that USA Today was the major impetus for the change to color. In the UK, color was only introduced from the mid-1980s. Even today, many newspapers restrict color photographs to the front, similarly, daily comic strips in newspapers were traditionally black-and-white with color reserved for Sunday strips. Sometimes color is reserved for the cover, magazines such as Jet magazine were either all or mostly black-and-white until the end of the 2000s when it became all-color. Manga are typically published in black-and-white although now it is part of its image, many school yearbooks are still entirely or mostly in black-and-white
15.
ADOX
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In photography, ADOX is a trademark with a long history. It was originally a name used by the German company. Schleussner GmbH of Frankfurt am Main, the worlds first photographic materials manufacturer, the companys founder, Dr. Carl Schleussner, did pioneering work on the wet-collodion process during the early years of photography, and formed his manufacturing company in 1860. Working with the physicist Wilhelm Röntgen, discoverer of X-rays, Dr. Schleussner invented the first X-ray plate. The Schleussner firm began marketing cameras under the ADOX brand name in the first third of the 20th century and, recognizing the importance of the brand. In 1952 they introduced a line of very sharp 35 mm films under the ADOX brand, in 1962, the Schleussner family sold its photographic holdings to DuPont, an American company. DuPont became owners of the trademark, and registered it in the United States, DuPont licensed the Adox film technology, but not the trademark, to Fotokemika, a manufacturer in Yugoslavia, who used the technology for films sold under their Efke trademark. DuPont kept the Adox trademark, transferring it to a subsidiary, Sterling Diagnostic Imaging and they still apply it to an industrial chemical, sodium chlorite. In 1999, Sterling was bought by the German company Agfa, in this roundabout way, the Adox photographic trademark once again became German. Agfa did not use the Adox trademark, and the mark was removed from the German Patent Office trademark registry in March,2003. It was almost immediately revived by companies in Canada, the United States,24 x 36, ADOX Polo 6 x 6, ADOX66 The text of this article has been adapted with permission from information published at http, //www. adox. net/about_adox. htm
16.
ORWO
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ORWO is a brand for photographic products and magnetic recording tape. It was established in East Germany as a brand for photographic film and magnetic tape, in 1909 the Filmfabrik Wolfen was founded as part of the Aktien-Gesellschaft für Anilin-Fabrikation and belonged to I. G. The Agfa Wolfen plant developed the first modern film, with incorporated colour couplers, Agfacolor. As the trade agreement seriously hampered the East German companys abilities to sell in the western countries, after the formation of the Combine VEB Fotochemisches Kombinat Wolfen in 1970 the VEB ORWO Filmfabrik Wolfen became its headquarter. Founder members of the new Combine were Fotopapierwerke Dresden, Fotopapierwerke Wernigerode, Gelatinewerke Calbe, Fotochemische Werke Berlin, ORWO branded 35mm colour slide film became available in the United Kingdom in the 1970s through magazine advertisements for mail order suppliers. It was an alternative to the mainstream brands available at the time. Following the merger of East Germany and West Germany, the company was privatized in 1990, after several bankruptcies, a number of companies are continuing the tradition of ORWO. Fact, black and white movies that have been selected by the US Library of Congress for archival in the last 5 years have been most likely reprocessed on to ORWO film, the cellulose triacetate base manufacturing plant of ORWO was sold to Island Pyrochemical Industries, Mineola, NY. The new company, located in the Chemical Park Bitterfeld-Wolfen, Germany, produces high quality TAC for the LCD polarizer market, the Industrie- und Filmmuseum Wolfen provides a permanent exhibition about the history of the Filmfabrik Wolfen and the ORWO products
17.
Compact Cassette
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The Compact Cassette or Musicassette, also commonly called cassette tape, audio cassette, or simply tape or cassette, is an analog magnetic tape recording format for audio recording and playback. It was released by Philips in 1962, having developed in Hasselt. Compact cassettes come in two forms, either already containing content as a cassette, or as a fully recordable blank cassette. Its uses ranged from portable audio to home recording to data storage for early microcomputers, the first cassette player designed for use in car dashes was introduced in 1968. Between the early 1970s and the early 2000s, the cassette was one of the two most common formats for prerecorded music, first alongside the LP record and later the compact disc. Compact Cassettes contain two miniature spools, between which a magnetically coated, polyester-type plastic film is passed and wound and these spools and their attendant parts are held inside a protective plastic shell. This reversal is achieved either by flipping the cassette, or by having the machine itself change the direction of tape movement. In 1935, decades before the introduction of the Compact Cassette, AEG released the first reel-to-reel tape recorder and it was based on the invention of the magnetic tape by Fritz Pfleumer, which used similar technology but with open reels. These instruments were expensive and relatively difficult to use and were therefore used mostly by professionals in radio stations. In 1958, following four years of development, RCA Victor introduced the stereo, quarter-inch, reversible, however, it was a large cassette, and offered few pre-recorded tapes. Despite the multiple versions, it failed, consumer use of tape only took off in the early 1960s, after playback machines reached a comfortable, user-friendly design. This was achieved primarily by the introduction of transistors which replaced the bulky, fragile, reel-to-reel tape then became more suitable to household use, but still remained an esoteric product. The team at Philips was led by Lou Ottens in Hasselt, Philips was competing with Telefunken and Grundig in a race to establish its cassette tape as the worldwide standard, and it wanted support from Japanese electronics manufacturers. However, the Philips Compact Cassette became dominant as a result of Philips decision to license the format free of charge, Philips also released the Norelco Carry-Corder 150 recorder/player in the US in November 1964. By 1966 over 250,000 recorders had been sold in the US alone, by 1968,85 manufacturers had sold over 2.4 million players. By the end of the 1960s, the business was worth an estimated 150 million dollars. In the early years sound quality was mediocre, but it improved dramatically by the early 1970s when it caught up with the quality of 8-track tape, the Compact Cassette went on to become a popular alternative to the 12-inch vinyl LP during the late 1970s. The mass production of blank Compact Cassettes began in 1964 in Hanover, prerecorded music cassettes were launched in Europe in late 1965
18.
Film stock
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Film stock is an analog medium that is used for recording motion pictures or animation. It is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with an emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast, the emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use. Instead, a short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be developed into a visible photograph. In addition to light, all films are sensitive to X-rays. Most are at least slightly sensitive to ultraviolet light. Some special-purpose films are sensitive into the region of the spectrum. In black-and-white photographic film there is one layer of silver salts. When the exposed grains are developed, the salts are converted to metallic silver. Color film has at least three sensitive layers, dyes, which adsorb to the surface of the silver salts, make the crystals sensitive to different colors. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by the green, during development, the exposed silver salts are converted to metallic silver, just as with black-and-white film. Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, following development, the silver is converted back to silver salts in the bleach step. It is removed from the film in the fix step, fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, early motion picture experiments in the 1880s were performed using a fragile paper roll film, with which it was difficult to view a single, continuously moving image without a complex apparatus. The first transparent and flexible film base material was celluloid, which was discovered and refined for use by John Carbutt, Hannibal Goodwin. Eastman Kodak made celluloid film commercially available in 1889, Thomas Henry Blair, the stock had a frosted base to facilitate easier viewing by transmitted light. By November 1891 William Dickson, at Edisons laboratory, was using Blairs stock for Kinetoscope experiments, Blairs company supplied film to Edison for five years
19.
Color temperature
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The color temperature of a light source is the temperature of an ideal black-body radiator that radiates light of comparable color to that of the light source. Color temperature is a characteristic of light that has important applications in lighting, photography, videography, publishing, manufacturing, astrophysics, horticulture. Color temperature is conventionally expressed in kelvins, using the symbol K, Color temperatures over 5000 K are called cool colors, while lower color temperatures are called warm colors. The fact that warm lighting in this sense actually has a color temperature often leads to confusion. The color temperature of the radiation emitted from an ideal black body is defined as its surface temperature in kelvins. This permits the definition of a standard by which light sources are compared, to the extent that a hot surface emits thermal radiation but is not an ideal black-body radiator, the color temperature of the light is not the actual temperature of the surface. An incandescent lamps light is thermal radiation, and the bulb approximates an ideal black-body radiator and this means that the emitted radiation does not follow the form of a black-body spectrum. These sources are assigned what is known as a color temperature. CCT is the temperature of a black-body radiator which to human color perception most closely matches the light from the lamp. Because such an approximation is not required for incandescent light, the CCT for an incandescent light is simply its unadjusted temperature, the Sun closely approximates a black-body radiator. The effective temperature, defined by the radiative power per square unit, is about 5780 K. The color temperature of sunlight above the atmosphere is about 5900 K, as the Sun crosses the sky, it may appear to be red, orange, yellow or white depending on its position. The changing color of the Sun over the course of the day is mainly a result of scattering of light and is not due to changes in black-body radiation. The blue color of the sky is caused by Rayleigh scattering of the sunlight from the atmosphere, some early morning and evening light has a lower color temperature due to increased low-wavelength light scattering by the Tyndall effect. Daylight has a similar to that of a black body with a correlated color temperature of 6500 K or 5500 K. For colors based on theory, blue occurs at higher temperatures. This is the opposite of the cultural associations attributed to colors, in red is hot. For lighting building interiors, it is important to take into account the color temperature of illumination
20.
Photographic filter
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In photography and videography, a filter is a camera accessory consisting of an optical filter that can be inserted into the optical path. Sometimes they are used to make subtle changes to images. In monochrome photography coloured filters affect the brightness of different colours. Others change the balance of images, so that photographs under incandescent lighting show colours as they are perceived. There are filters that distort the image in a way, diffusing an otherwise sharp image, adding a starry effect. Linear and circular polarising filters reduce oblique reflections from non-metallic surfaces, many filters absorb part of the light available, necessitating longer exposure. As the filter is in the path, any imperfections—non-flat or non-parallel surfaces, reflections, scratches. There is no universal naming system for filters. The Wratten numbers adopted in the twentieth century by Kodak. Colour correction filters are often identified by a code of the form CC50Y—CC for colour correction,50 for the strength of the filter, photographic filters sell in larger quantities at correspondingly lower prices than many laboratory filters. The article on optical filters has material relevant to photographic filters, in digital photography the majority of filters used with film cameras have been rendered redundant by digital filters applied either in-camera or during post processing. Exceptions include the ultraviolet filter typically used to protect the front surface of the lens, the neutral density filter, the polarising filter, the only use of a clear filter is to protect the front of a lens. UV filters are used to block ultraviolet light, to which most photographic sensors. Normally, the glass or plastic of a lens is practically opaque to short-wavelength UV. A UV filter passes all or nearly all of the visible spectrum and it can be left on the lens for nearly all shots, UV filters are often used mainly for lens protection in the same way as clear filters. Strong UV filters are sometimes used for warming color photos taken in shade with daylight-type film. While in certain cases, such as harsh environments, a filter may be necessary. Arguments for the use of protection include, If the lens is dropped
21.
Kodachrome
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Kodachrome is a brand name for a non-substantive, color reversal film introduced by Eastman Kodak in 1935. It was one of the first successful color materials and was used for both cinematography and still photography, because of its complex processing requirements, the film was sold process-paid in the United States until 1954 when a legal ruling prohibited this. For many years it was used for color photography, especially for images intended for publication in print media. After announcing the return of Ektachrome at the beginning of 2017, Kodachrome was the first color film that used a subtractive color method to be successfully mass-marketed. Previous materials, such as Autochrome and Dufaycolor, had used the additive screenplate methods, until its discontinuation, Kodachrome was the oldest surviving brand of color film. Kodachrome is appreciated in the archival and professional market for its dark-storage longevity, because of these qualities, it was used by professional photographers such as Steve McCurry, Peter Guttman and Alex Webb. McCurry used Kodachrome for his 1984 portrait of Sharbat Gula, the Afghan Girl and it was used by Walton Sound and Film Services in the UK in 1953 for the official 16 mm film of the coronation of Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. Copies of the film for sale to the public were also produced using Kodachrome and these had several disadvantages because they used a réseau filter made from discrete color elements that were visible upon enlargement. The finished transparencies absorbed between 70% and 80% of light projection, requiring very bright projection lamps, especially for large projections. Using the subtractive method, these disadvantages could be avoided, the first Kodak product called Kodachrome was invented by John Capstaff in 1913. His Kodachrome was a process that used only two colors, blue-green and red-orange. It required two glass plate negatives, one using a panchromatic emulsion and a red filter, the other made using an emulsion insensitive to red light. The two plates could be exposed as a bipack, which eliminated the need for multiple exposures or a color camera. After development, the images were bleached out with chemistry that hardened the bleached portions of the gelatin. Using dyes which were absorbed only by the gelatin, the negative that recorded the blue and green light was dyed red-orange. The result was a pair of positive dye images, the plates were then assembled emulsion to emulsion, producing a transparency that was capable of surprisingly good color rendition of skin tones in portraits. Capstaffs Kodachrome was made available in 1915. It was also adapted for use as a 35 mm motion picture film process, today, this first version of Kodachrome is nearly forgotten, completely overshadowed by the next Kodak product bearing the name Kodachrome
