1.
Honda
–
Honda Motor Co. Ltd. is a Japanese public multinational conglomerate corporation primarily known as a manufacturer of automobiles, aircraft, motorcycles, and power equipment. Honda became the second-largest Japanese automobile manufacturer in 2001, Honda was the eighth largest automobile manufacturer in the world behind General Motors, Volkswagen Group, Toyota, Hyundai Motor Group, Ford, Nissan, and PSA Peugeot Citroën in 2011. Honda was the first Japanese automobile manufacturer to release a luxury brand, Acura. Aside from their automobile and motorcycle businesses, Honda also manufactures garden equipment, marine engines, personal watercraft and power generators. Since 1986, Honda has been involved with artificial intelligence/robotics research and they have also ventured into aerospace with the establishment of GE Honda Aero Engines in 2004 and the Honda HA-420 HondaJet, which began production in 2012. Honda has three joint-ventures in China, in 2013, Honda invested about 5. 7% of its revenues in research and development. Also in 2013, Honda became the first Japanese automaker to be a net exporter from the United States, exporting 108,705 Honda and Acura models, throughout his life, Hondas founder, Soichiro Honda had an interest in automobiles. He worked as a mechanic at the Art Shokai garage, where he tuned cars, in 1937, with financing from his acquaintance Kato Shichirō, Honda founded Tōkai Seiki to make piston rings working out of the Art Shokai garage. After initial failures, Tōkai Seiki won a contract to supply piston rings to Toyota, Honda also aided the war effort by assisting other companies in automating the production of military aircraft propellers. The relationships Honda cultivated with personnel at Toyota, Nakajima Aircraft Company, with a staff of 12 men working in a 16 m2 shack, they built and sold improvised motorized bicycles, using a supply of 500 two-stroke 50 cc Tohatsu war surplus radio generator engines. When the engines ran out, Honda began building their own copy of the Tohatsu engine and this was the Honda A-Type, nicknamed the Bata Bata for the sound the engine made. In 1949, the Honda Technical Research Institute was liquidated for ¥1,000,000, or about US$5,000 today, at about the same time Honda hired engineer Kihachiro Kawashima, and Takeo Fujisawa who provided indispensable business and marketing expertise to complement Soichiro Hondas technical bent. The close partnership between Soichiro Honda and Fujisawa lasted until they stepped down together in October 1973, the first complete motorcycle, with both the frame and engine made by Honda, was the 1949 D-Type, the first Honda to go by the name Dream. Honda Motor Company grew in a time to become the worlds largest manufacturer of motorcycles by 1964. The first production automobile from Honda was the T360 mini pick-up truck, powered by a small 356-cc straight-4 gasoline engine, it was classified under the cheaper Kei car tax bracket. The first production car from Honda was the S500 sports car and its chain-driven rear wheels pointed to Hondas motorcycle origins. Over the next few decades, Honda worked to expand its line and expanded operations. In 1986, Honda introduced the successful Acura brand to the American market in an attempt to ground in the luxury vehicle market
Honda
–
Honda Headquarters
Honda
–
Honda headquarters building in
Minato, Tokyo
Honda
–
2008
Honda Accord (USA-Canada)
Honda
–
Ninth Generation
Honda Civic (Asian Version)
2.
English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
–
Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
3.
Humanoid robot
–
A humanoid robot is a robot with its body shape built to resemble the human body. The design may be for functional purposes, such as interacting with human tools and environments, for experimental purposes, such as the study of bipedal locomotion, or for other purposes. In general, humanoid robots have a torso, a head, two arms, and two legs, though forms of humanoid robots may model only part of the body, for example. Some humanoid robots also have designed to replicate human facial features such as eyes. Androids are humanoid robots built to resemble humans. Humanoid robots are now used as a tool in several scientific areas. Researchers need to understand the human structure and behavior to build. On the other side, the attempt to the simulation of the body leads to a better understanding of it. Human cognition is a field of study which is focused on how humans learn from sensory information in order to acquire perceptual and this knowledge is used to develop computational models of human behavior and it has been improving over time. It has been suggested that very advanced robotics will facilitate the enhancement of ordinary humans, although the initial aim of humanoid research was to build better orthosis and prosthesis for human beings, knowledge has been transferred between both disciplines. A few examples are, powered leg prosthesis for neuromuscularly impaired, ankle-foot orthosis, biological realistic leg prosthesis and forearm prosthesis. Besides the research, humanoid robots are being developed to perform tasks like personal assistance, where they should be able to assist the sick and elderly. Regular jobs like being a receptionist or a worker of a manufacturing line are also suitable for humanoids. However, the complexity of doing so is immense and they are becoming increasingly popular for providing entertainment too. For example, Ursula, a robot, sings, play music, dances. Several Disney attractions employ the use of animatrons, robots that look, move and these animatrons look so realistic that it can be hard to decipher from a distance whether or not they are actually human. Although they have a look, they have no cognition or physical autonomy. Various humanoid robots and their applications in daily life are featured in an independent documentary film called Plug & Pray
Humanoid robot
–
TOPIO, a humanoid robot, played
ping pong at Tokyo
International Robot Exhibition (IREX) 2009.
Humanoid robot
–
Nao is a robot created for companionship. It also competes in the
RoboCup soccer championship.
Humanoid robot
–
Enon was created to be a personal assistant. It is self-guiding and has limited speech recognition and synthesis. It can also carry things.
Humanoid robot
–
Main articles
4.
Japan
–
Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
Japan
–
The
Golden Hall and
five-storey pagoda of
Hōryū-ji, among the oldest wooden buildings in the world,
National Treasures, and a
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Japan
Japan
–
Samurai warriors face Mongols, during the
Mongol invasions of Japan. The
Kamikaze, two storms, are said to have saved Japan from Mongol fleets.
Japan
–
Samurai could
kill a commoner for the slightest insult and were widely feared by the Japanese population.
Edo period, 1798
5.
Tokyo
–
Tokyo, officially Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan and one of its 47 prefectures. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous area in the world. It is the seat of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese government, Tokyo is in the Kantō region on the southeastern side of the main island Honshu and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Formerly known as Edo, it has been the de facto seat of government since 1603 when Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarters. It officially became the capital after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from the old capital of Kyoto in 1868, Tokyo Metropolis was formed in 1943 from the merger of the former Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo. The Tokyo metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, the metropolitan government also administers 39 municipalities in the western part of the prefecture and the two outlying island chains. The population of the wards is over 9 million people. The prefecture is part of the worlds most populous metropolitan area with upwards of 37.8 million people, the city hosts 51 of the Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest number of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked third in the International Financial Centres Development IndexEdit, the city is also home to various television networks such as Fuji TV, Tokyo MX, TV Tokyo, TV Asahi, Nippon Television, NHK and the Tokyo Broadcasting System. Tokyo ranked first in the Global Economic Power Index and fourth in the Global Cities Index. The city is considered a world city – as listed by the GaWCs 2008 inventory – and in 2014. In 2015, Tokyo was named the Most Liveable City in the world by the magazine Monocle, the Michelin Guide has awarded Tokyo by far the most Michelin stars of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked first in the world in the Safe Cities Index, the 2016 edition of QS Best Student Cities ranked Tokyo as the 3rd-best city in the world to be a university student. Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics, the 1979 G-7 summit, the 1986 G-7 summit, and the 1993 G-7 summit, and will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, Tokyo was originally known as Edo, which means estuary. During the early Meiji period, the city was also called Tōkei, some surviving official English documents use the spelling Tokei. However, this pronunciation is now obsolete, the name Tokyo was first suggested in 1813 in the book Kondō Hisaku, written by Satō Nobuhiro. When Ōkubo Toshimichi proposed the renaming to the government during the Meiji Restoration, according to Oda Kanshi, Tokyo was originally a small fishing village named Edo, in what was formerly part of the old Musashi Province. Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan, in the twelfth century
Tokyo
–
Clockwise from top:
Nishi-Shinjuku,
Rainbow Bridge,
National Diet Building,
Shibuya,
Tokyo Skytree
Tokyo
–
Satellite photo of Tokyo's 23 Special wards taken by
NASA 's
Landsat 7
Tokyo
–
Tokugawa Ieyasu
Tokyo
–
Ginza area in 1933
6.
Honda E series
–
The E-series was a collection of successive humanoid robots created by the Honda Motor Company between the years of 1986 and 1993. These robots were only experimental, but later evolved into the Honda P series, with Honda eventually amassing the knowledge and experience necessary to create Hondas advanced humanoid robot, ASIMO. The fact that Honda had been developing the robots was kept secret from the public until the announcement of the Honda P2 in 1996, e0, developed in 1986, was the very first robot. It walked in a line on two feet, in a manner resembling human locomotion, taking around 5 seconds to complete a single step. Quickly engineers realised that in order to walk up slopes, the robot would need to travel faster, the model has 6 degrees of freedom,1 in each groin,1 in each knee and 1 in each ankle. E0 developed in 1986 E1, developed in 1987, was larger than the first and this model and subsequent E-series robots have 12 degrees of freedom,3 in each groin,1 in each knee and 2 in each ankle. E2, developed in 1989, could travel at 1. 2km/h, e3, developed in 1991, travelled at 3km/h, the average speed of a walking human. E4, developed in 1991, lengthened the knee to achieve speeds of up to 4
Honda E series
–
Image
7.
Honda P series
–
The P-series is a chronological progression of prototype humanoid robots as developed by Honda. The research conducted allowed the creation of ASIMO. 2. ^ – The P4 was developed in 2000 and originally unveiled as P3-improved prototype, the model was announced as the P4 in 2009. Honda E series, experimental models Humanoid Robotics Project, the HRP-1 is a variant of the Honda P3, official website for the Honda P1, P2 and P3 Specification source
Honda P series
–
P3 model (left) compared to ASIMO
Honda P series
–
P1, P2, P3 and P4 (from left to right)
Honda P series
–
Image
8.
Lithium-ion battery
–
A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as one electrode material, the electrolyte, which allows for ionic movement, and the two electrodes are the constituent components of a lithium-ion battery cell. Lithium-ion batteries are common in home electronics and they are one of the most popular types of rechargeable batteries for portable electronics, with a high energy density, tiny memory effect and low self-discharge. Beyond consumer electronics, LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, battery electric vehicle, for example, lithium-ion batteries are becoming a common replacement for the lead–acid batteries that have been used historically for golf carts and utility vehicles. Chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across LIB types, handheld electronics mostly use LIBs based on lithium cobalt oxide, which offers high energy density, but presents safety risks, especially when damaged. Lithium iron phosphate, lithium ion manganese oxide battery and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide offer lower energy density, such batteries are widely used for electric tools, medical equipment and other roles. NMC in particular is a contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide and lithium titanate are specialty designs aimed at particular niche roles, the newer lithium–sulfur batteries promise the highest performance-to-weight ratio. Lithium-ion batteries can pose unique safety hazards since they contain a flammable electrolyte, an expert notes If a battery cell is charged too quickly, it can cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires. Because of these risks, testing standards are more stringent than those for acid-electrolyte batteries, there have been battery-related recalls by some companies, including the 2016 Samsung Note 7 recall for battery fires. This article covers just the topics and general principles of lithium-ion batteries. Nearly all facets have elements that are impacted by currently very active development or research, a cell is a basic electrochemical unit that contains the basic components, such as electrodes, separator, and electrolyte. In the case of cells, this is the single cylindrical, prismatic or pouch unit. In this regard, the simplest battery is a cell with perhaps a small electronic circuit for protection. In many cases, distinguishing between cell and battery is not important, however, this should be done when dealing with specific applications, for example, battery electric vehicles, where battery may indicate a high voltage system of 400 V, and not a single cell. The term module is used as an intermediate topology, with the understanding that a battery pack is made of modules. In electrochemistry, the anode is the electrode where oxidation is taking place in the battery, i. e. electrons get free, however, this happens on opposite electrodes during charge vs. discharge. Historically, for lithium cells, which started as single use discharge cells and this is true on discharge, but with a rechargeable system, the negative electrode chemically becomes the cathode while charging
Lithium-ion battery
–
An example of a Li-ion battery (used on the
Nokia 3310 mobile phone)
Lithium-ion battery
–
Varta lithium-ion battery,
Museum Autovision,
Altlussheim, Germany
Lithium-ion battery
–
Cylindrical 18650 lithium iron phosphate cell before closing
Lithium-ion battery
–
Nissan Leaf 's lithium-ion battery pack.
9.
Nickel metal hydride
–
A nickel–metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH or Ni–MH, is a type of rechargeable battery. The chemical reaction at the electrode is similar to that of the nickel–cadmium cell. However, the negative electrodes use a hydrogen-absorbing alloy instead of cadmium, a NiMH battery can have two to three times the capacity of an equivalent size NiCd, and its energy density can approach that of a lithium-ion battery. Work on NiMH batteries began at the Battelle-Geneva Research Center following the invention in 1967. It was based on sintered Ti2Ni+TiNi+x alloys and NiOOH-electrodes, development was sponsored over nearly two decades by Daimler-Benz and by Volkswagen AG within Deutsche Automobilgesellschaft, now a subsidiary of Daimler AG. The batteries specific energy reached 50 W·h/kg, power density up to 1000 W/kg, patent applications were filed in European countries, the United States, and Japan. Interest grew in the 1970s with the commercialisation of the battery for satellite applications. Hydride technology promised an alternative, less bulky way to store the hydrogen, Research carried out by Philips Laboratories and Frances CNRS developed new high-energy hybrid alloys incorporating rare earth metals for the negative electrode. However, these suffered from instability in alkaline electrolyte and consequently insufficient cycle life. In 1987, Willems and Buschow demonstrated a successful battery based on this approach which kept 84% of its capacity after 4000 charge–discharge cycles. More economically viable alloys using mischmetal instead of lanthanum were soon developed, modern NiMH cells were based on this design. The first consumer grade NiMH cells became commercially available in 1989, in 1998, Ovonic Battery Co. improved the Ti–Ni alloy structure and composition and patented its innovations. In 2008, more than two million cars worldwide were manufactured with NiMH batteries. In the European Union and due to its Battery Directive, nickel–metal hydride batteries replaced Ni–Cd batteries for portable consumer use, about 22% of portable rechargeable batteries sold in Japan in 2010 were NiMH. In Switzerland in 2009, the equivalent statistic was approximately 60% and this percentage has fallen over time due to the increase in manufacture of lithium-ion batteries, in 2000, almost half of all portable rechargeable batteries sold in Japan were NiMH. The negative electrode reaction occurring in a NiMH cell is, H2O + M + e− ⇌ OH− + MH The charge reaction is read left-to-right and the discharge reaction is read right-to-left. On the positive electrode, nickel oxyhydroxide, NiO, is formed, many different compounds have been developed for this application, but those in current use fall into two classes. The most common is AB5, where A is a rare mixture of lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, praseodymium and B is nickel, cobalt, manganese
Nickel metal hydride
–
Modern NiMH rechargeable cells
Nickel metal hydride
–
Positive terminal
Nickel metal hydride
–
NiMH cell that popped its cap due to failed safety valve
Nickel metal hydride
–
High power Ni–MH battery of
Toyota NHW20 Prius,
Japan
10.
Die (integrated circuit)
–
A die in the context of integrated circuits is a small block of semiconducting material, on which a given functional circuit is fabricated. Typically, integrated circuits are produced in batches on a single wafer of electronic-grade silicon or other semiconductor through processes such as photolithography. The wafer is cut into pieces, each containing one copy of the circuit. Each of these pieces is called a die, there are three commonly used plural forms, dice, dies, and die
Die (integrated circuit)
–
Single NPN
bipolar junction transistor die.
Die (integrated circuit)
–
A small-scale integrated circuit die, with
bond wires attached.
Die (integrated circuit)
–
A
VLSI integrated-circuit die.
Die (integrated circuit)
–
Two dice bonded onto one
chip carrier.
11.
Gesture recognition
–
Gesture recognition is a topic in computer science and language technology with the goal of interpreting human gestures via mathematical algorithms. Gestures can originate from any motion or state but commonly originate from the face or hand. Current focuses in the field include emotion recognition from face and hand gesture recognition, users can use simple gestures to control or interact with devices without physically touching them. Many approaches have been made using cameras and computer algorithms to interpret sign language. However, the identification and recognition of posture, gait, proxemics, Gesture recognition enables humans to communicate with the machine and interact naturally without any mechanical devices. Using the concept of recognition, it is possible to point a finger at the computer screen so that the cursor will move accordingly. Gesture recognition can be conducted with techniques from computer vision and image processing, the literature includes ongoing work in the computer vision field on capturing gestures or more general human pose and movements by cameras connected to a computer. Such implementations could enable a new range of hardware that does not require monitors and this idea may lead to the creation of holographic display. The term gesture recognition has been used to more narrowly to non-text-input handwriting symbols, such as inking on a graphics tablet, multi-touch gestures. This is computer interaction through the drawing of symbols with a pointing device cursor, in computer interfaces, two types of gestures are distinguished, We consider online gestures, which can also be regarded as direct manipulations like scaling and rotating. In contrast, offline gestures are usually processed after the interaction is finished, offline gestures, Those gestures that are processed after the user interaction with the object. An example is the gesture to activate a menu and they are used to scale or rotate a tangible object. The ability to track a persons movements and determine what gestures they may be performing can be achieved through various tools, the kinetic user interfaces are an emerging type of user interfaces that allow users to interact with computing devices through the motion of objects and bodies. Examples of KUIs include tangible user interfaces and motion-aware games such as Wii and Microsofts Kinect, although there is a large amount of research done in image/video based gesture recognition, there is some variation within the tools and environments used between implementations. These can provide input to the computer about the position and rotation of the hands using magnetic or inertial tracking devices. Furthermore, some gloves can detect finger bending with a degree of accuracy, or even provide haptic feedback to the user. The first commercially available hand-tracking glove-type device was the DataGlove, a device which could detect hand position, movement. This uses fiber optic cables running down the back of the hand, light pulses are created and when the fingers are bent, light leaks through small cracks and the loss is registered, giving an approximation of the hand pose
Gesture recognition
–
A child being sensed by a simple gesture recognition algorithm detecting hand location and movement
Gesture recognition
Gesture recognition
–
A real hand (left) is interpreted as a collection of vertices and lines in the 3D mesh version (right), and the software uses their relative position and interaction in order to infer the gesture.
Gesture recognition
–
The skeletal version (right) is effectively modelling the hand (left). This has fewer parameters than the volumetric version and it's easier to compute, making it suitable for real-time gesture analysis systems.
12.
Face recognition
–
A face recognition system is a computer application capable of identifying or verifying a person from a digital image or a video frame from a video source. One of the ways to do this is by comparing selected facial features from the image and it is typically used in security systems and can be compared to other biometrics such as fingerprint or eye iris recognition systems. Recently, it has become popular as a commercial identification. Some face recognition algorithms identify facial features by extracting landmarks, or features, for example, an algorithm may analyze the relative position, size, and/or shape of the eyes, nose, cheekbones, and jaw. These features are used to search for other images with matching features. Other algorithms normalize a gallery of images and then compress the face data. A probe image is compared with the face data. One of the earliest successful systems is based on template matching techniques applied to a set of salient facial features, a newly emerging trend, claimed to achieve improved accuracy, is three-dimensional face recognition. This technique uses 3D sensors to capture information about the shape of a face and this information is then used to identify distinctive features on the surface of a face, such as the contour of the eye sockets, nose, and chin. One advantage of 3D face recognition is that it is not affected by changes in lighting like other techniques and it can also identify a face from a range of viewing angles, including a profile view. Three-dimensional data points from a face vastly improve the precision of face recognition, 3D research is enhanced by the development of sophisticated sensors that do a better job of capturing 3D face imagery. The sensors work by projecting structured light onto the face, up to a dozen or more of these image sensors can be placed on the same CMOS chip—each sensor captures a different part of the spectrum. Even a perfect 3D matching technique could be sensitive to expressions, for that goal a group at the Technion applied tools from metric geometry to treat expressions as isometries A company called Vision Access created a firm solution for 3D face recognition. The company was acquired by the biometric access company Bioscrypt Inc. which developed a version known as 3D FastPass. All these cameras will work together so it can track a subject’s face in real time and be able to face detect, another emerging trend uses the visual details of the skin, as captured in standard digital or scanned images. This technique, called skin texture analysis, turns the unique lines, patterns, tests have shown that with the addition of skin texture analysis, performance in recognizing faces can increase 20 to 25 percent. A problem with using thermal pictures for face recognition is that the databases for face recognition is limited. Diego Socolinsky, and Andrea Selinger research the use of face recognition in real life, and operation sceneries
Face recognition
–
Swiss European
surveillance: facial recognition and vehicle make, model, color and
license plate reader
13.
Handshake
–
A handshake is a short ritual in which two people grasp one of each others like hands, in most cases accompanied by a brief up and down movement of the grasped hands. Using the right hand is considered proper etiquette. Customs surrounding handshakes are specific to cultures, different cultures may be more or less likely to shake hands, or there may be different customs about how or when to shake hands. Handshakes are known to spread germs, the handshake is thought by some to have originated as a gesture of peace by demonstrating that the hand holds no weapon. In sports or other activities, it is also done as a sign of good sportsmanship. Its purpose is to convey trust, respect, balance, if it is done to form an agreement, the agreement is not official until the hands are parted Unless health issues or local customs dictate otherwise, usually a handshake is made with bare hands. However, it depends on the situation, in Anglophone countries, in business situations. In casual non-business situations, men are likely to shake hands than women. In The Netherlands and Belgium, handshakes are done more often, in Switzerland, it may be expected to shake the womens hands first. Austrians shake hands when meeting, often including with children, in Russia, a handshake is rarely performed by opposite sexes. Men shaking hands with women can be considered impolite, since hand-kissing is preferred as a ritual for greeting a lady, however, kissing the hand is considered unsuitable for business situations. In some countries such as Turkey or the Arabic-speaking Middle East, consequently, a grip which is too firm will be considered as rude. Hand shaking between men and women is not encouraged in countries where the majority religion is Islam, moroccans also give one kiss on each cheek together with the handshake. Also, in countries, a variation exists where instead of kisses. In China, where a weak handshake is preferred, people shaking hands will often hold on to each others hands for an extended period after the initial handshake. In Japan, it is appropriate to let the Japanese initiate the handshake, in India and several nearby countries, the respectful Namaste gesture, sometimes combined with a slight bow, is traditionally used in place of handshakes. However, handshakes are preferred in business and other formal settings, in Norway, where a firm handshake is preferred, people will most often shake hands when agreeing on deals, both in private and business relations. In South Korea, a person will initiate a handshake
Handshake
–
Two men shaking hands
Handshake
Handshake
–
Hera and
Athena handshaking, late 5th century BC,
Acropolis Museum, Athens
Handshake
–
Hoplite greeting an older man with slave carrying the
aspis
14.
Autonomous navigation
–
Some modern factory robots are autonomous within the strict confines of their direct environment. It may not be that every degree of freedom exists in their surrounding environment, the exact orientation and position of the next object of work and even the type of object and the required task must be determined. One important area of research is to enable the robot to cope with its environment whether this be on land, underwater, in the air, underground. Like other machines, autonomous robots still require regular maintenance, the first requirement for complete physical autonomy is the ability for a robot to take care of itself. Many of the robots on the market today can find and connect to a charging station. Self-maintenance is based on proprioception, or sensing ones own internal status, in the battery charging example, the robot can tell proprioceptively that its batteries are low and it then seeks the charger. Another common proprioceptive sensor is for heat monitoring, increased proprioception will be required for robots to work autonomously near people and in harsh environments. Common proprioceptive sensors include thermal, optical, and haptic sensing, exteroception is sensing things about the environment. Autonomous robots must have a range of sensors to perform their task. Common exteroceptive sensors include the spectrum, sound, touch, chemical, temperature, range to various objects. The next step in autonomous behavior is to perform a physical task. A new area showing commercial promise is domestic robots, with a flood of small vacuuming robots beginning with iRobot, while the level of intelligence is not high in these systems, they navigate over wide areas and pilot in tight situations around homes using contact and non-contact sensors. Both of these robots use proprietary algorithms to increase coverage over simple random bounce, the next level of autonomous task performance requires a robot to perform conditional tasks. For instance, security robots can be programmed to detect intruders, for a robot to associate behaviors with a place requires it to know where it is and to be able to navigate point-to-point. Such navigation began with wire-guidance in the 1970s and progressed in the early 2000s to beacon-based triangulation, current commercial robots autonomously navigate based on sensing natural features. The first commercial robots to achieve this were Pyxus HelpMate hospital robot and these robots originally used manually created CAD floor plans, sonar sensing and wall-following variations to navigate buildings. Their control system changes its path on the fly if something blocks the way, at first, autonomous navigation was based on planar sensors, such as laser range-finders, that can only sense at one level. The most advanced systems now fuse information from sensors for both localization and navigation
Autonomous navigation
–
Robot GUI display showing battery voltage and other proprioceptive data in lower right-hand corner. The display is for user information only. Autonomous robots monitor and respond to
proprioceptive sensors without human intervention to keep themselves safe and operating properly.
Autonomous navigation
–
The Seekur and MDARS robots demonstrate their autonomous navigation and security capabilities at an airbase. (Courtesy of MobileRobots Inc)
Autonomous navigation
–
Main articles
15.
Laser sensor
–
In modern engineering, the term laser scanning is used with two related, but separate meanings. The first, more general, meaning is the deflection of laser beams. The second, more specific, meaning is the steering of laser beams followed by a distance measurement at every pointing direction. This method, often called 3D object scanning, 3D laser scanning or lidar, is used to rapidly capture shapes of objects, buildings, a laser rangefinder is a device which uses a laser beam to determine the distance to an object. This article focuses on the meaning, i. e. on the methods. Most laser scanners use moveable mirrors to steer the laser beam, the steering of the beam can be one-dimensional, as inside a laser printer, or two-dimensional, as in a laser show system. One also uses the terms raster scanning and vector scanning to distinguish the two situations, to control the scanning motion, scanners need a rotary encoder and control electronics that provide, for a desired angle or phase, the suitable electric current to the motor or galvanometer. A software system usually controls the motion and, if 3D scanning is implemented. Each of the two flat or polygonal mirrors is then driven by a galvanometer or by an electric motor, two-dimensional systems are essential for most applications in material processing, confocal microscopy, and medical science. Some applications require positioning the focus of a beam in three dimensions. This is achieved by a lens system, usually called a focus shifter or z-shifter. Many laser scanners further allow changing the laser intensity, in laser projectors for laser TV or laser displays, the three fundamental colors - red, blue, and green - are combined in a single beam and then reflected together with two mirrors. The most common way to move mirrors is, as mentioned, however, piezoelectric actuators or magnetostrictive actuators are alternative options. They offer higher achievable angular speeds, but often at the expense of smaller achievable maximum angles, there are also microscanners, which are MEMS devices containing a small mirror that has controllable tilt in one or two dimensions, these are used in pico projectors. When two Risley prisms are rotated against each other, a beam of light can be scanned at will inside a cone, such scanners are used for tracking missiles. When two optical lenses are moved or rotated against each other, a beam can be scanned in a way similar to mirror scanners. Some special laser scanners use, instead of moving mirrors, acousto-optic deflectors or electro-optic deflectors and these mechanisms allow the highest scanning frequencies possible so far. They are used, for example, in laser TV systems, on the other hand, these systems are also much more expensive than mirror scanning systems
Laser sensor
–
Laser scanning module with two galvanometers, from Scanlab AG. The red arrow shows the path of the laser beam.
Laser sensor
–
A high speed mobile laser scanning system for 3D data acquisition mounted on an automobile.
16.
Infrared sensor
–
A thermographic camera is a device that forms an image using infrared radiation, similar to a common camera that forms an image using visible light. Instead of the 400–700 nanometre range of the visible light camera, infrared was discovered in 1800 by Sir William Herschel as a form of radiation beyond red light. These infrared rays were used mainly for thermal measurement, there are four basic laws of IR radiation, Kirchhoffs law of thermal radiation, Stefan-Boltzmann law, Planck’s law, and Wien’s displacement law. The development of detectors was mainly focused on the use of thermometer, leopoldo Nobili fabricated the first thermocouple in 1829, which paved the way for Macedonio Melloni to show that a person 10 meters away could be detected with his multielement thermopile. The bolometer was invented in 1878 by Langley and it had the capability to detect radiation from a cow from 400 meters away, and was sensitive to differences in temperature of one hundred thousandth of a degree Celsius. The first advanced application of IR technology in the section may have been a device to detect the presence of icebergs and steamships using a mirror and thermopile. This was soon outdone by the first true IR iceberg detector and this was followed up by G. A. Barker’s proposal to use the IR system to detect forest fires in 1934, the technique was not truly industrialized until it was used in the analysis of heating uniformity in hot steel strips in 1935. In 1929, Hungarian physicist Kálmán Tihanyi invented the infrared-sensitive electronic television camera for anti-aircraft defense in Britain, the first thermographic cameras began with the development of the first infrared line scanner. This was created by the US military and Texas Instruments in 1947, the first infrared linescan system was the British Yellow Duckling of the mid 1950s. This used a rotating mirror and detector, with Y axis scanning by the motion of the carrier aircraft. Although unsuccessful in its application of submarine tracking by wake detection, it was applied to land-based surveillance. This work was developed at the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment in the UK when they discovered mercury cadmium telluride could be used as a conductor that required much less cooling. Honeywell in the United States also developed arrays of detectors which could cool at a lower temperature and this method had several disadvantages which could be overcome using an electronically scanning system. Tompsett also proposed an idea for solid-state thermal-imaging arrays, which led to modern hybridized single-crystal-slice imaging devices. One of the most important areas of development for security systems was for the ability to evaluate a signal. Under the encouragement of the United States Strategic Defense Initiative, smart sensors began to appear and these are sensors that could integrate sensing, signal extraction, processing, and comprehension. There are two types of Smart Sensors
Infrared sensor
–
Image of a small dog taken in mid-infrared ("thermal") light (
false-color)
Infrared sensor
–
A thermal image showing temperature variation in a hot air balloon.
Infrared sensor
–
Thermographic image of a ringtailed lemur
Infrared sensor
–
Hot hooves indicate a sick cow
17.
IPhone
–
IPhone is a line of smartphones designed and marketed by Apple Inc. They run Apples iOS mobile operating system, the first generation iPhone was released on June 29,2007, the most recent iPhone model is the iPhone 7, which was unveiled at a special event on September 7,2016. The user interface is built around the devices multi-touch screen, including a virtual keyboard, the iPhone has Wi-Fi and can connect to cellular networks. Other functionality, such as games, reference works, and social networking. As of January 2017, Apples App Store contained more than 2.2 million applications available for the iPhone, Apple has released ten generations of iPhone models, each accompanied by one of the ten major releases of the iOS operating system. The iPhone 5 featured a taller, 4-inch display and Apples newly introduced Lightning connector, in 2013, Apple released the 5S with improved hardware and a fingerprint reader, and the lower-cost 5C, a version of the 5 with colored plastic casings instead of metal. They were followed by the larger iPhone 6, with models featuring 4.7 and 5. 5-inch displays.5 mm headphone jack found on previous phones. The iPhones commercial success has been credited with reshaping the smartphone industry, the original iPhone was one of the first phones to use a design featuring a slate format with a touchscreen interface. Almost all modern smartphones have replicated this style of design, in the US, the iPhone holds the largest share of the smartphone market. As of late 2015, the iPhone had a 43. 6% market share, followed by Samsung, LG, Apple CEO Steve Jobs steered the original focus away from a tablet and towards a phone. Apple created the device during a collaboration with Cingular Wireless at the time—at an estimated development cost of US$150 million over thirty months. Apple rejected the design by committee approach that had yielded the Motorola ROKR E1, among other deficiencies, the ROKR E1s firmware limited storage to only 100 iTunes songs to avoid competing with Apples iPod nano. Jobs unveiled the iPhone to the public on January 9,2007, the passionate reaction to the launch of the iPhone resulted in sections of the media dubbing it the Jesus phone. Following this successful release in the US, the first generation iPhone was made available in the UK, France, and Germany in November 2007, on July 11,2008, Apple released the iPhone 3G in twenty-two countries, including the original six. Apple released the iPhone 3G in upwards of eighty countries and territories. Apple announced the iPhone 3GS on June 8,2009, along with plans to release it later in June, July, many would-be users objected to the iPhones cost, and 40% of users had household incomes over US$100,000. The back of the original first generation iPhone was made of aluminum with a black plastic accent, the iPhone 3G and 3GS feature a full plastic back to increase the strength of the GSM signal. The iPhone 3G was available in an 8 GB black model, the iPhone 3GS was available in both colors, regardless of storage capacity
IPhone
–
The top and side of an iPhone 5S, externally identical to the iPhone 5. From left to right, sides: wake/sleep button, silence switch, volume controls.
IPhone
–
From left to right is the headphone jack, microphone, Lightning connector, and built-in speaker on the base of the iPhone 5S.
IPhone
–
Replacing the battery requires disassembling the iPhone unit and exposing the internal hardware
IPhone
–
An iPhone 5S with the SIM slot open. The SIM ejector tool is still placed in the eject hole.
18.
Android (operating system)
–
Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google, based on the Linux kernel and designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. In addition to devices, Google has further developed Android TV for televisions, Android Auto for cars. Variants of Android are also used on notebooks, game consoles, digital cameras, beginning with the first commercial Android device in September 2008, the operating system has gone through multiple major releases, with the current version being 7.0 Nougat, released in August 2016. Android applications can be downloaded from the Google Play store, which features over 2.7 million apps as of February 2017, Android has been the best-selling OS on tablets since 2013, and runs on the vast majority of smartphones. In September 2015, Android had 1.4 billion monthly active users, Android is popular with technology companies that require a ready-made, low-cost and customizable operating system for high-tech devices. The success of Android has made it a target for patent, Android Inc. was founded in Palo Alto, California in October 2003 by Andy Rubin, Rich Miner, Nick Sears, and Chris White. Rubin described the Android project as tremendous potential in developing smarter mobile devices that are aware of its owners location. The early intentions of the company were to develop an operating system for digital cameras. Despite the past accomplishments of the founders and early employees, Android Inc. operated secretly and that same year, Rubin ran out of money. Steve Perlman, a friend of Rubin, brought him $10,000 in cash in an envelope. In July 2005, Google acquired Android Inc. for at least $50 million and its key employees, including Rubin, Miner and White, joined Google as part of the acquisition. Not much was known about Android at the time, with Rubin having only stated that they were making software for mobile phones, at Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the Linux kernel. Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system, Google had lined up a series of hardware components and software partners and signaled to carriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation. Speculation about Googles intention to enter the communications market continued to build through December 2006. In September 2007, InformationWeek covered an Evalueserve study reporting that Google had filed several patent applications in the area of mobile telephony, the first commercially available smartphone running Android was the HTC Dream, also known as T-Mobile G1, announced on September 23,2008. Since 2008, Android has seen numerous updates which have improved the operating system, adding new features. Each major release is named in order after a dessert or sugary treat, with the first few Android versions being called Cupcake, Donut, Eclair. In 2010, Google launched its Nexus series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers to produce new devices and introduce new Android versions
Android (operating system)
–
Eric Schmidt,
Andy Rubin and
Hugo Barra at a 2012 press conference announcing Google's Nexus 7 tablet
Android (operating system)
–
Android green figure, next to its original packaging
Android (operating system)
–
Android-x86 running on an ASUS
EeePC netbook; Android has been unofficially ported to traditional PCs for use as a desktop operating system.
Android (operating system)
–
Ouya, a
video game console which runs Android.
19.
Smartphone
–
A smartphone is a mobile phone with an advanced mobile operating system that combines features of a personal computer operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use. Smartphones can access the Internet and can run a variety of third-party software components and they typically have a color display with a graphical user interface that covers more than 76% of the front surface. In 1999, the Japanese firm NTT DoCoMo released the first smartphones to achieve mass adoption within a country, smartphones became widespread in the late 2000s. Most of those produced from 2012 onward have high-speed mobile broadband 4G LTE, motion sensors, in the third quarter of 2012, one billion smartphones were in use worldwide. Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for regular cell phones in early 2013, devices that combined telephony and computing were first conceptualized by Nikola Tesla in 1909 and Theodore Paraskevakos in 1971 and patented in 1974, and were offered for sale beginning in 1993. Paraskevakos was the first to introduce the concepts of intelligence, data processing and they were installed at Peoples Telephone Company in Leesburg, Alabama and were demonstrated to several telephone companies. The original and historic working models are still in the possession of Paraskevakos, the first mobile phone to incorporate PDA features was a prototype developed by Frank Canova in 1992 while at IBM and demonstrated that year at the COMDEX computer industry trade show. It included PDA features and other mobile applications such as maps, stock reports. A refined version was marketed to consumers in 1994 by BellSouth under the name Simon Personal Communicator, the Simon was the first commercially available device that could be properly referred to as a smartphone, although it was not called that in 1994. The term smart phone appeared in print as early as 1995, in the mid-late 1990s, many mobile phone users carried a separate dedicated PDA device, running early versions of operating systems such as Palm OS, BlackBerry OS or Windows CE/Pocket PC. These operating systems would later evolve into mobile operating systems, in March 1996, Hewlett-Packard released the OmniGo 700LX, a modified HP 200LX palmtop PC that supported a Nokia 2110 phone with ROM-based software to support it. It had a 640×200 resolution CGA compatible four-shade gray-scale LCD screen and could be used to place and receive calls and it was also 100% DOS5.0 compatible, allowing it to run thousands of existing software titles, including early versions of Windows. In August 1996, Nokia released the Nokia 9000 Communicator, a cellular phone based on the Nokia 2110 with an integrated PDA based on the PEN/GEOS3.0 operating system from Geoworks. The two components were attached by a hinge in what known as a clamshell design, with the display above. The PDA provided e-mail, calendar, address book, calculator and notebook applications, text-based Web browsing, when closed, the device could be used as a digital cellular phone. In June 1999 Qualcomm released the pdQ Smartphone, a CDMA digital PCS Smartphone with an integrated Palm PDA, subsequent landmark devices included, The Ericsson R380 by Ericsson Mobile Communications. The first device marketed as a smartphone, it combined the functions of a phone and PDA. The Kyocera 6035 introduced by Palm, Inc, combining a PDA with a mobile phone, it operated on the Verizon network, and supported limited Web browsing
Smartphone
–
The first caller identification receiver (1971)
Smartphone
–
An
Apple iPhone 5S
Smartphone
–
BlackBerry Z10 (2013)
Smartphone
–
Samsung Galaxy Note smartphones running
Android
20.
Running
–
Running is a method of terrestrial locomotion allowing humans and other animals to move rapidly on foot. Running is a type of gait characterized by a phase in which all feet are above the ground. The term running can refer to any of a variety of speeds ranging from jogging to sprinting and it is assumed that the ancestors of mankind developed the ability to run for long distances about 2.6 million years ago, probably in order to hunt animals. Competitive running grew out of religious festivals in various areas, records of competitive racing date back to the Tailteann Games in Ireland in 1829 BCE, while the first recorded Olympic Games took place in 776 BCE. Running has been described as the worlds most accessible sport and it is thought that human running evolved at least four and a half million years ago out of the ability of the ape-like Australopithecus, an early ancestor of humans, to walk upright on two legs. The theory as first proposed used comparative physiological evidence and the habits of animals when running, indicating the likelihood of this activity as a successful hunting method. Further evidence from observation of modern-day hunting practice also indicated this likelihood, according to Sears scientific investigation of the Nariokotome Skeleton provided further evidence for the Carrier theory. Competitive running grew out of religious festivals in various such as Greece, Egypt, Asia. The Tailteann Games, an Irish sporting festival in honor of the goddess Tailtiu, dates back to 1829 BCE, the origins of the Olympics and Marathon running are shrouded by myth and legend, though the first recorded games took place in 776 BCE. Seeing that they were moving and running, from their running nature they were called Gods or runners. Running gait can be divided into two phases in regard to the extremity, stance and swing. These can be divided into absorption, propulsion, initial swing. Due to the nature of running gait, no certain point is assumed to be the beginning. However, for simplicity it will be assumed that absorption and footstrike mark the beginning of the cycle in a body already in motion. Footstrike occurs when a portion of the foot makes initial contact with the ground. Common footstrike types include forefoot, midfoot and heel strike types and these are characterized by initial contact of the ball of the foot, ball and heel of the foot simultaneously and heel of the foot respectively. During this time the hip joint is undergoing extension from being in maximal flexion from the swing phase. For proper force absorption, the joint should be flexed upon footstrike
Running
–
Eadweard Muybridge photo sequence
Running
–
A man running with a baton during a relay race.
Running
–
Track running
Running
–
Auto racing
21.
Nickel metal hydride battery
–
A nickel–metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH or Ni–MH, is a type of rechargeable battery. The chemical reaction at the electrode is similar to that of the nickel–cadmium cell. However, the negative electrodes use a hydrogen-absorbing alloy instead of cadmium, a NiMH battery can have two to three times the capacity of an equivalent size NiCd, and its energy density can approach that of a lithium-ion battery. Work on NiMH batteries began at the Battelle-Geneva Research Center following the invention in 1967. It was based on sintered Ti2Ni+TiNi+x alloys and NiOOH-electrodes, development was sponsored over nearly two decades by Daimler-Benz and by Volkswagen AG within Deutsche Automobilgesellschaft, now a subsidiary of Daimler AG. The batteries specific energy reached 50 W·h/kg, power density up to 1000 W/kg, patent applications were filed in European countries, the United States, and Japan. Interest grew in the 1970s with the commercialisation of the battery for satellite applications. Hydride technology promised an alternative, less bulky way to store the hydrogen, Research carried out by Philips Laboratories and Frances CNRS developed new high-energy hybrid alloys incorporating rare earth metals for the negative electrode. However, these suffered from instability in alkaline electrolyte and consequently insufficient cycle life. In 1987, Willems and Buschow demonstrated a successful battery based on this approach which kept 84% of its capacity after 4000 charge–discharge cycles. More economically viable alloys using mischmetal instead of lanthanum were soon developed, modern NiMH cells were based on this design. The first consumer grade NiMH cells became commercially available in 1989, in 1998, Ovonic Battery Co. improved the Ti–Ni alloy structure and composition and patented its innovations. In 2008, more than two million cars worldwide were manufactured with NiMH batteries. In the European Union and due to its Battery Directive, nickel–metal hydride batteries replaced Ni–Cd batteries for portable consumer use, about 22% of portable rechargeable batteries sold in Japan in 2010 were NiMH. In Switzerland in 2009, the equivalent statistic was approximately 60% and this percentage has fallen over time due to the increase in manufacture of lithium-ion batteries, in 2000, almost half of all portable rechargeable batteries sold in Japan were NiMH. The negative electrode reaction occurring in a NiMH cell is, H2O + M + e− ⇌ OH− + MH The charge reaction is read left-to-right and the discharge reaction is read right-to-left. On the positive electrode, nickel oxyhydroxide, NiO, is formed, many different compounds have been developed for this application, but those in current use fall into two classes. The most common is AB5, where A is a rare mixture of lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, praseodymium and B is nickel, cobalt, manganese
Nickel metal hydride battery
–
Modern NiMH rechargeable cells
Nickel metal hydride battery
–
Positive terminal
Nickel metal hydride battery
–
NiMH cell that popped its cap due to failed safety valve
Nickel metal hydride battery
–
High power Ni–MH battery of
Toyota NHW20 Prius,
Japan
22.
Volt
–
The volt is the derived unit for electric potential, electric potential difference, and electromotive force. One volt is defined as the difference in potential between two points of a conducting wire when an electric current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power between those points. It is also equal to the difference between two parallel, infinite planes spaced 1 meter apart that create an electric field of 1 newton per coulomb. Additionally, it is the difference between two points that will impart one joule of energy per coulomb of charge that passes through it. It can also be expressed as amperes times ohms, watts per ampere, or joules per coulomb, for the Josephson constant, KJ = 2e/h, the conventional value KJ-90 is used, K J-90 =0.4835979 GHz μ V. This standard is typically realized using an array of several thousand or tens of thousands of junctions. Empirically, several experiments have shown that the method is independent of device design, material, measurement setup, etc. in the water-flow analogy sometimes used to explain electric circuits by comparing them with water-filled pipes, voltage is likened to difference in water pressure. Current is proportional to the diameter of the pipe or the amount of water flowing at that pressure. A resistor would be a reduced diameter somewhere in the piping, the relationship between voltage and current is defined by Ohms Law. Ohms Law is analogous to the Hagen–Poiseuille equation, as both are linear models relating flux and potential in their respective systems, the voltage produced by each electrochemical cell in a battery is determined by the chemistry of that cell. Cells can be combined in series for multiples of that voltage, mechanical generators can usually be constructed to any voltage in a range of feasibility. High-voltage electric power lines,110 kV and up Lightning, Varies greatly. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of metals to produce electricity was zinc. In 1861, Latimer Clark and Sir Charles Bright coined the name volt for the unit of resistance, by 1873, the British Association for the Advancement of Science had defined the volt, ohm, and farad. In 1881, the International Electrical Congress, now the International Electrotechnical Commission and they made the volt equal to 108 cgs units of voltage, the cgs system at the time being the customary system of units in science. At that time, the volt was defined as the difference across a conductor when a current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power. The international volt was defined in 1893 as 1/1.434 of the emf of a Clark cell and this definition was abandoned in 1908 in favor of a definition based on the international ohm and international ampere until the entire set of reproducible units was abandoned in 1948. Prior to the development of the Josephson junction voltage standard, the volt was maintained in laboratories using specially constructed batteries called standard cells
Volt
–
Josephson junction array chip developed by the
National Bureau of Standards as a standard volt
Volt
–
A
multimeter can be used to measure the voltage between two positions.
Volt
–
1.5 V C-cell batteries
Volt
–
Alessandro Volta
23.
Ampere-hour
–
The commonly seen milliampere hour is one-thousandth of an ampere hour. The ampere hour is used in measurements of electrochemical systems such as electroplating. A milliampere second is a unit of measure used in X-ray imaging, diagnostic imaging and this quantity is proportional to the total X-ray energy produced by a given X-ray tube operated at a particular voltage. The same total dose can be delivered in different time periods depending on the X-ray tube current, an ampere hour is not a unit of energy. In a battery system, for example, accurate calculation of the energy delivered requires integration of the power delivered over the discharge interval, generally, the battery voltage varies during discharge, an average value or nominal value may be used to approximate the integration of power. The Faraday constant is the charge on one mole of electrons and it is used in electrochemical calculations. An AA size dry cell has a capacity of about 2 to 3 ampere hours, automotive car batteries vary in capacity but a large automobile propelled by an internal combustion engine would have about a 50 ampere hour battery capacity. Since one ampere hour can produce 0.336 grams of aluminium from aluminium chloride
Ampere-hour
–
Rechargeable batteries Top: AA battery (2500 mA·h) Bottom: AAA battery (1000 mA·h)
24.
Degrees of freedom (engineering)
–
In physics, the degree of freedom of a mechanical system is the number of independent parameters that define its configuration. The position of a car moving along a track has one degree of freedom because the position of the car is defined by the distance along the track. A train of rigid cars connected by hinges to an engine still has one degree of freedom because the positions of the cars behind the engine are constrained by the shape of the track. An automobile with highly stiff suspension can be considered to be a body traveling on a plane. This body has three independent degrees of freedom consisting of two components of translation and one angle of rotation, skidding or drifting is a good example of an automobiles three independent degrees of freedom. The position and orientation of a body in space is defined by three components of translation and three components of rotation, which means that it has six degrees of freedom. The exact constraint mechanical design method manages the degrees of freedom to neither underconstrain nor overconstrain a device, the number of rotational degrees of freedom comes from the dimension of the rotation group SO. A non-rigid or deformable body may be thought of as a collection of many minute particles, when motion involving large displacements is the main objective of study, a deformable body may be approximated as a rigid body in order to simplify the analysis. The degree of freedom of a system can be viewed as the number of coordinates required to specify a configuration. This reduces the degree of freedom of the system to five, see also Euler angles The trajectory of an airplane in flight has three degrees of freedom and its attitude along the trajectory has three degrees of freedom, for a total of six degrees of freedom. The mobility formula counts the number of parameters that define the configuration of a set of bodies that are constrained by joints connecting these bodies. Consider a system of n rigid bodies moving in space has 6n degrees of freedom measured relative to a fixed frame. In order to count the degrees of freedom of this system, include the frame in the count of bodies. Then the degree-of-freedom of the system of N = n +1 is M =6 n =6. Joints that connect bodies in this system remove degrees of freedom, specifically, hinges and sliders each impose five constraints and therefore remove five degrees of freedom. It is convenient to define the number of constraints c that a joint imposes in terms of the joints freedom f, where c =6 − f. In the case of a hinge or slider, which are one degree of freedom joints, have f =1, the result is that the mobility of a system formed from n moving links and j joints each with freedom fi, i =1. J, is given by M =6 n − ∑ i =1 j =6 + ∑ i =1 j f i Recall that N includes the fixed link, there are two important special cases, a simple open chain, and a simple closed chain
Degrees of freedom (engineering)
–
The six degrees of freedom of movement of a ship.
25.
New York Stock Exchange
–
The New York Stock Exchange, is an American stock exchange located at 11 Wall Street, Lower Manhattan, New York City, New York. It is by far the worlds largest stock exchange by market capitalization of its companies at US$19.3 trillion as of June 2016. The average daily trading value was approximately US$169 billion in 2013, the NYSE trading floor is located at 11 Wall Street and is composed of 21 rooms used for the facilitation of trading. A fifth trading room, located at 30 Broad Street, was closed in February 2007, the main building and the 11 Wall Street building were designated National Historic Landmarks in 1978. The NYSE is owned by Intercontinental Exchange, an American holding company that it also lists, previously, it was part of NYSE Euronext, which was formed by the NYSEs 2007 merger with Euronext. NYSE and Euronext now operate as divisions of Intercontinental Exchange, the NYSE has been the subject of several lawsuits regarding fraud or breach of duty and in 2004 was sued by its former CEO for breach of contract and defamation. The earliest recorded organization of securities trading in New York among brokers directly dealing with each other can be traced to the Buttonwood Agreement, previously securities exchange had been intermediated by the auctioneers who also conducted more mundane auctions of commodities such as wheat and tobacco. In 1817 the stockbrokers of New York operating under the Buttonwood Agreement instituted new reforms, after sending a delegation to Philadelphia to observe the organization of their board of brokers, restrictions on manipulative trading were adopted as well as formal organs of governance. Several locations were used between 1817 and 1865, when the present location was adopted, the invention of the electrical telegraph consolidated markets, and New Yorks market rose to dominance over Philadelphia after weathering some market panics better than other alternatives. The Civil War greatly stimulated speculative securities trading in New York, by 1869 membership had to be capped, and has been sporadically increased since. The latter half of the century saw rapid growth in securities trading. Securities trade in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was prone to panics. The Stock Exchange Luncheon Club was situated on the floor from 1898 until its closure in 2006. The main building, located at 18 Broad Street, between the corners of Wall Street and Exchange Place, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1978, as was the 11 Wall Street building. The NYSE announced its plans to merge with Archipelago on April 21,2005, NYSEs governing board voted to merge with rival Archipelago on December 6,2005, and became a for-profit, public company. It began trading under the name NYSE Group on March 8,2006, Wall Street is the leading US money center for international financial activities and the foremost US location for the conduct of wholesale financial services. It comprises a matrix of wholesale financial sectors, financial markets, financial institutions, the principal sectors are securities industry, commercial banking, asset management, and insurance. Prior to the acquisition of NYSE Euronext by the ICE in 2013, Marsh Carter was the Chairman of the NYSE, presently, the chairman is Jeffrey Sprecher
New York Stock Exchange
–
The New York Stock Exchange in 2012.
New York Stock Exchange
–
New York Stock Exchange
New York Stock Exchange
New York Stock Exchange
–
The Stock Exchange at 10–12 Broad Street, in 1882
26.
Carnegie Mellon
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Carnegie Mellon University is a private research university in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Founded in 1900 by Andrew Carnegie as the Carnegie Technical Schools, in 1967, the Carnegie Institute of Technology merged with the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research to form Carnegie Mellon University. The universitys 140-acre main campus is 3 miles from Downtown Pittsburgh, john Heinz III College of Information Systems and Public Policy, and the School of Computer Science. The university also has campuses in Qatar and Silicon Valley, with degree-granting programs in six continents, Carnegie Mellon consistently ranks in the top 25 in the national U. S. News & World Report rankings. It is home to the world’s first degree-granting Robotics and Drama programs, the university spent $242 million on research in 2015. Carnegie Mellon counts 13,650 students from 114 countries, over 100,000 living alumni, Carnegies vision was to open a vocational training school for the sons and daughters of working-class Pittsburghers. Carnegie was inspired for the design of his school by the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, in 1912 the institution changed its name to Carnegie Institute of Technology and began offering four-year degrees. The Mellon Institute of Industrial Research was founded in 1913 by banker and industrialist brothers Andrew, Mellon in honor of their father, Thomas Mellon, the patriarch of the Mellon family. The Institute began as an organization which performed work for government. In 1927, the Mellon Institute incorporated as an independent nonprofit, in 1938, the Mellon Institutes iconic building was completed and it moved to its new, and current, location on Fifth Avenue. In 1967, with support from Paul Mellon, Carnegie Tech merged with the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research to become Carnegie Mellon University, Carnegie Mellons coordinate womens college, the Margaret Morrison Carnegie College closed in 1973 and merged its academic programs with the rest of the university. The industrial research mission of the Mellon Institute survived the merger as the Carnegie Mellon Research Institute and continued doing work on contract to industry, CMRI closed in 2001 and its programs were subsumed by other parts of the university or spun off into independent entities. Carnegie Mellons 140-acre main campus is three miles from downtown Pittsburgh, between Schenley Park and the Squirrel Hill, Shadyside, and Oakland neighborhoods, Carnegie Mellon is bordered to the west by the campus of the University of Pittsburgh. Carnegie Mellon owns 81 buildings in the Oakland and Squirrel Hill neighborhoods of Pittsburgh, for decades the center of student life on campus was Skibo Hall, the Universitys student union. Built in the 1950s, Skibo Halls design was typical of Mid-Century Modern architecture, the original Skibo was razed in the summer of 1994 and replaced by a new student union that is fully wi-fi enabled. Known as University Center, the building was dedicated in 1996, in 2014, Carnegie Mellon re-dedicated the University Center as the Cohon University Center in recognition of the eighth president of the university, Jared Cohon. A large grassy area known as the Cut forms the backbone of the campus, the Cut was formed by filling in a ravine with soil from a nearby hill that was leveled to build the College of Fine Arts building. The northwestern part of the campus was acquired from the United States Bureau of Mines in the 1980s, the sculpture was controversial for its placement, the general lack of input that the campus community had, and its aesthetic appeal
Carnegie Mellon
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Andrew Carnegie, founder of the Carnegie Technical Schools
Carnegie Mellon
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Carnegie Mellon University
Carnegie Mellon
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Andrew W. Mellon, co-founder of the Mellon Institute
Carnegie Mellon
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Hamerschlag and Roberts Halls are two of the teaching facilities of the
College of Engineering
27.
Robot Hall of Fame
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The Robot Hall of Fame is an American hall of fame that recognizes notable robots in various scientific fields and general society, as well as achievements in robotics technology. The idea for the Robot Hall of Fame was conceived by Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science dean James H, the first induction ceremony was held at the Carnegie Science Center on November 10,2003. Thirty robots – both existent and fictional – have been inducted into the Robot Hall of Fame since its inception, an exhibit named Roboworld was later established at the Carnegie Science Center in June 2009, featuring a physical embodiment of the hall of fame. From 2003 to 2010, inductees to the Robot Hall of Fame were selected by a panel of jurists. The opportunity to nominate a robot for induction into the hall of fame was made open to the public. Officials subsequently derive the final list of inductees from both the survey and the public vote. Robot Hall of Fame director Shirley Saldamarco said of the changes, The technology and art of robotics are advancing at a rapid rate. As more students, workers and consumers become accustomed to robots, Official website Official page for Roboworld at the Carnegie Science Center
Robot Hall of Fame
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Replica of the
Metropolis character
Maria on display at the
Carnegie Science Center
Robot Hall of Fame
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ASIMO, inducted in 2004
Robot Hall of Fame
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Opportunity, inducted in 2010
Robot Hall of Fame
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PackBot, inducted in 2012
28.
Red carpet
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The earliest known reference to walking a red carpet in literature is in the play Agamemnon by Aeschylus, written in 458 BC. Servants, let there be spread before the house he never expected to see, where Justice leads him in, a crimson path. Agamemnon, knowing that only gods walk on such luxury, responds with trepidation, I am a mortal, a red carpet was rolled out to a river to welcome the arrival of United States president James Monroe in 1821. In 1902, The New York Central Railroad used plush crimson carpets to direct people as they boarded their 20th Century Limited passenger train and this is believed to be the origin of the phrase red-carpet treatment. Film premieres are often laid down with red carpets, unrolled carpets can be potentially hazardous. In 2010, when Pope Benedict XVI arrived at Edinburgh airport in strong winds for a visit to Britain. A red carpet is used in gala celebrity events such as the Academy Awards, Grammy Awards, Met Gala. This is now an international product placement arena of great importance to the fashion industry. Red carpets are often coupled with publicity backdrops which contain brand logos or emblems for photography purposes, common items at red carpet events are step and repeat banners which allow sponsors to display logos at the event. More generally, red carpet treatment and rolling out the red carpet refer to any special efforts made in the interests of hospitality, United Airlines operates a series of VIP lounges at major airports that were formerly known as Red Carpet Clubs. Red carpet is now offered to all Heads of States on their official visits to other countries
Red carpet
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President Barack Obama exiting
Air Force One on red carpet
Red carpet
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Halle Berry attending the premiere of the movie
Robots. A number of photographers are visible behind her, and there is a red carpet present
Red carpet
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Chilean President Sebastián Piñera arriving in
Paris in October 2010.
29.
Robots (2005 film)
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Robots is a 2005 American computer-animated science fiction comedy film, produced by Blue Sky Studios for 20th Century Fox and was released on March 11,2005. The story was created by Chris Wedge and William Joyce, originally developing a film version of Joyces book Santa Calls, Wedge and Joyce then decided to develop an original story about a world of robots. Joyce served as producer and production designer for the film and Wedge served as director of film and it features the voices of Ewan McGregor, Halle Berry, Greg Kinnear, Mel Brooks, Amanda Bynes, Drew Carey, and Robin Williams. The film grossed $260.7 million on a $75 million budget, in Rivet Town, Rodney Copperbottom is a young inventor who dreams of making the world a better place. He idolizes Bigweld, an inventor and owner of Bigweld Industries. During Rodneys adolescence, he invents a gadget called the Wonderbot, when Herbs supervisor confronts them, Wonderbot breaks the dishes, causing Herb to be put in debt and Rodney to be dismissed. Rodney takes his invention to Robot City to see Bigweld and get a job as an inventor at Bigweld Industries, Herb encourages him and confides that he has always regretted not pursuing his dream of becoming a musician. Rodney arrives in Robot City and meets outmoded robot Fender Pinwheeler, after a spectacular, but harrowing, ride on the Crosstown Express, Rodney arrives at the gate of Bigweld Industries. However, he learns that Phineas T. Ratchet has taken over Bigweld Industries and is about to discontinue the manufacture of spare parts. Rodney is forced out and shares quarters with Fender at a low-rent boarding house owned by Aunt Fanny, occupied by a group of other outmoded robots threatened with the Chop Shop, called the Rusties. When news gets out that spare parts have been discontinued by Bigweld Industries, upon discovering this, Gasket orders Ratchet to stop Rodney and kill Bigweld. Rodney later receives news that Herb needs replacement parts, Rodney decides to contact Bigweld directly to beg him to restart the manufacture of spare parts. Wonderbot reminds him that Bigweld will show up at the annual Bigweld Ball, Rodney and Fender go to the ball in disguise, only to hear Ratchet announce that Bigweld was unable to attend. Rodney confronts Ratchet, but security robots stop him, Cappy, a beautiful robot-executive of the company who dislikes Ratchets plan, saves him, and together with Fender and his new girlfriend Loretta Geargrinder, they escape from the ball. After Fender walks Loretta home, he is taken to the Chop Shop by Gasket, meanwhile, Rodney and Cappy fly to Bigwelds home and meet him. Rodney asks Bigweld to return to his company and make spare parts available again, Rodney calls his parents, intending to give up his dream and return to Rivet Town, but Herb encourages Rodney to continue pursuing it. Rodney rallies the Rusties into fighting back against Ratchet and Gasket, Fender reveals that, under Gaskets orders, Ratchet has built a fleet of super-sweepers with the intention of rounding up and destroying all of the older robots. Bigweld eventually comes with the group, having realized what Rodney meant to him, at Bigweld Industries, Bigweld dismisses Ratchet, but Ratchet hits him over the head with a phone
Robots (2005 film)
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Theatrical release poster
Robots (2005 film)
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Halle Berry (Cappy),
Greg Kinnear (Phineas T. Ratchet),
Robin Williams (Fender Pinwheeler), and
Amanda Bynes (Piper Pinwheeler) at the film's premiere in
Westwood, Los Angeles
Robots (2005 film)
Robots (2005 film)
30.
Disneyland
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Disneyland Park, originally Disneyland, is the first of two theme parks built at the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California, opened on July 17,1955. It is the theme park designed and built under the direct supervision of Walt Disney. It was originally the attraction on the property, its name was changed to Disneyland Park to distinguish it from the expanding complex in the 1990s. Walt Disney came up with the concept of Disneyland after visiting various amusement parks with his daughters in the 1930s and 1940s. He initially envisioned building a tourist attraction adjacent to his studios in Burbank to entertain fans who wished to visit, however, after hiring a consultant to help him determine an appropriate site for his project, Disney bought a 160-acre site near Anaheim in 1953. Construction began in 1954 and the park was unveiled during a televised press event on the ABC Television Network on July 17,1955. Opened in 2001, Disney California Adventure Park was built on the site of Disneylands original parking lot, Disneyland has a larger cumulative attendance than any other theme park in the world, with over 650 million guests since it opened. In 2013, the park hosted approximately 16.2 million guests, according to a March 2005 Disney report,65,700 jobs are supported by the Disneyland Resort, including about 20,000 direct Disney employees and 3,800 third-party employees. To all who come to this place, Welcome. Here age relives fond memories of the past, and here youth may savor the challenge and promise of the future. Disneyland is dedicated to the ideals, the dreams, and the facts that have created America, with the hope that it will be a source of joy. The concept for Disneyland began when Walt Disney was visiting Griffith Park in Los Angeles with his daughters Diane and Sharon. While watching them ride the merry-go-round, he came up with the idea of a place where adults and their children could go and have fun together and he may have also been influenced by his fathers memories of the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago. Another likely influence was Benton Harbor, Michigans nationally famous House of Davids Eden Springs Park, Disney visited the park and ultimately bought one of the older miniature trains originally used there, the colony had the largest miniature railway setup in the world at the time. His ideas evolved to a play park with a boat ride. The initial concept, the Mickey Mouse Park, started with an 8-acre plot across Riverside Drive and his designers began working on concepts, though the project grew much larger than the land could hold. Disney hired Harrison Price from Stanford Research Institute to gauge the proper area to locate the theme based on the areas potential growth. Based on Prices analysis, Disney acquired 160 acres of groves and walnut trees in Anaheim
Disneyland
Disneyland
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Walt Disney (center) showing Orange County officials plans for Disneyland's layout, December 1954.
Disneyland
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An aerial view of Disneyland in 1956, with the Disneyland Railroad route visible.
Disneyland
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An aerial view of Disneyland in 2005
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