1.
Style guide
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A style guide is a set of standards for the writing and design of documents, either for general use or for a specific publication, organization, or field. A style guide establishes and enforces style to improve communication, to do that, it ensures consistency within a document and across multiple documents and enforces best practice in usage and in language composition, visual composition, orthography and typography. For academic and technical documents, a guide may also enforce the best practice in ethics, pedagogy, Style guides vary widely in scope and size. This variety in scope and length is enabled by the cascading of one style over another, in a way analogous to how styles cascade in web development, a short style guide is often called a style sheet. A comprehensive guide tends to be long and is called a style manual or manual of style. Most house styles, in turn, cascade over an industry-wide or profession-wide style manual that is more comprehensive. This, of course, may be subject to national variety such as the different varieties of American English and British English, some style guides focus on specific topic areas such as graphic design, including typography. Website style guides cover a publications visual and technical aspects along with text, Style guides that cover usage may suggest ways of describing people that avoid racism, sexism, and homophobia. Guides in specific scientific and technical fields cover nomenclature, which specifies names or classifying labels that are preferred because they are clear, standardized, most style guides are revised periodically to accommodate changes in conventions and usage. The frequency of updating and the control are determined by the subject matter. For style manuals in reference work format, new editions typically appear every 1 to 20 years, for example, the AP Stylebook is revised annually, and the Chicago, APA, and ASA manuals are in their 16th, 6th, and 4th editions, respectively. Many house styles and individual project styles change more frequently, especially for new projects, several basic style guides for technical and scientific communication have been defined by international standards organizations. One example is ISO215 Documentation — Presentation of contributions to periodicals, the European Union publishes an Interinstitutional style guide—encompassing 24 languages across the European Union. This manual is obligatory for all those employed by the institutions of the EU who are involved in preparing EU documents, Style Manual, For Authors, Editors and Printers by Snooks & Co for the Department of Finance and Administration. CP Stylebook, Guide to newspaper style in Canada maintained by the Canadian Press, 4th ed. Oxford University Press,2015. Based on Fowlers Modern English Usage, by Henry Watson Fowler, the Kings English, by Henry Watson Fowler and Francis George Fowler. The Complete Plain Words, by Sir Ernest Gowers, Usage and Abusage, by Eric Partridge. The BBC News Style Guide, by the British Broadcasting Corporation, the Economist Style Guide, by The Economist
Style guide
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Style guides
2.
ACS style
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The ACS style is a set of standards for writing documents relating to chemistry, including a standard method of citation in academic publications, developed by the American Chemical Society. Abbreviations Titles of journals are abbreviated, e. g. J. Am, – Journal of the American Chemical Society J. Phys. – Journal of Physical Chemistry J. Phys, a – Journal of Physical Chemistry J. Org. – Journal of Organic Chemistry Org, – Physical Review Letters Tetrahedron – Tetrahedron Tetrahedron Lett. – Accounts of Chemical Research Article published in a journal Last Name, example of a journal citation Anne M. Coghill, Lorrin R. Garson. The ACS Style Guide, Effective Communication of Scientific Information
ACS style
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Style guides
3.
AMA Manual of Style
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AMA Manual of Style, A Guide for Authors and Editors is the style guide of the American Medical Association. It is written by the editors of JAMA and the Archives journals and is most recently published by Oxford University Press and it specifies the writing and citation styles for use in the journals published by the American Medical Association. The manual was first published in 1962, and its current edition and it covers a breadth of topics for authors and editors in medicine and related health fields. The online edition also has updates, a blog, monthly tips from the editors, quizzes, AMA style is widely used, either entirely or with modifications, by hundreds of other scientific journals, in many textbooks, and in academia. Along with APA style and CSE style, it is one of the major style regimes for such work, many publications have small local style guides that cascade over AMA, APA, or CSE style. Preparing an Article for Publication Types of Articles Manuscript Preparation References Visual Presentation of Data Ethical and Legal Considerations Editorial Assessment, Style Grammar, Punctuation, Plurals, Capitalization, Correct and Preferred Usage, Non-English Words, Phrases, and Accent Marks, Medical Indexes, Section 3. Terminology Abbreviations, Nomenclature, Eponyms, Greek Letters, Section 4, measurement and Quantitation Units of Measure, Numbers and Percentages, Study Design and Statistics, Mathematical Composition, Section 5. Technical Information Typography, Manuscript Editing and Proofreading, Glossary of Publishing Terms, overall, AMA style is clean, is minimalist, and trusts the readers to have a certain amount of intelligence and education. For example, AMA style dispenses with periods in abbreviations and requires expansion of abbreviations at first use, however, it allows a defined subset to be excepted and, where appropriate, often allows several, sensible options for editors
AMA Manual of Style
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Style guides
4.
AP Stylebook
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It is a guide for grammar, punctuation and principles of reporting, including many definitions and rules for usage as well as styles for capitalization, abbreviation, spelling and numerals. The first publicly available edition of the book was published in 1953 and was updated biennially over the next 20 years, today the AP Stylebook is updated annually. On September 28,2009 the Associated Press released the first mobile edition of the Stylebook for the iPhone—the AP Stylebook app, in 2013, Associated Press publishers celebrated the books 60th anniversary. The first Basic Books edition was published in August 1977, modern editions are released in several formats, including trade paperback, flat-lying spiral-bound, an online subscription and an iOS mobile app. Writers in broadcasting, magazine publishing, marketing departments and public relations firms traditionally adopt and apply AP grammar, over the last 50 years, the AP Stylebook has become a leading style for non-journalistic publishers such as corporate marketing and public relations departments. Its simplified grammar, such as dropping the Oxford comma and using figures for all numbers above nine, saves scarce print, for instance, it includes explanations of five different chapters of bankruptcy. Sports Guidelines and Style Includes terminology, statistics, organization rules and guidelines commonly referenced by sports reporters, example, The correct way to spell and use basketball terminology e. g. half-court pass, field goal and goaltending. Guide to Punctuation A specific guide on how to use punctuation in journalistic materials, example, In a series use commas to separate items but no comma before a conjunction e. g. We bought eggs, milk and cheese at the store, Briefing on Media Law An overview of legal issues and ethical expectations for those working in the journalism industry. Example, The difference between slander and libel, slander is spoken, libel is written, to start with. Photo Captions The simple formula of what to include writing a photo outline. Editing Marks A key with editing symbols to assist the journalist with the proofreading process, example, When a word is circled it means that the word should be abbreviated, or that an abbreviation should be unabbreviated. Bibliography This provides second reference materials for information not included in the book, example, Use Websters New World College Dictionary, Fourth Edition, Wiley, Hoboken, N. J. as first reference after the AP Stylebook for spelling, style, usage and foreign geographic names. For many years the AP Stylebook was titled The Associated Press Stylebook, in 2000, the guide was renamed The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law. Some editions, such as the 2004 copy, used the shorter title The Associated Press Stylebook on their covers, the Associated Press organization was first created in 1846. Throughout much of its history, the AP maintained a book for member reporters. By the early 1950s the publication was formalized into the AP Stylebook, due to growing demand by both journalistic and non-journalistic editors, the AP published their style book for the general public in 1953. In 1977, prompted by AP Executive News Editor Louis Boccardis request for more of a reference work and that years book was produced jointly with competitor United Press International
AP Stylebook
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AP Stylebook, 2004 edition
AP Stylebook
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Style guides
5.
APA Style
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APA Style is a writing style and format for academic documents such as journal articles and books. It is described in the guide of the American Psychological Association. The guidelines were developed to aid reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences, for clarity of communication, APA style is widely used, either entirely or with modifications, by hundreds of other scientific journals, in many textbooks, and in academia. Along with AMA Style and CSE Style, it is one of the styles for such work. APA Style was first developed in 1929, in response to the growing complexities of scientific reporting, subsequent editions were released in 1974,1983,1994,2001, and 2009. Primarily known for the simplicity of its reference citation style, the Publication Manual also established standards for use that had far-reaching effects. The sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the most current and it was released in July 2009 after four years of development. The APA explained the issuing of a new edition only eight years after the edition by pointing to the increased use of online source or online access to academic journals. The sixth edition is accompanied by a website, apastyle. org as well as the APA Style Blog. Sample papers in the first printing of the sixth edition contained errors, APA staff posted all of the corrections online for free in a single document on October 1,2009, and shortly thereafter alerted users to the existence of the corrections in an APA blog entry. All copies of the printing with errors were soon after recalled in 2009, APA Style uses an author-date reference citation system in the text with an accompanying reference list. Example narrative citation, Schmidt and Oh described a fear among the public that the findings of science are not actually real, example parenthetical citation, In our postfactual era, many members of the public fear that the findings of science are not real. In the reference list, the writer should provide the author, year, title, if a reference is not cited in the text, it should not be included in the reference list. The reference format varies slightly depending on the document type, but broadly speaking always follows the pattern of author, date, title. Note that the title of a reference may be italic or not italic. If the work alone, italicize the title, if it is part of a greater whole. Citation Comparison of reference management software The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. APA Formatted Paper Template at Indian River State Colleges Library site, generate APA citations based on DOI, ISBN and URL
APA Style
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Style guides
APA Style
6.
Bluebook
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The Bluebook, A Uniform System of Citation, a style guide, prescribes the most widely used legal citation system in the United States. The Bluebook is compiled by the Harvard Law Review Association, the Columbia Law Review, the University of Pennsylvania Law Review, currently, it is in its 20th edition. It is so named because its cover is blue, the Bluebook is taught and used at a majority of U. S. law schools, and is also used in a majority of U. S. federal courts. Alternative legal citation style guides exist, including the Maroonbook and the ALWD Citation Manual, there are also several house citation styles used by legal publishers in their works. The U. S. Supreme Court uses its own unique style in its opinions, even though most of the justices. Furthermore, many courts have their own citation rules that take precedence over The Bluebook for documents filed with those courts. Some of the rules are simple modifications to The Bluebook system. In other states, notably New York, Texas, and Michigan, since 2008, California rules of court have allowed citations in Bluebook form as well as the states own style manual. An online subscription version of The Bluebook was launched in 2008, according to a recent study however, by two Yale librarians, Fred R. Shapiro and Julie Graves Krishnaswami, and their considerable archival research, Harvards and Griswolds claim is incorrect. They trace the origin of The Bluebook to a 1920 publication by Karl N. Llewellyn at Yale on how to write law journal materials for the Yale Law Journal, eventually, Harvard reversed course and joined the coalition by 1926. The cover of the 1926 A Uniform System of Citation was green, the color was brown from the second edition through the fifth edition. It was only with the edition that it became blue. In 1939, the cover of the book was changed from brown to a more patriotic blue allegedly to avoid comparison with an associated with Nazi Germany. The eleventh edition, published in 1967, was white with a blue border. The cover color returned to blue in the edition of 1976. The full text of the first through the editions are available on the official website. The Bluebook uses two different styles, the first is used by practitioners in preparing court documents and memoranda, while the second is used primarily in academic settings, such as law reviews and journals. The latter uses specific formatting to identify types of references, such as the use of caps for books, newspapers
Bluebook
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Style guides
Bluebook
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The Bluebook
7.
The Chicago Manual of Style
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The Chicago Manual of Style is a style guide for American English published since 1906 by the University of Chicago Press. Its sixteen editions have prescribed writing and citation styles used in publishing. It is one of the most widely used and respected style guides in the United States, CMOS deals with aspects of editorial practice, from American English grammar and use for document preparation. The Chicago Manual of Style is published in hardcover and online, the Chicago Manual of Style also discusses the parts of a book and the editing process. An annual subscription is required for access to the content of the Manual. The Chicago Manual of Style is used in social science publications. It remains the basis for the Style Guide of the American Anthropological Association, many small publishers throughout the world adopt it as their style. The Chicago Manual of Style includes chapters relevant to publishers of books and it is used widely by academic and some trade publishers, as well as editors and authors who are required by those publishers to follow it. Kate L. Turabians A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, Chicago style offers writers a choice of several different formats. It allows the mixing of formats, provided that the result is clear, two types of citation styles are provided. In both cases, two parts are needed, first, notation in the text, which indicates that the information immediately preceding was from another source, and second, the full citation, which is placed at another location. Using author-date style, the text is indicated parenthetically with the last name of the author. Research has found that students do not always cite their work properly, when page numbers are used, they are placed along with the authors last name and date of publication after an interposed comma. Research has found that students do not always cite their work properly, if the authors name is used in the text, only the date of publication need be cited parenthetically. Research done by Smith found that students do not always cite their work properly, in-text citations are usually placed just inside a mark of punctuation. An exception to rule is for block quotations, where the citation is placed outside the punctuation. The full citation for the source is included in a references section at the end of the material. As publication dates are prominent in this style, the reference entry places the publication following the author name
The Chicago Manual of Style
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Style guides
The Chicago Manual of Style
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Title page of the first edition of the Chicago Manual of Style (1906)
8.
Citing Medicine
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Citing Medicine, The NLM Style Guide for Authors, Editors, and Publishers is the style guide of the United States National Library of Medicine. Its main focus is citation style and bibliographic style, the citation style of Citing Medicine is the current incarnation of the Vancouver system, per the References > Style and Format section of the ICMJE Recommendations
Citing Medicine
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Style guides
9.
The Elements of Style
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The Elements of Style is a prescriptive American English writing style guide in numerous editions. The original was composed by William Strunk Jr. E. B, White greatly enlarged and revised the book for publication by Macmillan in 1959. That was the first edition of the so-called Strunk & White, cornell University English professor William Strunk, Jr. wrote The Elements of Style in 1918 and privately published it in 1919, for in-house use at the university. Later, for publication, he and editor Edward A. Tenney revised it as The Elements, in 1957, at The New Yorker, the style guide reached the attention of E. B. Weeks later, White wrote a story about Strunks devotion to lucid English prose. Macmillan and Company subsequently commissioned White to revise The Elements for a 1959 edition, in the ensuing four decades, more than ten million copies of three editions have been sold. Mark Garvey relates the history of this manual in Stylized. Maira Kalman, who provided the illustrations for The Elements of Style Illustrated, asked Nico Muhly to compose a cantata based on the book and it was performed at the New York Public Library in October 2005. He also produced the second and third editions of The Elements of Style, the final reminder, the 21st, Prefer the standard to the offbeat, is thematically integral to the subject of The Elements of Style, yet does stand as a discrete essay about writing lucid prose. To write well, White advises writers to have the proper mind-set, that they write to please themselves, and that aim for one moment of felicity. Thus Strunks 1918 recommendation, Vigorous writing is concise, a sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that he make every word tell. The fourth edition of The Elements of Style, published 54 years after Strunks death, omits his stylistic advice about masculine pronouns, in its place, editor E. B. White reports, Currently, however, many find the use of the generic he or his to rename indefinite antecedents limiting or offensive. He or She, in Chapter IV, Misused Words and Expressions, components new to the fourth edition include a foreword by Roger Angell, stepson of E. B. White, an afterword by the American cultural commentator Charles Osgood, a glossary, five years later, the fourth edition text was re-published as The Elements of Style Illustrated, with illustrations by the designer Maira Kalman. This edition excludes the afterword by Charles Osgood and restores the first edition chapter on spelling, the Elements of Style was listed as one of the 100 best and most influential books written in English since 1923 by Time in its 2011 list. Upon its release, Charles Poor, writing for The New York Times, the first-greatest, of course, is to shoot them now, while they’re happy
The Elements of Style
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First expanded edition (1959)
The Elements of Style
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Style guides
10.
The Elements of Typographic Style
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The Elements of Typographic Style is the authoritative book on typography and style by Canadian typographer, poet and translator Robert Bringhurst. Originally published in 1992 by Hartley & Marks Publishers, it was revised in 1996,2001,2002,2004,2005,2008, and 2012. A history and guide to typography, it has been praised by Hermann Zapf, because of its status as a respected and frequently cited resource, typographers and designers often refer to it simply as Bringhurst. The title alludes to The Elements of Style, the guide to writing by Strunk
The Elements of Typographic Style
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Cover of the Canadian first edition
The Elements of Typographic Style
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Style guides
11.
A Dictionary of Modern English Usage
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A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, by Henry Watson Fowler, is a style guide to British English usage, pronunciation, and writing. Covering topics such as plurals and literary technique, distinctions among like words, and the use of foreign terms, hence, the 1926 first-edition remains in print, along with the 1965 second-edition, edited by Ernest Gowers, and reprinted in 1983 and 1987. In A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, Henry W, in the entries Pedantic Humour and Polysyllabic Humour Fowler mocked the use of arcane words and the use of long words. Those who neither know nor care are the vast majority, and are a happy folk, Welsh rarebit Welsh rabbit is amusing and right. Welsh rarebit is stupid and wrong, moreover, he researched the Dictionary assisted by Francis, who died in 1918 of tuberculosis, which he contracted in service with the British Expeditionary Force in the First World War. Having been designed in consultation with him, it is the last fruit of a partnership began in 1903 with our translation of Lucian. The second edition, Fowler’s Modern English Usage was revised by Sir Ernest Gowers, who updated the text, contributed entries and his book has been largely rewritten. A fourth edition, edited by Jeremy Butterfield, was published by Oxford University Press in 2015, the 2009 reprinting of the 1926 first edition contains an introduction and commentary by the linguist David Crystal. The Pocket Fowlers Modern English Usage edited by Robert Allen was published by OUP in 1999 and it was based mainly on Burchfields 1996 edition, abridged to 40% by omitting about half the entries and reducing others, there was also some new content. A second edition of Allens Pocket Fowler was published in 2008, a Dictionary of Modern English Usage. The New Fowlers Modern English Usage, a Dictionary of Modern English Usage, The Classic First Edition. Introduction and notes by David Crystal, Fowlers Dictionary of Modern English Usage. Disputes in English grammar Elegant variation False scent Fowler, Henry, Winchester, a Dictionary of Modern English Usage. A Dictionary of American-English Usage Based on Fowlers Modern English Usage, signet, by arrangement with Oxford University Press. The Elements of Style, by William Strunk Jr. and E. B. White, the Chicago Manual of Style, an American English guide to style and publishing markup. The Complete Plain Words, by Sir Ernest Gowers, practical English Usage, by Michael Swan, a grammar for non-native English speakers. The Cambridge Guide to English Usage, by Pam Peters, merriam Websters Dictionary of English Usage
A Dictionary of Modern English Usage
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Style guides
A Dictionary of Modern English Usage
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The
title page of A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926)
12.
ISO 690
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ISO690 is an ISO standard for bibliographic referencing in documents of all sorts. It includes electronic documents, and specifies the elements to be included in references to published documents, punctuation and style are not part of the standard, it is a standard for content more than for presentation. Thus, it influences a users XML and XSL, although not necessarily the CSS, ISO690 covers references to published material in both print and non-print form. It does not apply to references to manuscripts or other unpublished material, until 2010, ISO690 appeared in two ISO documents, ISO690,1987, ISO 690-2,1997 Actual status of standard is ISO690,2010. The material is copyrighted and not free for distribution, basically, the application of older version of ISO standard is not a fault. 1st ed. Oxford, Pergamon Press,1981,206 p. International series in natural philosophy. Translation of, Ciklotronnye volny v plazme, parts of a monograph Parker, TJ. and Haswell, WD. Section 12, Phyllum Mollusca, pp. 663-782, contributions in a monograph Wringley, EA. London, Society of Genealogists,1968, vol, manufacturing a Primary Industries Division, Statistics Canada. Articles in a serial Weaver, William
ISO 690
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Style guides
13.
Microsoft Manual of Style
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The fourth edition, ISBN 0-7356-4871-9, was published on January 15,2012. Microsoft employees and partners can access a Microsoft Compressed HTML Help version of the MSTP. The MSTP has the purpose of guiding technical writers, editors. While the manual in some parts focuses on usage particular to these products, Content ranges from specific instructions for naming particular elements of specific programs to general rules of grammar. The MSTP is divided into two parts, preceded by a foreword and introduction, Microsoft style and voice, Basic principles and style guide. Content for an audience, Provides instructions for ensuring that documents will be understood throughout the world by avoiding local references. Accessible Content, Talks about accessibility in all areas including design, graphics and text, the user interface, Provides standardized names for elements of the Microsoft user interface. Grammar, Contains sections on the usage of verbs and nouns. Punctuation, Contains information about using punctuation, indexes and keywords, Provides guidelines for indexing and/or attributing content to ensure that it is discoverable for users. Acronyms and other abbreviations, Provides guidelines on consistent use of acronyms and abbreviations, including how and it also contains a list of acronyms and abbreviations. Part 2 is an alphabetically-arranged Usage Dictionary of terms used in technical writing. The Chicago Manual of Style The Elements of Style by Strunk and White MSTP at Microsoft
Microsoft Manual of Style
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Style guides
14.
MLA Handbook
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The MLA Handbook, formerly the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers is a publication of the Modern Language Association. According to the MLA, the MLA style has been adopted for classroom instruction and used worldwide by scholars, journal publishers. Released in April 2016, the edition of the MLA Handbook is addressed primarily to secondary-school and undergraduate college and university teachers. The MLA Handbook grew out of the initial MLA Style Sheet of 1951, the first five editions, published between 1977 and 1999 were titled the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. The title changed to the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers in 2003, additionally, the seventh edition included a website with the full text of the book. Later online additions allowed for citation of e-books and tweets, the eighth editions main changes from the seventh edition are shift our focus from a prescriptive list of formats to an overarching purpose of source documentation. The list below identifies the year of publication of each edition of the MLA Handbook
MLA Handbook
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The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th ed.
MLA Handbook
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Style guides
15.
The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage
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A revised and expanded paperback edition was published in 2002. According to the Times Deputy News Editor Philip B, corbett in 2007, the newspaper maintains an updated, intranet version of the manual that is used by NYT staff, but this online version was not available to the general public. Instead, a version was issued in February 2015 for sale to the public. In September 2015, however, this fifth public edition of the book was released in paperback form. The New York Times Manual has various differences from the influential, annual Associated Press Stylebook
The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage
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Style guides
16.
The Sense of Style
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Style is the effective use of words to engage the human mind. Style manuals that are innocent of linguistics are crippled in dealing with the aspect of writing that evokes the most emotion, orthodox stylebooks are ill-equipped to deal with a fundamental fact about language, it changes over time. Language is not a protocol legislated by an authority but rather a wiki that pools the contributions of millions of writers and speakers, reverse-engineering good prose as the key to developing a writerly ear - The starting point for becoming a good writer is to be a good reader. They have absorbed a vast inventory of words, idioms, constructions, tropes, and rhetorical tricks and this is the elusive ear of a skilled writer - the tacit sense of style which cannot be explicitly taught. A writer of classic prose must simulate two experiences, showing the reader something in the world, and engaging the reader in conversation, not all prose should be classic, and not all writers can carry off the pretense. But knowing the hallmarks of classic style will make anyone a better writer, and it is the strongest cure for the disease that enfeebles academic, bureaucratic, corporate, legal, and official prose. The main cause of incomprehensible prose is the curse of knowledge - the difficulty of imagining what it is like for someone not to know something that you know. Be aware of specific pitfalls that it sets in your path, e. g. the use of jargon, abbreviations, show a draft to some people who are similar to your intended audience, and find out whether they can follow it. Show a draft to yourself, after time has passed that the text is no longer familiar. Grammar is a subject in its own right, when it is properly explained. Like other designed objects, it comes about not by accident but by drafting a blueprint, attending to details, the first step in mastering usage is to understand why the myth is wrong. There is no such thing as a “language war” between prescriptivists and descriptivists, the alleged controversy is as bogus as other catchy dichotomies such as nature versus nurture and America, Love It or Leave It. The key is to recognize that the rules of usage are tacit conventions, a convention is an agreement among the members of a community to abide by a single way of doing things. Linguists capture their regularities in “descriptive rules” - that is, rules that describe how people speak and these conventions are “prescriptive rules” - rules that prescribe how one ought to speak and write in these forums. This raises the question of how a writer can distinguish a legitimate rule of usage from a tall tale. Pinker includes a guide to a hundred of the most commonly raised issues of grammar, word usage. The Sense of Style won Plain English Campaigns International Award for 2014, and was ranked among the best books of 2014 by The Economist, The Sunday Times, and Amazon. It received mainly positive reviews from major publications, including the New York Times, Scientific American, and the Washington Post
The Sense of Style
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Style guides
17.
Scientific journal
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In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. There are thousands of journals in publication, and many more have been published at various points in the past. Most journals are highly specialized, although some of the oldest journals such as Nature publish articles, Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer reviewed, in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journals standards of quality, and scientific validity. If the journals editor considers the paper appropriate, at least two researchers preferably from the same field check the paper for soundness of its scientific argument, although scientific journals are superficially similar to professional magazines, they are actually quite different. Issues of a scientific journal are rarely read casually, as one would read a magazine, the publication of the results of research is an essential part of the scientific method. If they are describing experiments or calculations, they must supply enough details that an independent researcher could repeat the experiment or calculation to verify the results, each such journal article becomes part of the permanent scientific record. Over a thousand, mostly ephemeral, were founded in the 18th century, articles in scientific journals can be used in research and higher education. Scientific articles allow researchers to keep up to date with the developments of their field, an essential part of a scientific article is citation of earlier work. The impact of articles and journals is often assessed by counting citations, some classes are partially devoted to the explication of classic articles, and seminar classes can consist of the presentation by each student of a classic or current paper. Schoolbooks and textbooks have been written only on established topics, while the latest research. In a scientific research group or academic department it is usual for the content of current scientific journals to be discussed in journal clubs, the standards that a journal uses to determine publication can vary widely. Some journals, such as Nature, Science, PNAS, and it is also common for journals to have a regional focus, specializing in publishing papers from a particular country or other geographic region, like African Invertebrates. Articles tend to be technical, representing the latest theoretical research. They are often incomprehensible to anyone except for researchers in the field, in some subjects this is inevitable given the nature of the content. Usually, rigorous rules of writing are enforced by the editors, however. Articles are usually either original articles reporting new results or reviews of current literature. There are also publications that bridge the gap between articles and books by publishing thematic volumes of chapters from different authors. Research notes are short descriptions of current research findings that are considered less urgent or important than Letters, supplemental articles contain a large volume of tabular data that is the result of current research and may be dozens or hundreds of pages with mostly numerical data
Scientific journal
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Cover of the first issue of
Nature, 4 November 1869
18.
American Psychological Association
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The APA has an annual budget of around $115m. There are 54 divisions of the APA—interest groups covering different subspecialties of psychology or topical areas, the American Psychological Association and the American Psychiatric Association are sometimes distinguished as the bigger APA and the little APA because of their relative membership sizes. APA is a corporation chartered in the District of Columbia, APAs bylaws describe structural components that serve as a system of checks and balances that ensure democratic process. The organizational entities include, APA President, APAs president is elected by the membership. The president chairs the Council of Representatives and the Board of Directors, during his or her term of office, the president performs such duties as are prescribed in the bylaws. The Board oversees the associations administrative affairs and presents a budget for council approval. The council has authority to set policy and make decisions regarding APAs roughly $60 million annual income. It is composed of elected members from state/provincial/territorial psychological associations, APA divisions, APA Committee Structure, Boards and Committees. Members of boards and committees conduct much of APAs work on a volunteer basis and they carry out a wide variety of tasks suggested by their names. Some have responsibility for monitoring major programs, such as the directorates, the June 2013 GGP update on the recommended changes can be found in the document Good Governance Project Recommended Changes to Maximize Organizational Effectiveness of APA Governance. The suggested changes would change APA from a membership-based, representational structure to a corporate structure and these motions will be discussed and voted upon by Council on July 31,2013 and August 2,2013. State licensing laws specify state specific requirements for the education and training of psychologists leading to licensure, psychologists who are exempted from licensure could include researchers, educators, or general applied psychologists who provide services outside of the health and mental health field. The American Psychological Association Practice Organization and the Education Advocacy Trust and they engage in advocacy on behalf of psychological practitioners and health care consumers and psychology education, respectively. 124th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Denver Colorado 125th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, APA also publishes over 70 other journals encompassing most specialty areas in the field, APAs Educational Publishing Foundation is an imprint for publishing on behalf of other organizations. The APA has also published books under the Magination Press imprint, software for data analysis, videos demonstrating therapeutic techniques, reports. The awards are designed to recognize organizations for their efforts to foster employee health, the award program highlights a variety of workplaces, large and small, profit and non-profit, in diverse geographical settings. Applicants are evaluated on their efforts in the five areas, employee involvement, work-life balance, employee growth and development, health and safety. Awards are given at the local and national level, American Psychological Association Style is a set of rules developed to assist reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences
American Psychological Association
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American Psychological Association
19.
Ethics
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Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term ethics derives from the Ancient Greek word ἠθικός ethikos, the branch of philosophy axiology comprises the sub-branches of ethics and aesthetics, each concerned with values. As a branch of philosophy, ethics investigates the questions What is the best way for people to live, and What actions are right or wrong in particular circumstances. In practice, ethics seeks to resolve questions of morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice. As a field of enquiry, moral philosophy also is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics. Richard William Paul and Linda Elder define ethics as a set of concepts, the Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word ethics is commonly used interchangeably with morality. And sometimes it is used narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition. Paul and Elder state that most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social conventions, religious beliefs, the word ethics in English refers to several things. It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral philosophy—a project that attempts to use reason in order to various kinds of ethical questions. As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written, Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically about moral values, Ethics can also be used to describe a particular persons own idiosyncratic principles or habits. For example, Joe has strange ethics, the English word ethics is derived from an Ancient Greek word êthikos, which means relating to ones character. The Ancient Greek adjective êthikos is itself derived from another Greek word, meta-ethics asks how we understand, know about, and what we mean when we talk about what is right and what is wrong. An ethical question fixed on some particular practical question—such as, Should I eat this particular piece of chocolate cake. —cannot be a meta-ethical question, a meta-ethical question is abstract and relates to a wide range of more specific practical questions. For example, Is it ever possible to have knowledge of what is right. Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics, meta-ethics is also important in G. E. In it he first wrote about what he called the naturalistic fallacy, moore was seen to reject naturalism in ethics, in his Open Question Argument. This made thinkers look again at second order questions about ethics, earlier, the Scottish philosopher David Hume had put forward a similar view on the difference between facts and values. Studies of how we know in ethics divide into cognitivism and non-cognitivism, non-cognitivism is the claim that when we judge something as right or wrong, this is neither true nor false
Ethics
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Socrates
Ethics
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Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
Ethics
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Immanuel Kant
20.
Graphics
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In computers, a printer driver or a print processor is a piece of software that converts the data to be printed to the form specific to a printer. The purpose of printer drivers is to allow applications to do printing without being aware of the details of each printer model. Printer drivers should not be confused with print spoolers, that queue print jobs, unix and other Unix-like systems such as Linux and OS X use CUPS, a modular printing system for Unix-like computer operating systems, which allows a computer to act as a print server. A computer running CUPS is a host that can accept print jobs from client computers, process them, Printer drivers are typically implemented as filters. They are usually named the front end of the printing system, backends are also used to determine the available devices. On startup, each backend is asked for a list of devices it supports, DOS supports predefined character devices PRN, LPT1, LPT2, and LPT3, associated with parallel printers supported in the system. Similarly, serial printers can be used with AUX, COM1, COM2, COM3, users can use commands like, for example, COPY file1 LPT1, to print the content of a file to a printer. The contents is transferred to the printer without any interpretation, therefore, this method of printing is either for files already stored in the corresponding printers language or for generic text files without more than simple line-oriented formatting. DOS also provides a dynamically loadable print spooler named PRINT as well as support to support screen captures also in graphics mode through GRAPHICS. Beyond this, there are no system-wide printer-specific drivers for use at application level under MS-DOS/PC DOS, Printers, too, have been supplied with drivers for the most popular applications. In addition, its possible for applications to include tools for editing printer description, in the days when DOS was widely used, many printers had emulation modes for Epson FX-80 and IBM Proprinter commands. Many more recent laser printers also have emulation modes for HP PCL or PostScript printers which will work in DOS and it appears that these are also compatible with Windows 3. x. On Microsoft Windows systems, printer drivers make use of GDI or XPS, programs then use the same standard APIs to draw text and pictures both on screen and on paper. Win32 APIs also allow applications to send data directly to the spooler, bypassing the driver, however. The original AmigaOS up to 1.3 supported printers through a series of drivers stored at the required path DEVS. All printer drivers were stored in that directory, and covered the standard printers in 1985-1989 circa, included Epson FX standard driver, Xerox 4020, HP, etcetera. Any Amiga printer driver had to communicate though the standard Amiga printer. device, and the standard parallel. device, Amiga printer drivers were an innovation for their time. They spared users from individually configuring each of their applications and they had the ability to print up to 4096 colors
Graphics
21.
Reference
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Reference is a relation between objects in which one object designates, or acts as a means by which to connect to or link to, another object. The first object in this relation is said to refer to the second object, the second object, the one to which the first object refers, is called the referent of the first object. In some cases, methods are used that intentionally hide the reference from some observers, References feature in many spheres of human activity and knowledge, and the term adopts shades of meaning particular to the contexts in which it is used. Some of them are described in the sections below, the word reference is derived from Middle English referren, from Middle French référer, from Latin referre, to carry back, formed from the prefix re- and ferre, to bear. A number of words derive from the root, including refer, referee, referential, referent. The verb refer and its derivatives may carry the sense of link to or connect to, another sense is consult, this is reflected in such expressions as reference work, reference desk, job reference, etc. In semantics, reference is generally construed as the relationships between nouns or pronouns and objects that are named by them, hence, the word John refers to the person John. The word it refers to some previously specified object, the object referred to is called the referent of the word. Sometimes the word-object relation is called denotation, the word denotes the object, the converse relation, the relation from object to word, is called exemplification, the object exemplifies what the word denotes. In syntactic analysis, if a word refers to a previous word and this problem led Frege to distinguish between the sense and reference of a word. Some cases seem to be too complicated to be classified within this framework, words can often be meaningful without having a concrete here-and-now referent. Fictional and mythological names such as Bo-Peep and Hercules illustrate this possibility, sign links with absent referents also allow for discussing abstract ideas as well as people and events of the past and future. For those who argue that one cannot directly experience the divine, additionally, certain sects of Judaism and other religions consider it sinful to write, discard, or deface the name of the divine. To avoid this problem, the signifier G-d is sometimes used, the very concept of the linguistic sign is the combination of content and expression, the former of which may refer entities in the world or refer more abstract concepts, e. g. thought. Certain parts of speech exist only to reference, namely anaphora such as pronouns. The subset of reflexives expresses co-reference of two participants in a sentence and these could be the agent and patient, as in The man washed himself, the theme and recipient, as in I showed Mary to herself, or various other possible combinations. In computer science, references are data types that refer to an object elsewhere in memory and are used to construct a variety of data structures. Generally, a reference is a value that enables a program to access the particular data item
Reference
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The
triangle of reference, from the influential book
The Meaning of Meaning (1923) by
C. K. Ogden and
I. A. Richards.
22.
Statistics
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Statistics is a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and organization of data. In applying statistics to, e. g. a scientific, industrial, or social problem, populations can be diverse topics such as all people living in a country or every atom composing a crystal. Statistics deals with all aspects of data including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys, statistician Sir Arthur Lyon Bowley defines statistics as Numerical statements of facts in any department of inquiry placed in relation to each other. When census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect data by developing specific experiment designs, representative sampling assures that inferences and conclusions can safely extend from the sample to the population as a whole. In contrast, an observational study does not involve experimental manipulation, inferences on mathematical statistics are made under the framework of probability theory, which deals with the analysis of random phenomena. A standard statistical procedure involves the test of the relationship between two data sets, or a data set and a synthetic data drawn from idealized model. A hypothesis is proposed for the relationship between the two data sets, and this is compared as an alternative to an idealized null hypothesis of no relationship between two data sets. Rejecting or disproving the hypothesis is done using statistical tests that quantify the sense in which the null can be proven false. Working from a hypothesis, two basic forms of error are recognized, Type I errors and Type II errors. Multiple problems have come to be associated with this framework, ranging from obtaining a sufficient sample size to specifying an adequate null hypothesis, measurement processes that generate statistical data are also subject to error. Many of these errors are classified as random or systematic, the presence of missing data or censoring may result in biased estimates and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems. Statistics continues to be an area of research, for example on the problem of how to analyze Big data. Statistics is a body of science that pertains to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation. Some consider statistics to be a mathematical science rather than a branch of mathematics. While many scientific investigations make use of data, statistics is concerned with the use of data in the context of uncertainty, mathematical techniques used for this include mathematical analysis, linear algebra, stochastic analysis, differential equations, and measure-theoretic probability theory. In applying statistics to a problem, it is practice to start with a population or process to be studied. Populations can be diverse topics such as all living in a country or every atom composing a crystal. Ideally, statisticians compile data about the entire population and this may be organized by governmental statistical institutes
Statistics
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Scatter plots are used in descriptive statistics to show the observed relationships between different variables.
Statistics
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More
probability density is found as one gets closer to the expected (mean) value in a
normal distribution. Statistics used in
standardized testing assessment are shown. The scales include
standard deviations, cumulative percentages, percentile equivalents, Z-scores, T-scores, standard nines, and percentages in standard nines.
Statistics
–
Gerolamo Cardano, the earliest pioneer on the mathematics of probability.
Statistics
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Karl Pearson, a founder of mathematical statistics.
23.
Inside Higher Ed
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Inside Higher Ed is a daily online publication focused on college and university topics, based in Washington, D. C. It was founded in 2004 by Kathlene Collins, formerly a business manager for The Chronicle of Higher Education, typical daily content includes several news stories, announcements of newly hired college and university administrators and faculty, and brief items called Quick Takes. Scott McLemee writes the weekly Intellectual Affairs column, the Views section features columns from faculty and administration contributors. The website also hosts several blogs on topics, including Confessions of a Community College Dean. The business founders expected that most of Inside Higher Eds revenue would come from employment advertising and services for employment recruiters
Inside Higher Ed
–
Inside Higher Ed
24.
Citation
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Broadly, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source. Generally the combination of both the citation and the bibliographic entry constitutes what is commonly thought of as a citation. References to single, machine-readable assertions in electronic scientific articles are known as nanopublications, each of these citation systems has its advantages and disadvantages. Editors often specify the system to use. A bibliographic citation is a reference to a book, article, web page, citations should supply detail to identify the item uniquely. Different citation systems and styles are used in scientific citation, legal citation, prior art, the arts, and the humanities. Citation content can vary depending on the type of source and may include, Book, author, book title, publisher, date of publication, Journal, author, article title, journal title, date of publication, and page number. Newspaper, author, article title, name of newspaper, section title and page number if desired, web site, author, article and publication title where appropriate, as well as a URL, and a date when the site was accessed. Play, inline citations offer part, scene, and line numbers, for example, In Eugene Onegin, Onegin rejects Tanya when she is free to be his, and only decides he wants her when she is already married. Poem, spaced slashes are used to indicate separate lines of a poem. For example, For I must love because I live / And life in me is what you give, interview, name of interviewer, interview descriptor and date of interview. Along with information such as author, date of publication, title and page numbers, citations of books may include an International Standard Book Number. Specific volumes, articles or other parts of a periodical, may have an associated Serial Item. Electronic documents may have an object identifier. Biomedical research articles may have a PubMed Identifier, broadly speaking, there are two types of citation systems. However, the Council of Science Editors adds a third, the citation-name system, the Vancouver system uses sequential numbers in the text, either bracketed or superscript or both. The numbers refer to either footnotes or endnotes that provide source detail, the notes system may or may not require a full bibliography, depending on whether the writer has used a full-note form or a shortened-note form. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, On Death and Dying 45–60, in a paper with a full bibliography, the shortened note might look like,1
Citation
–
Style guides
25.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
26.
International Standard Serial Number
–
An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
International Standard Serial Number
–
ISSN encoded in an EAN-13 barcode with sequence variant 0 and issue number 5
27.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
OCLC
–
Fred Kilgour (1st director of OCLC)
OCLC
–
Online Computer Library Center (OCLC)
OCLC
–
OCLC headquarters (Ohio)
OCLC
–
OCLC offices in Leiden (the Netherlands)
