1.
Euronext
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Euronext NV is a European stock exchange seated in Amsterdam, Brussels, London, Lisbon and Paris. In addition to cash and derivatives markets, the Euronext group provides listing market data, market solutions, custody and its total product offering includes equities, exchange-traded funds, warrants and certificates, bonds, derivatives, commodities and indices. As of 2017, Euronext was the largest in continental Europe with 1,300 issuers representing a €3 trillion market capitalization, Euronext merged with NYSE Group, Inc. on April 4,2007 to form NYSE Euronext. On November 13,2013 Intercontinental Exchange, completed acquisition of NYSE Euronext, in June 2014 Euronext completed an initial public offering making it a standalone company again. In December 2001, Euronext acquired the shares of the London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange, in 2002 the group merged with the Portuguese stock exchange Bolsa de Valores de Lisboa e Porto, renamed Euronext Lisbon. In 2001, Euronext became a company itself after completing its Initial Public Offering. Despite this, NYSE Group and Euronext penned an agreement, subject to shareholder vote. The initial regulatory response by SEC chief Christopher Cox was positive, the new firm, tentatively dubbed NYSE Euronext, would be headquartered in New York City, with European operations and its trading platform run out of Paris. In addition, the two hoped to add Borsa Italiana into the grouping. Deutsche Börse dropped out of the bidding for Euronext on 15 November 2006, a run-up of NYSE Groups stock price in late 2006 made the offering far more attractive to Euronexts shareholders. On 19 December 2006, Euronext shareholders approved the transaction with 98. 2% of the vote, only 1. 8% voted in favour of the Deutsche Börse offer. Jean-François Théodore, the Chief Executive Officer of Euronext, stated that expected the transaction to close within three or four months. Some of the agencies with jurisdiction over the merger had already given approval. NYSE Group shareholders gave their approval on 20 December 2006, the merger was completed on 4 April 2007, forming NYSE Euronext. In 2008 and 2009 Deutsche Börse made two attempts to merge with NYSE Euronext. Both attempts did not enter into advanced steps of merger, in 2011, Deutsche Börse and NYSE Euronext confirmed that they were in advanced merger talks. Such a merger would create the largest exchange in history, the deal was approved by shareholders of NYSE Euronext on July 7,2011, and Deutsche Börse on July 15,2011 and won the antitrust approved by the US regulators on December 22,2011. Deutsche Börse unsuccessfully appealed this decision, in 2012, Euronext announced the creation of Euronext London to offer listing facilities in the UK
2.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
3.
Integrated circuit
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An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece of semiconductor material, normally silicon. The ICs mass production capability, reliability and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of using discrete transistors. ICs are now used in all electronic equipment and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other home appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the small size. These advances, roughly following Moores law, allow a computer chip of 2016 to have millions of times the capacity, ICs have two main advantages over discrete circuits, cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time, furthermore, packaged ICs use much less material than discrete circuits. Performance is high because the ICs components switch quickly and consume little power because of their small size, the main disadvantage of ICs is the high cost to design them and fabricate the required photomasks. This high initial cost means ICs are only practical when high production volumes are anticipated, Circuits meeting this definition can be constructed using many different technologies, including thin-film transistor, thick film technology, or hybrid integrated circuit. However, in general usage integrated circuit has come to refer to the single-piece circuit construction originally known as a integrated circuit. Jacobi disclosed small and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent, an immediate commercial use of his patent has not been reported. The idea of the circuit was conceived by Geoffrey Dummer. Dummer presented the idea to the public at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington and he gave many symposia publicly to propagate his ideas, and unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956. A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic squares, Components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which seemed very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby, however, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design, the IC. In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as a body of semiconductor material … wherein all the components of the circuit are completely integrated. The first customer for the new invention was the US Air Force, Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit. His work was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009, half a year after Kilby, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor developed his own idea of an integrated circuit that solved many practical problems Kilbys had not. Noyces design was made of silicon, whereas Kilbys chip was made of germanium, Noyce credited Kurt Lehovec of Sprague Electric for the principle of p–n junction isolation, a key concept behind the IC
4.
Wafer (electronics)
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Finally the individual microcircuits are separated and packaged. By 1960, silicon wafers were being manufactured in the U. S. by companies such as MEMC/SunEdison. In 1965, American engineers Eric O. Ernst, Donald J. Hurd, Wafers are formed of highly pure, nearly defect-free single crystalline material. One process for forming crystalline wafers is known as Czochralski growth invented by the Polish chemist Jan Czochralski. In this process, an ingot of high purity mono crystalline semiconductor, such as silicon or germanium. The boule is then sliced with a saw and polished to form wafers. The size of wafers for photovoltaics is 100–200 mm square and the thickness is 200–300 μm, in the future,160 μm will be the standard. Electronics use wafer sizes from 100–450 mm diameter, Wafers are cleaned with weak acids to remove unwanted particles, or repair damage caused during the sawing process. When used for cells, the wafers are textured to create a rough surface to increase their efficiency. The generated PSG is removed from the edge of the wafer in the etching, silicon wafers are available in a variety of diameters from 25.4 mm to 300 mm. Semiconductor fabrication plants are defined by the diameter of wafers that they are tooled to produce, Wafers grown using materials other than silicon will have different thicknesses than a silicon wafer of the same diameter. Wafer thickness is determined by the strength of the material used. This was the cost basis for increasing wafer size, conversion to 300 mm wafers from 200 mm wafers began in earnest in 2000, and reduced the price per die about 30-40%. However, this was not without significant problems for the industry, there is considerable resistance to the 450 mm transition despite the possible productivity improvement, because of concern about insufficient return on investment. Higher cost semiconductor fabrication equipment for larger wafers increases the cost of 450 mm fabs, converting to larger 450 mm wafers would reduce price per die only for process operations such as etch where cost is related to wafer count, not wafer area. Cost for processes such as lithography is proportional to wafer area, nikon plans to deliver 450-mm lithography equipment in 2015, with volume production in 2017. In November 2013 ASML paused development of 450-mm lithography equipment, citing uncertain timing of chipmaker demand, the time-line for 450 mm has not been fixed. Mark Durcan, CEO of Micron Technology, said in February 2014 that he expects 450 mm adoption to be delayed indefinitely or discontinued, “I am not convinced that 450mm will ever happen but, to the extent that it does, it’s a long way out in the future
5.
Canon Inc.
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It is headquartered in Ōta, Tokyo, Japan. Canon has a listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the TOPIX index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange. At the beginning of 2015, Canon was the tenth largest public company in Japan when measured by market capitalization, the company was originally named Seikikōgaku kenkyūsho. In 1934 it produced the Kwanon, a prototype for Japan’s first-ever 35 mm camera with a plane based shutter. In 1947 the company name was changed to Canon Camera Co. Inc. shortened to Canon Inc. in 1969, the name Canon comes from Buddhist bodhisattva Guan Yin, previously transliterated as Kuanyin, Kwannon, or Kwanon in English. The origins of Canon date back to the founding of Precision Optical Instruments Laboratory in Japan in 1937 by Takeshi Mitarai, Goro Yoshida, Saburo Uchida and Takeo Maeda. During its early years the company did not have any facilities to produce its own optical glass, between 1933 and 1936 ‘The Kwanon’, a copy of the Leica design, Japan’s first 35 mm focal plane-shutter camera, was developed in prototype form. In 1940 Canon developed Japans first indirect X-ray camera, Canon introduced a field zoom lens for television broadcasting in 1958 and in 1959 introduced the Reflex Zoom 8, the world’s first movie camera with a zoom lens, and the Canonflex. In 1961 Canon introduced the Rangefinder camera, Canon 7, in 1965 Canon introduced the Canon Pellix, a single lens reflex camera with a semi-transparent stationary mirror which enabled the taking of pictures through the mirror. In 1971 Canon introduced the F-1, a high-end SLR camera, in 1976 Canon launched the AE-1, the world’s first camera with an embedded micro-computer. In 1982 Wildlife as Canon Sees It print ads first appeared in National Geographic magazine, Canon introduced the world’s first Inkjet printer using bubble jet technology in 1985. Canon introduced Canon Electro-Optical System in 1987, named after the goddess of the dawn, EOS650 autofocus SLR camera is introduced. Also in 1987 the Canon Foundation was established, in 1988 Canon introduced Kyosei philosophy. The EOS1 Flagship Professional SLR line was launched in 1989, in the same year the EOS RT, the worlds first AF SLR with a fixed, semi-transparent pellicle mirror, was unveiled. In 1992 Canon launched the EOS5, the camera with eye-controlled AF. In 1995 Canon introduced the first commercially available SLR lens with image stabilization. EOS-1N RS, the worlds fastest AF SLR camera with a shooting speed of 10 frame/s at the time
6.
Nikon
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Nikon Corporation, also known just as Nikon, is a Japanese multinational corporation headquartered in Tokyo, Japan, specializing in optics and imaging products. The companies held by Nikon form the Nikon Group, Nikons main competitors in camera and lens manufacturing include Canon, Sony, Fujifilm, Panasonic, Pentax, and Olympus. Founded on July 25,1917 as Nippon Kōgaku Kōgyō Kabushikigaisha, Nikon is a member of the Mitsubishi group of companies. Nikon Corporation was established on 25 July 1917 when three leading optical manufacturers merged to form a comprehensive, fully integrated optical company known as Nippon Kōgaku Tōkyō K. K. Over the next sixty years, this company became a manufacturer of optical lenses and equipment used in cameras, binoculars, microscopes. During World War II the company operated thirty factories with 2,000 employees, manufacturing binoculars, lenses, bomb sights, after the war Nippon Kōgaku reverted to producing its civilian product range in a single factory. In 1948, the first Nikon-branded camera was released, the Nikon I, Nikon lenses were popularised by the American photojournalist David Douglas Duncan. Duncan was working in Tokyo when the Korean War began, Duncan had met a young Japanese photographer, Jun Miki, who introduced Duncan to Nikon lenses. From July 1950 to January 1951, Duncan covered the Korean War, fitting Nikon optics to his Leica rangefinder cameras produced high contrast negatives with very sharp resolution at the centre field. Founded in 1917 as Nippon Kōgaku Kōgyō Kabushikigaisha, the company was renamed Nikon Corporation, after its cameras, the name Nikon, which dates from 1946, is a merging of Nippon Kōgaku and Zeisss brand Ikon. This would cause some problems in Germany as Zeiss complained that Nikon violated its trademarked camera. From 1963 to 1968 the Nikon F in particular was therefore labeled Nikkor, the Nikkor brand was introduced in 1932, a westernised rendering of an earlier version Nikkō, an abbreviation of the companys original full name. Nikkor is the Nikon brand name for its lenses, another early brand used on microscopes was Joico, an abbreviation of Japan Optical Industries Co. Expeed is the brand Nikon uses for its processors since 2007. The Nikon SP and other 1950s and 1960s rangefinder cameras competed directly with models from Leica, however, the company quickly ceased developing its rangefinder line to focus its efforts on the Nikon F single-lens reflex line of cameras, which was successful upon its introduction in 1959. For nearly 30 years, Nikons F-series SLRs were the most widely used small-format cameras among professional photographers, however, as autofocus SLRs became available from Minolta and others in the mid-1980s, Nikons line of manual-focus cameras began to seem out of date. Canon introduced a new type of lens-camera interface with its entirely electronic Canon EOS cameras, the much faster lens performance permitted by Canons electronic focusing and aperture control prompted many professional photographers to switch to the Canon system through the 1990s. Nikon created some of the first digital SLRs for NASA, used in the Space Shuttle since 1991, after a 1990s partnership with Kodak to produce digital SLR cameras based on existing Nikon film bodies, Nikon released the Nikon D1 SLR under its own name in 1999
7.
Intellectual property
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Intellectual property refers to creations of the intellect for which a monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law. Intellectual property rights are the protections granted to the creators of IP, and include trademarks, copyright, patents, industrial design rights, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. Artistic works including music and literature, as well as discoveries, inventions, words, phrases, symbols, the Statute of Monopolies and the British Statute of Anne are seen as the origins of patent law and copyright respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property. The first known use of the intellectual property dates to 1769. The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, the German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property to the confederation. According to Lemley, it was only at point that the term really began to be used in the United States. The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by Queen Elizabeth I for monopoly privileges, the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine. The term can be used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown. The statement that discoveries are. property goes back earlier, in Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846. Until recently, the purpose of property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage innovation. Historically, therefore, they were granted only when they were necessary to encourage invention, limited in time, the concepts origins can potentially be traced back further. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one years patent to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury. Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, geographical indications, a copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms. Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed, an industrial design right protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern, an industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Plant breeders rights or plant variety rights are the rights to use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is examined, a trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders
8.
Philips
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Koninklijke Philips N. V. is a Dutch technology company headquartered in Amsterdam with primary divisions focused in the areas of electronics, healthcare and lighting. It was founded in Eindhoven in 1891, by Gerard Philips and it is one of the largest electronics companies in the world and employs around 105,000 people across more than 60 countries. Philips is organized into three divisions, Philips Consumer Lifestyle, Philips Healthcare and Philips Lighting. As of 2012, Philips was the largest manufacturer of lighting in the world measured by applicable revenues, Philips said it would seek damages for breach of contract in the US$200-million sale. In April 2016, the International Court of Arbitration ruled in favour of Philips, Philips has a primary listing on the Euronext Amsterdam stock exchange and is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange. The Philips Company was founded in 1891, by Gerard Philips and this first factory has been adapted and is used as a museum. In 1895, after a difficult first few years and near bankruptcy, though he had earned a degree in engineering, Anton started work as a sales representative, soon, however, he began to contribute many important business ideas. After Gerard and Anton Philips changed their business by founding the Philips corporation. In the 1920s, the company started to other products. In 1939, they introduced their electric razor, the Philishave, the Chapel is a radio with built-in loudspeaker, which was designed during the early 1930s. On 11 March 1927, Philips went on the air with shortwave radio station PCJJ which was joined in 1929 by sister station PHOHI, PHOHI broadcast in Dutch to the Dutch East Indies while PCJJ broadcast in English, Spanish and German to the rest of the world. The international program on Sundays commenced in 1928, with host Eddie Startz hosting the Happy Station show, broadcasts from the Netherlands were interrupted by the German invasion in May 1940. The Germans commandeered the transmitters in Huizen to use for pro-Nazi broadcasts, some originating from Germany, Philips Radio was absorbed shortly after liberation when its two shortwave stations were nationalised in 1947 and renamed Radio Netherlands Worldwide, the Dutch International Service. Some PCJ programs, such as Happy Station, continued on the new station, by the late 1940s, the Type 10 was ready to be handed over to Philips subsidiary Johan de Witt in Dordrecht to be produced and incorporated into a generator set as originally planned. The result, rated at 180/200 W electrical output from a bore, approximately 150 of these sets were eventually produced. However, they filed a number of patents and amassed a wealth of information. The first Philips shaver was introduced in the 1930s, and was simply called “The Philishave”, in the USA, it was called the “Norelco”, which remains a part of their product line today
9.
Intel
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Intel Corporation is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California that was founded by Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce. It is the worlds largest and highest valued semiconductor chip makers based on revenue, and is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, Intel supplies processors for computer system manufacturers such as Apple, Lenovo, HP, and Dell. Intel Corporation was founded on July 18,1968, by semiconductor pioneers Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore, the companys name was conceived as portmanteau of the words integrated and electronics. The fact that intel is the term for intelligence information made the name appropriate. Intel was a developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips. Although Intel created the worlds first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, during the 1990s, Intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the computer industry. The Open Source Technology Center at Intel hosts PowerTOP and LatencyTOP, and supports other projects such as Wayland, Intel Array Building Blocks, and Threading Building Blocks. Client Computing Group – 55% of 2016 revenues – produces hardware components used in desktop, data Center Group – 29% of 2016 revenues – produces hardware components used in server, network, and storage platforms. Internet of Things Group – 5% of 2016 revenues – offers platforms designed for retail, transportation, industrial, buildings, non-Volatile Memory Solutions Group – 4% of 2016 revenues – manufactures NAND flash memory products primarily used in solid-state drives. Intel Security Group – 4% of 2016 revenues – produces software, particularly security, programmable Solutions Group – 3% of 2016 revenues – manufactures programmable semiconductors. In 2016, Dell accounted for 15% of Intels total revenues, Lenovo accounted for 13% of total revenues, in the 1980s, Intel was among the top ten sellers of semiconductors in the world. In 1991, Intel became the biggest chip maker by revenue and has held the position ever since, other top semiconductor companies include TSMC, Advanced Micro Devices, Samsung, Texas Instruments, Toshiba and STMicroelectronics. Competitors in PC chip sets include Advanced Micro Devices, VIA Technologies, Silicon Integrated Systems, however, the cross-licensing agreement is canceled in the event of an AMD bankruptcy or takeover. Some smaller competitors such as VIA Technologies produce low-power x86 processors for small factor computers, however, the advent of such mobile computing devices, in particular, smartphones, has in recent years led to a decline in PC sales. Since over 95% of the worlds smartphones currently use processors designed by ARM Holdings, ARM is also planning to make inroads into the PC and server market. Intel has been involved in disputes regarding violation of antitrust laws. Intel was founded in Mountain View, California in 1968 by Gordon E. Moore, a chemist, and Robert Noyce, arthur Rock helped them find investors, while Max Palevsky was on the board from an early stage. Moore and Noyce had left Fairchild Semiconductor to found Intel, Rock was not an employee, but he was an investor and was chairman of the board
10.
Philips Consumer Lifestyle
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Philips Consumer Lifestyle is a division of the Dutch multinational electronics company Philips which produces consumer electronics and small appliances. It is the only Philips division headquartered in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, Philips Consumer Lifestyle was formed in 2008 from the merger of Philips Consumer Electronics and Philips Domestic Appliances and Personal Care. Philips receives royalties from the sale of every DVD and Blu-ray, while Philips first product was manufactured in 1891, the first product that would fit in the Consumer Electronics division was a television, experimentally manufactured in 1925. In 1927, Philips began producing radios, only five years later, Philips had sold one million of them. One other major product release came in 1963, when the Compact Cassette was introduced, after Philips Consumer Electronics acquired companies as Magnavox and Sylvania in the late 1970s, Philips managed to sell their 100-millionth TV-set in 1984. Philips still is the European television market leader, as well as the third in the world, because of the enormous growth, Philips decided to split up their company divisions during the 1990s. While Philips CE contains most of the Consumer Electronics, other such as Philips shavers were located under the Domestic Appliances division. As of 2012 Philips is no longer involved in TV manufacturing, because it has outsourced it to a joint venture with TPV Technology. Philips announced in January 2013 that it agreed to sell its consumer division to Japan-based Funai Electric Co. for Euro 150 million. This would leave mainly consumer products for personal care and health in this division of Philips, however, in October 2013, Philips announced that it would not proceed with the sale, instead initiating litigation against Funai Electric Co. alleging breach of contract by Funai. 1951, introduced the Philishave two-headed rotary shaver, marketed in the USA under the Norelco name,1963, introduced the first domestic home video tape recorder, the 405 line 1 tape reel model EL3400. 1978, introduced the Laserdisc player, using technology invented in the 1960s,1978, introduced the Philips Videopac G7000, a home video game console developed by its Magnavox division. Marketed in the United States as the Odyssey2 console, variations of the console are sold worldwide through 1984. 1979, introduced the Video 2000-system, a superior design. 1982, launched the Compact Disc in partnership with Sony,1983, participated in developing the MSX home computer standard. This computer standard was mainly popular in Japan and the Netherlands,1991, introduced the CD-i, the Compact Disc Interactive system which had many video-game console-type features, but was not a sales success. 1992, launched the ill-fated Digital Compact Cassette format,1995, manufactured the Atari Jaguars CD add-on for Atari. 1999, launched the Super Audio CD in partnership with Sony,2001, successfully launched the Senseo coffeemaker, first in the Netherlands and from 2002 onwards, in other countries across Europe
11.
Static random-access memory
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Static random-access memory is a type of semiconductor memory that uses bistable latching circuitry to store each bit. SRAM exhibits data remanence, but it is volatile in the conventional sense that data is eventually lost when the memory is not powered. The term static differentiates SRAM from DRAM which must be periodically refreshed, SRAM is faster and more expensive than DRAM, it is typically used for CPU cache while DRAM is used for a computers main memory. Several techniques have been proposed to power consumption of SRAM-based memory structures. Some amount is also embedded in all modern appliances, toys. Several megabytes may be used in products such as digital cameras, cell phones, synthesizers. SRAM in its form is sometimes used for realtime digital signal processing circuits. LCD screens and printers also normally employ static RAM to hold the image displayed, static RAM was used for the main memory of some early personal computers such as the ZX80, TRS-80 Model 100 and Commodore VIC-20. Hobbyists, specifically homebuilt processor enthusiasts, often prefer SRAM due to the ease of interfacing and it is much easier to work with than DRAM as there are no refresh cycles and the address and data buses are directly accessible rather than multiplexed. In addition to buses and power connections, SRAM usually requires only three controls, Chip Enable, Write Enable and Output Enable, in synchronous SRAM, Clock is also included. Non-volatile SRAMs, or nvSRAMs, have standard SRAM functionality, but they save the data when the supply is lost. NvSRAMs are used in a range of situations – networking, aerospace, and medical, among many others – where the preservation of data is critical. Address, data in and other signals are associated with the clock signals In 1990s. Nowadays, synchronous SRAM is rather employed similarly like Synchronous DRAM – DDR SDRAM memory is used than asynchronous DRAM. Synchronous memory interface is much faster as access time can be reduced by employing pipeline architecture. Furthermore, as DRAM is much cheaper than SRAM, SRAM is often replaced by DRAM, SRAM memory is however much faster for random access. Therefore, SRAM memory is used for CPU cache, small on-chip memory. Zero bus turnaround – the turnaround is the number of cycles it takes to change access to the SRAM from write to read
12.
Cymer
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Cymer, LLC. an ASML company, is an American company headquartered in San Diego, California. Cymer is the largest supplier of deep ultraviolet light sources used by chipmakers to pattern advanced semiconductor chips or integrated circuits, Cymer is currently developing next-generation laser-produced plasma extreme ultraviolet light sources. As of October 2012, it was announced that Cymer would be acquired by Dutch semiconductor equipment manufacturer ASML, the acquisition closed in May 2013. Cymer was founded in 1986 by Dr. Robert Akins and Dr. Richard Sandstrom, in 1986, the personal computer market opened a door for Akins and Sandstrom to apply their unique laser knowledge for the purpose of semiconductor photolithography. In 1988, Cymer shipped its first light source for advanced research, in 1990, a second-generation light source shipped, and the company quickly progressed, shipping a total of 78 light source systems between 1988 and 1994. In the mid-1990s, Cymer had established its light sources as a component in the development of advanced semiconductor products. To meet this demand, Cymer issued its initial public offering on the NASDAQ in September 1996 under the symbol CYMI, the company’s IPO helped provide the capital Cymer needed to grow manufacturing capacity and service infrastructure as needed to meet the industry’s rapid expansion. In the dot-com boom of 2000, Cymer sold a high of 494 new light source systems. By the end of the decade, Cymer had shipped more than 3,300 KrF and ArF and ArF Immersion light sources world-wide. In June 2009, Cymer shipped the world’s first fully integrated LPP EUV lithography light source to ASML Holding in Veldhoven, Netherlands and this new type of light source produces a wavelength of 13.5 nm and will be used to pattern chips for at least the next decade. The crystallization tool uses Cymers light source technology, in January 2010, Cymer announced that it would acquire Carl Zeiss ownership interest in the Cymer/Zeiss TCZ joint venture, making TCZ a wholly owned Cymer company. In October 2012, Cymer announced it was discontinuing its TCZ business, in October 2012, Dutch semiconductor equipment manufacturer ASML announced that it would acquire Cymer, as part of their EUV equipment strategy. The acquisition closed in May 2013, DUV Products Cymer’s light sources, which comprise an installed base of more than 3,750 shipped systems, are based on KrF and ArF technology that deliver 248 nm and 193 nm light, respectively. Light at these wavelengths is produced when a discharge is applied to a mixture of gases. The resulting light is collected and delivered to a scanning exposure tool which is used to pattern silicon wafers, Cymers DUV product line by technology includes, Installed Base Products Light sources installed at chipmaker fabs are maintained through Cymer’s OnPulse support product offering. OnPulse optimizes light source availability and productivity for the chipmaker, new light source feature enhancements are made available through OnPulse and include support from Cymer’s field support organization and IT infrastructure. Cymer offers two data collection, reporting and analysis products to enable tighter control and improved wafer quality. OnPulse Plus provides real-time light source parameter monitoring and lot-level event correlation to avoid excursions, smartPulse delivers wafer-level light source parameter monitoring and on-board beam metrology to optimize the lithography process
