1.
Georges Seurat
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Georges-Pierre Seurat was a French post-Impressionist painter and draftsman. He is noted for his use of drawing media and for devising the painting techniques known as chromoluminarism and pointillism. His large-scale work, A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, altered the direction of art by initiating Neo-impressionism. Seurat was born 2 December 1859 in Paris, at 60 rue de Bondy, the Seurat family moved to 136 boulevard de Magenta in 1862 or 1863. His father, Antoine Chrysostome Seurat, originally from Champagne, was a legal official who had become wealthy from speculating in property. Georges had a brother, Émile Augustin, and a sister, Marie-Berthe and his father lived in Le Raincy and visited his wife and children once a week at boulevard de Magenta. Georges Seurat first studied art at the École Municipale de Sculpture et Dessin, near his familys home in the boulevard Magenta, Seurats studies resulted in a well-considered and fertile theory of contrasts, a theory to which all his work was thereafter subjected. His formal artistic education came to an end in November 1879, after a year at the Brest Military Academy, he returned to Paris where he shared a studio with his friend Aman-Jean, while also renting a small apartment at 16 rue de Chabrol. For the next two years, he worked at mastering the art of monochrome drawing and his first exhibited work, shown at the Salon, of 1883, was a Conté crayon drawing of Aman-Jean. He also studied the works of Eugène Delacroix carefully, making notes on his use of color and he spent 1883 working on his first major painting—a large canvas titled Bathers at Asnières, a monumental work showing young men relaxing by the Seine in a working-class suburb of Paris. Seurat also departed from the Impressionist ideal by preparing for the work with a number of drawings, Bathers at Asnières was rejected by the Paris Salon, and instead he showed it at the Groupe des Artistes Indépendants in May 1884. Seurats new ideas on pointillism were to have a strong influence on Signac. In the summer of 1884, Seurat began work on A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, the painting shows members of each of the social classes participating in various park activities. The tiny juxtaposed dots of multi-colored paint allow the eye to blend colors optically. It took Seurat two years to complete this 10-foot-wide painting, much of which he spent in the park sketching in preparation for the work and it is now in the permanent collection of the Art Institute of Chicago. The painting was the inspiration for James Lapine and Stephen Sondheims musical, Seurat concealed his relationship with Madeleine Knobloch, an artists model whom he portrayed in his painting Jeune femme se poudrant. In 1889 she moved in with Seurat in his studio on the 7th floor of 128bis Boulevard de Clichy, when Madeleine became pregnant, the couple moved to a studio at 39 passage de lÉlysée-des-Beaux-Arts. There she gave birth to their son, who was named Pierre-Georges,16 February 1890, Seurat died in Paris in his parents home on 29 March 1891 at the age of 31
2.
Oil painting
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Oil painting is the process of painting with pigments with a medium of drying oil as the binder. Commonly used drying oils include linseed oil, poppy seed oil, walnut oil, the choice of oil imparts a range of properties to the oil paint, such as the amount of yellowing or drying time. Certain differences, depending on the oil, are visible in the sheen of the paints. An artist might use different oils in the same painting depending on specific pigments and effects desired. The paints themselves also develop a particular consistency depending on the medium, the oil may be boiled with a resin, such as pine resin or frankincense, to create a varnish prized for its body and gloss. Its practice may have migrated westward during the Middle Ages, Oil paint eventually became the principal medium used for creating artworks as its advantages became widely known. In recent years, water miscible oil paint has come to prominence and, to some extent, water-soluble paints contain an emulsifier that allows them to be thinned with water rather than paint thinner, and allows very fast drying times when compared with traditional oils. Traditional oil painting techniques often begin with the artist sketching the subject onto the canvas with charcoal or thinned paint, Oil paint is usually mixed with linseed oil, artist grade mineral spirits, or other solvents to make the paint thinner, faster or slower-drying. A basic rule of oil paint application is fat over lean and this means that each additional layer of paint should contain more oil than the layer below to allow proper drying. If each additional layer contains less oil, the painting will crack. This rule does not ensure permanence, it is the quality and type of oil leads to a strong. There are many media that can be used with the oil, including cold wax, resins. These aspects of the paint are closely related to the capacity of oil paint. Traditionally, paint was transferred to the surface using paintbrushes. Oil paint remains wet longer than other types of artists materials, enabling the artist to change the color. At times, the painter might even remove a layer of paint. This can be done with a rag and some turpentine for a time while the paint is wet, Oil paint dries by oxidation, not evaporation, and is usually dry to the touch within a span of two weeks. It is generally dry enough to be varnished in six months to a year, art conservators do not consider an oil painting completely dry until it is 60 to 80 years old
3.
Art Institute of Chicago
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The Art Institute of Chicago, founded in 1879 and located in Chicagos Grant Park, is one of the oldest and largest art museums in the United States. Recognized for its efforts and popularity among visitors, the museum hosts approximately 1.5 million guests annually. The growth of the collection has warranted several additions to the museums original 1893 building, the Art Institute is connected to the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, a leading art school, making it one of the few remaining unified arts institutions in the United States. In 1866, a group of 35 artists founded the Chicago Academy of Design in a studio on Dearborn Street, the organization was modeled after European art academies, such as the Royal Academy, with Academicians and Associate Academicians. The Academys charter was granted in March 1867, classes started in 1868, meeting every day at a cost of $10 per month. The Academys success enabled it to build a new home for the school, a stone building on 66 West Adams Street. When the Great Chicago Fire destroyed the building in 1871 the Academy was thrown into debt, attempts to continue despite the loss by using rented facilities failed. By 1878 the Academy was $10,000 in debt, members tried to rescue the ailing institution by making deals with local businessmen, before some finally abandoned it in 1879 to found a new organization, named the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. When the Chicago Academy of Design went bankrupt the same year, in 1882, the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts changed its name to the current Art Institute of Chicago and elected as its first president the banker and philanthropist Charles L. Also in 1882, the purchased a lot on the southwest corner of Michigan Avenue. By January 1885 the trustees recognized the need to provide space for the organizations growing collection. The city agreed, and the building was completed in time for the year of the fair. Construction costs were met by selling the Michigan/Van Buren property, on October 31,1893 the Institute moved into the new building. For the opening reception on December 8,1893, Theodore Thomas, from the 1900s to the 1960s the school offered with the Logan Family the Logan Medal of the Arts, an award which became one of the most distinguished awards presented to artists in the US. Between 1959 and 1970 the Institute was a key site in the battle to gain art and documentary photography a place in galleries, under curator Hugh Edwards and his assistants. As Director of the museum starting in the early 1980s, James N. Wood conducted an expansion of its collection. He retired from the museum in 2004, in 2006, the Art Institute began construction of The Modern Wing, an addition situated on the southwest corner of Columbus and Monroe. The project, designed by Pritzker Prize winning architect Renzo Piano, was completed, the 264, 000-square-foot building makes the Art Institute the second-largest art museum in the United States
4.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
5.
Pointillism
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Pointillism /ˈpɔɪntᵻlɪzəm/ is a technique of painting in which small, distinct dots of color are applied in patterns to form an image. Georges Seurat and Paul Signac developed the technique in 1886, branching from Impressionism, the term Pointillism was coined by art critics in the late 1880s to ridicule the works of these artists, and is now used without its earlier mocking connotation. The movement Seurat began with this technique is known as Neo-Impressionism, the Divisionists, too, used a similar technique of patterns to form images, though with larger cube-like brushstrokes. The technique relies on the ability of the eye and mind of the viewer to blend the color spots into a range of tones. It is related to Divisionism, a technical variant of the method. Divisionism is concerned with theory, whereas pointillism is more focused on the specific style of brushwork used to apply the paint. It is a technique with few serious practitioners today, and is seen in the works of Seurat, Signac. However, see also Andy Warhols early works, and Pop Art, the practice of Pointillism is in sharp contrast to the traditional methods of blending pigments on a palette. Pointillism is analogous to the four-color CMYK printing process used by some printers and large presses that place dots of Cyan, Magenta, Yellow. Televisions and computer monitors use a technique to represent image colors using Red, Green. If red, blue, and green light are mixed, the result is something close to white light, painting is inherently subtractive, but Pointillist colors often seem brighter than typical mixed subtractive colors. This may be partly because subtractive mixing of the pigments is avoided, the painting technique used for Pointillist color mixing is at the expense of the traditional brushwork used to delineate texture. The majority of Pointillism is done in oil paint, anything may be used in its place, but oils are preferred for their thickness and tendency not to run or bleed. Pointillism also refers to a style of 20th-century music composition, different musical notes are made in seclusion, rather than in a linear sequence, giving a sound texture similar to the painting version of Pointillism. This type of music is known as punctualism or klangfarbenmelodie
6.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
7.
Seine
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The Seine is a 777-kilometre-long river and an important commercial waterway within the Paris Basin in the north of France. It rises at Source-Seine,30 kilometres northwest of Dijon in northeastern France in the Langres plateau, flowing through Paris and it is navigable by ocean-going vessels as far as Rouen,120 kilometres from the sea. There are 37 bridges within Paris and dozens more spanning the river outside the city, examples in Paris include the Pont Alexandre III and Pont Neuf, the latter of which dates back to 1607. Outside the city, examples include the Pont de Normandie, one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world, the Seine rises in the commune of Source-Seine, about 30 kilometres northwest of Dijon. The source has been owned by the city of Paris since 1864, a number of closely associated small ditches or depressions provide the source waters, with an artificial grotto laid out to highlight and contain a deemed main source. The grotto includes a statue of a nymph, on the same site are the buried remains of a Gallo-Roman temple. Small statues of the dea Sequana Seine goddess and other ex voti found at the place are now exhibited in the Dijon archeological museum. The Seine is dredged and oceangoing vessels can dock at Rouen,120 kilometres from the sea, commercial riverboats can use the river from Bar-sur-Seine,560 kilometres to its mouth. At Paris, there are 37 bridges, the river is only 24 metres above sea level 446 kilometres from its mouth, making it slow flowing and thus easily navigable. The Seine Maritime,105.7 kilometres from the English Channel at Le Havre to Rouen, is the portion of the Seine used by ocean-going craft. The tidal section of the Seine Maritime is followed by a section with four large multiple locks until the mouth of the Oise at Conflans-Sainte-Honorine. Multiple locks at Bougival / Chatou and at Suresnes lift the vessels to the level of the river in Paris, upstream from Paris seven locks ensure navigation to Saint Mammès, where the Loing mouth is situated. Through an eighth lock the river Yonne is reached at Montereau-Fault-Yonne, from the mouth of the Yonne, larger ships can continue upstream to Nogent-sur-Seine. From there on, the river is only by small craft. All navigation ends abruptly at Marcilly-sur-Seine, where the ancient Canal de la Haute-Seine used to allow vessels to continue all the way to Troyes and this canal has been abandoned for many years. The average depth of the Seine today at Paris is about 9.5 metres. Until locks were installed to raise the level in the 1800s, the river was much shallower within the city most of the time, today the depth is tightly controlled and the entire width of the river between the built-up banks on either side is normally filled with water. The average flow of the river is low, only a few cubic metres per second
8.
Impressionism
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Impressionism originated with a group of Paris-based artists whose independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s. The Impressionists faced harsh opposition from the art community in France. The development of Impressionism in the arts was soon followed by analogous styles in other media that became known as impressionist music. Radicals in their time, early Impressionists violated the rules of academic painting and they constructed their pictures from freely brushed colours that took precedence over lines and contours, following the example of painters such as Eugène Delacroix and J. M. W. Turner. They also painted scenes of modern life, and often painted outdoors. Previously, still lifes and portraits as well as landscapes were painted in a studio. The Impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting en plein air, the Impressionists, however, developed new techniques specific to the style. The public, at first hostile, gradually came to believe that the Impressionists had captured a fresh and original vision, even if the art critics and art establishment disapproved of the new style. In the middle of the 19th century—a time of change, as Emperor Napoleon III rebuilt Paris, the Académie was the preserver of traditional French painting standards of content and style. Historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued, landscape, the Académie preferred carefully finished images that looked realistic when examined closely. Paintings in this style were made up of brush strokes carefully blended to hide the artists hand in the work. Colour was restrained and often toned down further by the application of a golden varnish, the Académie had an annual, juried art show, the Salon de Paris, and artists whose work was displayed in the show won prizes, garnered commissions, and enhanced their prestige. The standards of the juries represented the values of the Académie, represented by the works of artists as Jean-Léon Gérôme. In the early 1860s, four young painters—Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley and they discovered that they shared an interest in painting landscape and contemporary life rather than historical or mythological scenes. A favourite meeting place for the artists was the Café Guerbois on Avenue de Clichy in Paris, where the discussions were led by Édouard Manet. They were soon joined by Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, during the 1860s, the Salon jury routinely rejected about half of the works submitted by Monet and his friends in favour of works by artists faithful to the approved style. In 1863, the Salon jury rejected Manets The Luncheon on the Grass primarily because it depicted a woman with two clothed men at a picnic. While the Salon jury routinely accepted nudes in historical and allegorical paintings, the jurys severely worded rejection of Manets painting appalled his admirers, and the unusually large number of rejected works that year perturbed many French artists
9.
Neo-impressionism
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Neo-Impressionism is a term coined by French art critic Félix Fénéon in 1886 to describe an art movement founded by Georges Seurat. Around this time, the peak of France’s modern era emerged, followers of Neo-Impressionism, in particular, were drawn to modern urban scenes as well as landscapes and seashores. Science-based interpretation of lines and colors influenced Neo-Impressionists characterization of their own contemporary art, the Pointillist and Divisionist techniques are often mentioned in this context, because it was the dominant technique in the beginning of the Neo-impressionist movement. Some argue that Neo-Impressionism became the first true movement in painting. The Neo-Impressionists were able to create a movement very quickly in the 19th century, partially due to its connection to anarchism. The movement and the style were an attempt to drive harmonious vision from modern science, anarchist theory, during the emergence of Neo-Impressionism, Seurat and his followers strove to refine the impulsive and intuitive artistic mannerisms of Impressionism. Neo-impressionists used disciplined networks of dots and blocks of color in their desire to instill a sense of organization, in further defining the movement, Seurat incorporated the recent explanation of optic and color perceptions. The development of theory by Michel Eugène Chevreul and others by the late 19th century played a pivotal role in shaping the Neo-Impressionist style. Ogden Rood’s book, Modern Chromatics, with Applications to Art and Industry, acknowledged the different behaviors exhibited by colored light, while the mixture of the former created a white or gray color, that of the latter produced a dark, murky color. As painters, Neo-Impressionists had to deal with colored pigments, so to avoid the dullness, mixing of colors was not necessary. There are a number of alternatives to the term Neo-Impressionism and each has its own nuance and it emphasized the studies of color and light which were central to his artistic style. This term is used today. Divisionism, which is commonly used, is used to describe a mode of Neo-Impressionist painting. It refers to the method of applying individual strokes of complementary, unlike other designations of this era, the term Neo-Impressionism was not given as a criticism. Instead, it embraces Seurats and his followers ideals in their approach to art, note, Pointillism merely describes a later technique based on divisionism in which dots of color instead of blocks of color are applied. Neo-Impressionism was first presented to the public in 1886 at the Salon des Indépendants, the Indépendants remained their main exhibition space for decades with Signac acting as president of the association. But with the success of Neo-Impressionism, its fame spread quickly, in 1886, Seurat and Signac were invited to exhibit in the 8th and final Impressionist exhibition, later with Les XX and La Libre Esthétique in Brussels. In 1892, a group of Neo-Impressionist painters united to show their works in Paris, in the Salons of the Hôtel Brébant,32, the following year they exhibited at 20, rue Laffitte
10.
Landscape painting
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In other works, landscape backgrounds for figures can still form an important part of the work. Sky is almost always included in the view, and weather is often an element of the composition, detailed landscapes as a distinct subject are not found in all artistic traditions, and develop when there is already a sophisticated tradition of representing other subjects. The two main traditions spring from Western painting and Chinese art, going well over a thousand years in both cases. Landscape views in art may be imaginary, or copied from reality with varying degrees of accuracy. If the primary purpose of a picture is to depict an actual, specific place, especially including buildings prominently, within a few decades it was used to describe vistas in poetry, and eventually as a term for real views. However the cognate term landscaef or landskipe for a patch of land had existed in Old English. The earliest pure landscapes with no figures are frescos from Minoan Greece of around 1500 BCE. The frescos from the Tomb of Nebamun, now in the British Museum, are a famous example. These were frequently used, as in the illustrated, to bridge the gap between a foreground scene with figures and a distant panoramic vista, a persistent problem for landscape artists. The Chinese style generally showed only a distant view, or used dead ground or mist to avoid that difficulty, aesthetic theories in both regions gave the highest status to the works seen to require the most imagination from the artist. They were often also poets whose lines and images illustrated each other, a revival in interest in nature initially mainly manifested itself in depictions of small gardens such as the Hortus Conclusus or those in millefleur tapestries. The frescos of figures at work or play in front of a background of trees in the Palace of the Popes. Several frescos of gardens have survived from Roman houses like the Villa of Livia, a particular advance is shown in the less well-known Turin-Milan Hours, now largely destroyed by fire, whose developments were reflected in Early Netherlandish painting for the rest of the century. Landscape backgrounds for various types of painting became prominent and skilful during the 15th century. The Italian development of a system of graphical perspective was now known all over Europe. Indeed, certain styles were so popular that they became formulas that could be copied again and again, after the publication of the Small Landscapes, landscape artists in the Low Countries either continued with the world landscape or followed the new mode presented by the Small Landscapes. The popularity of landscape scenes can be seen in the success of the painter Frans Post. Salvator Rosa gave picturesque excitement to his landscapes by showing wilder Southern Italian country, there are different styles and periods, and subgenres of marine and animal painting, as well as a distinct style of Italianate landscape
11.
Visual appearance
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The visual appearance of objects is given by the way in which they reflect and transmit light. The color of objects is determined by the parts of the spectrum of light that are reflected or transmitted without being absorbed, the appearance of reflecting objects is determined by the way the surface reflects incident light. The reflective properties of the surface can be characterized by a look at the -topography of that surface. Structures on the surface and the texture of the surface are determined by typical dimensions between some 10 mm and 0.1 mm. Smaller structures and features of the surface cannot be detected by the unaided eye. Structures at and below 0.1 mm reduce the distinctness of image, structures in the range of 0.01 mm induce haze and even smaller structures affect the gloss of the surface. Transmissive objects Transmittance, T Haze Clarity Reflection Shading Transmittance R. S. Hunter, R. W. E. Nicodemus, geometric Considerations and Nomenclature for Reflectance, U. S. Dept. of Commerce, NBS Monograph 160 John C. Stover, Optical Scattering, Measurement and Analysis, SPIE Press
12.
Optics
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Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light, because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar properties. Most optical phenomena can be accounted for using the classical description of light. Complete electromagnetic descriptions of light are, however, often difficult to apply in practice, practical optics is usually done using simplified models. The most common of these, geometric optics, treats light as a collection of rays that travel in straight lines, physical optics is a more comprehensive model of light, which includes wave effects such as diffraction and interference that cannot be accounted for in geometric optics. Historically, the model of light was developed first, followed by the wave model of light. Progress in electromagnetic theory in the 19th century led to the discovery that waves were in fact electromagnetic radiation. Some phenomena depend on the fact that light has both wave-like and particle-like properties, explanation of these effects requires quantum mechanics. When considering lights particle-like properties, the light is modelled as a collection of particles called photons, quantum optics deals with the application of quantum mechanics to optical systems. Optical science is relevant to and studied in many related disciplines including astronomy, various engineering fields, photography, practical applications of optics are found in a variety of technologies and everyday objects, including mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, lasers, and fibre optics. Optics began with the development of lenses by the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the earliest known lenses, made from polished crystal, often quartz, date from as early as 700 BC for Assyrian lenses such as the Layard/Nimrud lens. The ancient Romans and Greeks filled glass spheres with water to make lenses, the word optics comes from the ancient Greek word ὀπτική, meaning appearance, look. Greek philosophy on optics broke down into two opposing theories on how vision worked, the theory and the emission theory. The intro-mission approach saw vision as coming from objects casting off copies of themselves that were captured by the eye, plato first articulated the emission theory, the idea that visual perception is accomplished by rays emitted by the eyes. He also commented on the parity reversal of mirrors in Timaeus, some hundred years later, Euclid wrote a treatise entitled Optics where he linked vision to geometry, creating geometrical optics. Ptolemy, in his treatise Optics, held a theory of vision, the rays from the eye formed a cone, the vertex being within the eye. The rays were sensitive, and conveyed back to the observer’s intellect about the distance. He summarised much of Euclid and went on to describe a way to measure the angle of refraction, during the Middle Ages, Greek ideas about optics were resurrected and extended by writers in the Muslim world
13.
Perception
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Perception is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the environment. All perception involves signals in the system, which in turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the sense organs. For example, vision involves light striking the retina of the eye, smell is mediated by odor molecules, Perception is not the passive receipt of these signals, but is shaped by learning, memory, expectation, and attention. Perception can be split into two processes, firstly, processing sensory input, which transforms these low-level information to higher-level information. Secondly, processing which is connected with a persons concepts and expectations, Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness. Since the rise of psychology in the 19th Century, psychologys understanding of perception has progressed by combining a variety of techniques. Psychophysics quantitatively describes the relationships between the qualities of the sensory input and perception. Sensory neuroscience studies the mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also be studied computationally, in terms of the information they process, Perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to which sensory qualities such as sound, smell or color exist in objective reality rather than in the mind of the perceiver. The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the information is typically incomplete. Human and animal brains are structured in a way, with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information. Some of these take the form of sensory maps, mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brains surface. These different modules are interconnected and influence each other, for instance, taste is strongly influenced by smell. The process of perception begins with an object in the real world, by means of light, sound or another physical process, the object stimulates the bodys sensory organs. These sensory organs transform the energy into neural activity—a process called transduction. This raw pattern of activity is called the proximal stimulus. These neural signals are transmitted to the brain and processed, the resulting mental re-creation of the distal stimulus is the percept. An example would be a shoe, the shoe itself is the distal stimulus
14.
Ogden Rood
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Ogden Nicholas Rood was an American physicist best known for his work in color theory. At age 18, Rood became a student at Yale University, but after his sophomore year he transferred to Princeton University, where he received his baccalaureate degree in 1852. For the next two years he was successively a graduate student at Yale University, an assistant at the University of Virginia, and an assistant to Benjamin Silliman. In 1854–1858, he lived in Germany, dividing his time between oil painting and academic studies in Berlin and Munich, working in the laboratory of Justus von Liebig, in 1858, shortly before returning to the U. S. A. he married Mathilde Prunner of Munich. In 1858 he joined the faculty of the short-lived Troy University, in 1865 Rood was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences. In 1869 he became a vice-president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, as an amateur artist, Rood was a member of the American Watercolor Society. In 1874 he gave two lectures to the National Academy of Design in New York on Modern Optics in Painting, along with Maxwell and Michel Eugène Chevreul, Roods work was an influence on the Impressionist artists and their successors. Roods theory of contrasting colors was particularly influential on Georges-Pierre Seurat, the founder of Neo-Impressionism, Rood suggested that small dots or lines of different colors, when viewed from a distance, would blend into a new color. He believed that the colors of his color wheel, when applied in pairs by the artist. William Innes Homer considered Seurat was influenced by passages in Ogden Roods Students Text-book of Color, Or, Modern Chromatics, with Applications to Art and Industry. In his 1912 Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Robert Ridgway named four colors for Rood, Rood’s Blue, Rood’s Brown, Rood’s Lavender, Art in Theory, An Anthology of Changing Ideas. Students Text-book of Color, Or, Modern Chromatics, with Applications to Art, New York, D. Appleton and Company. Works by or about Ogden Rood at Internet Archive Ogden Rood — Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences Ogden Rood Modern chromatics - digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library
15.
Divisionism
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Divisionism was the characteristic style in Neo-Impressionist painting defined by the separation of colors into individual dots or patches which interacted optically. By requiring the viewer to combine the colors optically instead of mixing pigments, Divisionists believed they were achieving the maximum luminosity scientifically possible. Georges Seurat founded the style around 1884 as chromoluminarism, drawing from his understanding of the theories of Michel Eugène Chevreul, Ogden Rood and Charles Blanc. Divisionism developed along with style, Pointillism, which is defined specifically by the use of dots of paint. Divisionism, along with the Neo-Impressionism movement as a whole, found its beginnings in Georges Seurats masterpiece, Seurat had received classical training at the École des Beaux-Arts, and, as such, his initial works reflected the Barbizon style. Mixing pigments physically is a process with cyan, magenta. On the other hand, if colored light is mixed together, an additive mixture results, the primary colors are the same. g. Direct sunlight, As appropriate, yellow-orange colors representing the sun’s action would be interspersed with the colors to emulate the effect of direct sunlight. Shadow, If lighting is indirect, various other colors, such as blues, reds and purples, can be used to simulate the darkness. Reflected light, An object which is adjacent to another in a painting could cast reflected colors onto it, Contrast, To take advantage of Chevreul’s theory of simultaneous contrast, contrasting colors might be placed in close proximity. Seurat’s theories intrigued many of his contemporaries, as other artists seeking a reaction against Impressionism joined the Neo-Impressionist movement, Paul Signac, in particular, became one of the main proponents of divisionist theory, especially after Seurat’s death in 1891. In fact, Signac’s book, D’Eugène Delacroix au Néo-Impressionnisme, published in 1899, coined the term Divisionism and became widely recognized as the manifesto of Neo-Impressionism. Additionally, through Paul Signac’s advocacy of Divisionism, an influence can be seen in some of the works of Vincent van Gogh, Henri Matisse, Jean Metzinger, Robert Delaunay and Pablo Picasso. In 1907 Metzinger and Delaunay were singled out by the critic Louis Vauxcelles as Divisionists who used large, mosaic-like cubes to construct small, both artists had develop a new sub-style that had great significance shortly thereafter within the context of their Cubist works. Piet Mondrian, Jan Sluijters, Leo Gestel and Nico van Rijn, in the Netherlands, the Futurists later would adapt the style, in part influenced by Gino Severinis Parisian experience, into their dynamic paintings and sculpture. The influence of Seurat and Signac on some Italian painters became evident in the First Triennale in 1891 in Milan, pellizza da Volpedo applied the technique to social subjects, in this he was joined by Morbelli and Longoni. Among Pelliza’s Divisionist works were Speranze deluse and Il sole nascente and it was, however, in the subject of landscapes that divisionism found strong advocates, including Segantini, Previati, Morbelli, and Carlo Fornara. Further adherents in painting subjects were Plinio Nomellini, Rubaldo Merello, Giuseppe Cominetti, Angelo Barabino, Camillo Innocenti, Enrico Lionne
16.
Neuilly-sur-Seine
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Neuilly-sur-Seine is a French commune just west of Paris, in the department of Hauts-de-Seine. A suburb of Paris, Neuilly is immediately adjacent to the city, the area is composed of mostly wealthy, select residential neighbourhoods, and many corporate headquarters are located there. Originally, Neuilly was a hamlet under the jurisdiction of Villiers. In 1224 another charter of Saint-Denis recorded the name as Lugniacum, in a sales contract dated 1266 the name was also recorded as Luingni. In 1316, however, in a ruling of the parlement of Paris, the name was recorded as Nully, in a document dated 1376 the name was again recorded as Nulliacum. Then in the centuries the name recorded alternated between Luny and Nully, and it is only after 1648 that the name was definitely set as Nully. The name spelt Neuilly after the French Academy standard of pronunciation of the ill as a y, various explanations and etymologies have been proposed to explain these discrepancies in the names of Neuilly recorded over the centuries. The original name of Neuilly may have been Lulliacum or Lugniacum, some interpret Lulliacum or Lugniacum as meaning estate of Lullius, probably a Gallo-Roman landowner. This interpretation is based on the many placenames of France made up of the names of Gallo-Roman landowners and these researchers contend that it is only after the fall of the Roman Empire and the Germanic invasions that the area of Neuilly was deforested and settled. Thus, they think that the name Lulliacum or Lugniacum comes from the ancient Germanic word lund meaning forest, akin to Old Norse lundr meaning grove, however, this interesting theory fails to explain why the d of lund is missing in Lulliacum or Lugniacum. Or perhaps the consonants were simply inverted under the influence of the settlements of France called Neuilly. On 1 January 1860, the city of Paris was enlarged by annexing neighbouring communes, on that occasion, a part of the territory of Neuilly-sur-Seine was annexed by the city of Paris, and forms now the neighbourhood of Ternes, in the 17th arrondissement of Paris. On 11 January 1867, part of the territory of Neuilly-sur-Seine was detached and merged with a part of the territory of Clichy to create the commune of Levallois-Perret. On 2 May 1897, the name officially became Neuilly-sur-Seine. However, most people continue to refer to Neuilly-sur-Seine as simply Neuilly, during the 1900 Summer Olympics, it hosted the basque pelota events. The American Hospital of Paris was founded in 1906, in 1919, the Treaty of Neuilly was signed with Bulgaria in Neuilly-sur-Seine to conclude its role in World War I. In 1929, the Bois de Boulogne, which was divided between the communes of Neuilly-sur-Seine and Boulogne-Billancourt, was annexed in its entirety by the city of Paris. It was the site of the Château de Neuilly, an important royal residence during the July Monarchy, Neuilly-sur-Seine is served by three stations on Paris Métro Line 1, Porte Maillot, Les Sablons and Pont de Neuilly
17.
Levallois-Perret
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Levallois-Perret is a commune in the northwestern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 6.4 km from the centre of Paris and it is the most densely populated town in Europe. The name Levallois-Perret comes from two housing developments, Champerret and Village Levallois, which resulted in the incorporation of the commune, on the territory of what is now Levallois-Perret, before the French Revolution, the village of Villiers and the hamlet of Courcelles were there. They now give their names to two Paris Métro stations, later in 1845, Nicolas-Eugène Levallois started some housing developments for landowner André Noël on his land near La Planchette. The land developed by Nicolas-Eugène Levallois soon became known as Village Levallois, in the 1860s, the village had grown to the point of forming a single builtup area. Several demands were made to the authorities for the incorporation of the area, the Eiffel company had its factory in the city and so the structure of the Statue of Liberty and the Eiffel Tower were built there. Levallois-Perret became an important centre of the early French automotive industry with the establishment of such as Clément-Bayard, Delage and coachbuilders Chapron. Citroën purchased the Clément-Bayard factory and the famous Citroën 2CV was produced in Levallois for nearly forty years, Levallois-Perret was also an important centre of cosmetics industry in the early 20th century. It is also home to the large European commercial real estate company Atisreal, the northern part of the famous Île de la Jatte in the river Seine, where French impressionist painters created many of their masterpieces, is part of the commune of Levallois-Perret. Part of the healthy Ouest Parisien, Levallois-Perret is the most densely-populated commune of France, patrick Balkany has been mayor of the city for almost 20 years in a row, his wife, Isabelle Balkany Smadja, works for the municipality. Speed Rabbit Pizza also has its headquarters in the commune, EVA Air has its Paris office in Levallois-Perret. According to le journal du net, the debt per inhabitant of Levallois is 9,030 euros, previously Carrefour had its head office in Levallois-Perret. Levallois-Perret is served by three stations on Paris Métro Line 3, Louise Michel, Anatole France, and Pont de Levallois – Bécon and it is also served by Clichy – Levallois station on the Transilien Paris – Saint-Lazare suburban rail line. The municipality of Levallois-Perret operates two bus lines circulating the town. Levallois Sporting Club is one of the most important sports club in France with 14500 members, among them you can find notable sportsperson like Teddy Riner, Gauthier Grumier and Gevrise Emane. During his youth Didier Drogba played for the section, as Joakim Noah did for basket. The traditional coat of arms for the municipality puts emphasis on the importance of industry in the its history. The centre of the consists of a shield with red background, a yellow gearwheel in the bottom left
18.
Ernst Bloch
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Ernst Bloch was a German Marxist philosopher. Bloch was influenced by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Karl Marx, as well as by apocalyptic and religious thinkers such as Thomas Müntzer, Paracelsus and he established friendships with György Lukács, Bertolt Brecht, Kurt Weill, Walter Benjamin, and Theodor W. Adorno. Blochs work focuses on the thesis that in a world where oppression and exploitation have been eliminated there will always be a truly revolutionary force. Bloch was born in Ludwigshafen, the son of a Jewish railway-employee, after studying philosophy, he married Else von Stritzky, daughter of a Baltic brewer in 1913, who died in 1921. His second marriage with Linda Oppenheimer lasted only a few years and his third wife was Karola Piotrowska, a Polish architect, whom he married in 1934 in Vienna. When the Nazis came to power, they had to flee, first into Switzerland, then to Austria, France, Czechoslovakia, Bloch returned to the GDR in 1949 and obtained a chair in philosophy at Leipzig. 1948 he was offered the chair of philosophy at the University of Leipzig, in 1955 he was awarded the National Prize of the GDR. In addition, he became a member of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin and he had more or less become the political philosopher of the GDR. But the Hungarian uprising in 1956 brought the convinced Marxist Bloch to reverse course for the SED regime, because he taught his humanistic ideas of freedom, he was retired in 1957 for political reasons – not because of his age,72 years. When the Berlin Wall was built in 1961, he did not return to the GDR, but went to Tübingen in West Germany, where he received an honorary chair in Philosophy. Blochs The Principle of Hope was written during his emigration in the United States and he wrote the lengthy three volume work in the reading room of Harvards Widener Library. Bloch originally planned to publish it there under the title Dreams of a Better Life, the Principle of Hope tries to provide an encyclopedic account of mankinds and natures orientation towards a socially and technologically improved future. Blochs work became influential in the course of the student protest movements in 1968. It is cited as a key influence by Jürgen Moltmann in his Theology of Hope, by Dorothee Sölle, psychoanalyst Joel Kovel has praised Bloch as, the greatest of modern utopian thinkers. Robert S. Corrington has been influenced by Bloch, though he has tried to adapt Blochs ideas to serve a liberal rather than a Marxist politics. Blochs concept of concrete utopias found in The Principle of Hope was used by José Esteban Muñoz to shift the field of performance studies, frage, Kategorien des Herausbringens, Praxis “Causality and Finality as Active, Objectifying Categories, Categories of Transmission”. Durham, NC, Duke University Press Boldyrev, Ivan, Ernst Bloch and His Contemporaries, Ernst Bloch, London, Routledge Hudson, Wayne. The Marxist philosophy of Ernst Bloch, New York, St. Martins Press Schmidt, Ernst Bloch, Stuttgart, Metzler Münster, Arno
19.
Parthenon
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The Parthenon is a former temple, on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their patron. Construction began in 447 BC when the Athenian Empire was at the peak of its power and it was completed in 438 BC although decoration of the building continued until 432 BC. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered the zenith of the Doric order and its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an symbol of Ancient Greece, Athenian democracy and western civilization. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a programme of restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially ruined structure. The Parthenon itself replaced a temple of Athena, which historians call the Pre-Parthenon or Older Parthenon. The temple is aligned to the Hyades. While a sacred building dedicated to the patron goddess, the Parthenon was actually used primarily as a treasury. For a time, it served as the treasury of the Delian League, in the final decade of the sixth century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary. After the Ottoman conquest, it was turned into a mosque in the early 1460s, on 26 September 1687, an Ottoman ammunition dump inside the building was ignited by Venetian bombardment. The resulting explosion damaged the Parthenon and its sculptures. From 1800 to 1803, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin removed some of the sculptures with the alleged permission of the Ottoman Empire. These sculptures, now known as the Elgin Marbles or the Parthenon Marbles, were sold in 1816 to the British Museum in London, since 1983, the Greek government has been committed to the return of the sculptures to Greece. The Liddell–Scott–Jones Greek–English Lexicon states that this room was the western cella of the Parthenon, jamauri D. Christopher Pelling asserts that Athena Parthenos may have constituted a discrete cult of Athena, intimately connected with, but not identical to, that of Athena Polias. According to this theory, the name of the Parthenon means the temple of the virgin goddess and it has also been suggested that the name of the temple alludes to the maidens, whose supreme sacrifice guaranteed the safety of the city. Parthénos has also applied to the Virgin Mary, Parthénos Maria. The first instance in which Parthenon definitely refers to the building is found in the writings of the 4th century BC orator Demosthenes. In 5th-century building accounts, the structure is simply called ho naos, because the Parthenon was dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, it has sometimes been referred to as the Temple of Minerva, the Roman name for Athena, particularly during the 19th century
20.
Communards
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The Communards were members and supporters of the short-lived 1871 Paris Commune formed in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War and Frances defeat. The working class of Paris were feeling ostracized after the decadence of the Second Empire, the Prussians besieged Paris in September 1870, causing suffering among Parisians. The poor ate cat or rat meat or went hungry, out of resentment from this situation grew radical and socialist political clubs and newspapers. While Paris was occupied, socialist groups tried twice to overthrow the provisional government, in January 1871, Otto von Bismarck and the French minister of foreign affairs, Jules Favre, decided that France would hold national elections. Adolphe Thiers, who had been loyal to the Second Empire, was elected head of the newly monarchist republic, during the war, the capital had moved from Paris to Bordeaux. When the war ended, the government declined to back to Paris. In the early morning of March 18, the government stationed in Versailles sent military forces into Paris to collect a reserve of cannons, the detachment was still gathering the munitions when the Parisians awoke, and soon the soldiers were surrounded. In the chaos that followed, the soldiers killed two of their own, and by the end of the day, they were mainly sided with the Parisians. Insurgents now controlled the city, and they declared a new government called the Paris Commune, Thiers refused to bargain with the Communards, despite their attempts to do so. He taught newly released French soldiers the evils of the Communards as the government prepared for a battle, starting on May 21 and continuing through May 28, soldiers chased the National Guard members who sided with the Communards through the streets. Around 18,000 Parisians were killed,25,000 were imprisoned, the violence of Bloody Week became a rallying cry for the working classes, politicians would later proudly brag about their participation with the Commune. After Bloody Week, the government asked for an inquest into the causes of the uprising, the inquest concluded that the main cause of the insurrection was a lack of belief in God, and that this problem had to be corrected immediately. It was decided that a revival was needed, and a key part of this was deporting 4,500 Communards to New Caledonia. There was a goal in this, as the government also hoped that the Communards would civilize the native Kanak people on the island. The government hoped that being exposed to the order of nature would return the Communards to the side of good, New Caledonia had become a French colony in 1853, but just ten years later it still only had 350 European colonists. After 1863, New Caledonia became the destination of convicts transported from France after French Guiana was deemed too unhealthy for people of European descent. Thereafter, convicts from France made up the largest number of arriving residents, during the busiest time of deportation, there were estimated to be about 50,000 total people on the island. There were four main sites on the island, one of which
21.
Ochre
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Ochre (/ˈoʊkər/ OH-kər, from Greek, ὠχρός, ōkhrós, or ocher, is a natural earth pigment containing hydrated iron oxide, which ranges in color from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the produced by this pigment. A variant of ochre containing an amount of hematite, or dehydrated iron oxide, has a reddish tint known as red ochre. Ochre is a family of pigments, which includes yellow ochre, red ochre, purple ochre, sienna. The major ingredient of all the ochres is iron oxide-hydroxide, known as limonite, which gives them a yellow color. Yellow ochre, FeO·nH 2O, is a hydrated iron hydroxide also called gold ochre Red ochre, Fe 2O3, takes its color from the mineral hematite. Purple ochre, is identical to red ochre chemically but of a different hue caused by different light diffraction properties associated with an average particle size. Brown ochre, also FeO, is a hydrated iron oxide. Sienna contains both limonite and an amount of manganese oxide, which makes it darker than ochre. Umber pigments contain a proportion of manganese which make them a dark brown. When natural sienna and umber pigments are heated, they are dehydrated and some of the limonite is transformed into hematite, giving them more reddish colors, called burnt sienna and burnt umber. Ochres are non-toxic, and can be used to make an oil paint that dries quickly, modern ochre pigments often are made using synthetic iron oxide. Pigments which use natural ochre pigments indicate it with the name PY-43 on the label, pieces of ochre engraved with abstract designs have been found at the site of the Blombos Cave in South Africa, dated to around 75,000 years ago. In Wales, the paleolithic burial called the Red Lady of Paviland from its coating of red ochre has been dated to around 33,000 years before present. Paintings of animals made with red and yellow ochre pigments have been found in sites at Pech Merle in France. The cave of Lascaux has an image of a horse colored with yellow estimated to be 17,300 years old. In Ancient Egypt, yellow was associated with gold, which was considered to be eternal, the skin and bones of the gods were believed to be made of gold. The Egyptians used yellow extensively in tomb painting, though occasionally they used orpiment
22.
Sienna
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Sienna is an earth pigment containing iron oxide and manganese oxide. In its natural state, it is yellow-brown and is called raw sienna, when heated, it becomes a reddish brown and is called burnt sienna. It takes its name from the city-state of Siena, where it was produced during the Renaissance, along with ochre and umber, it was one of the first pigments to be used by humans, and is found in many cave paintings. Since the Renaissance, it has one of the brown pigments most widely used by artists. The first recorded use of sienna as a name in English was in 1760. Like the other colours, such as yellow ochre and umber, sienna is a clay containing iron oxide, called limonite. In addition to iron oxide, natural or raw sienna also contains about five percent of manganese oxide, when heated, the iron oxide is dehydrated and turns partially to haematite, which gives it a reddish-brown colour. Sienna is lighter in shade than raw umber, which is clay with iron oxide. But which has a content of manganese which makes it greenish brown or dark brown. When heated, raw umber becomes burnt umber, a dark brown. The pigment sienna was known and used, in its natural form and it was mined near Arcidosso, formerly under Sienese control, now in the province of Grosseto, on Monte Amiata in southern Tuscany. It was called terra rossa, terra gialla, or terra di Siena, during the Renaissance, it was noted by the most widely read author about painting techniques, Giorgio Vasari, under the name terra rossa. By the 1940s, the sources in Italy were nearly exhausted. It is also produced in the French Ardennes, in the small town of Bonne Fontaine near Ecordal. In the 20th century, pigments began to be produced using iron oxide rather than the natural earth. The labels on paint tubes indicate whether they contain natural or synthetic ingredients, PY-43 indicates natural raw sienna, PR-102 indicates natural burnt sienna. There is no single agreed standard for the colour of sienna, and they vary by country and colour list, and there are many proprietary variations offered by paint companies. The colour box at the top of the shows one variation from the ISCC-NBS colour list
23.
Cobalt blue
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Cobalt blue is a blue pigment made by sintering cobalt oxide with alumina at 1200 °C. Chemically, cobalt blue pigment is cobalt oxide-aluminium oxide, or cobalt aluminate, Cobalt blue is lighter and less intense than the pigment Prussian blue. It is extremely stable and has historically used as a coloring agent in ceramics, jewelry. Transparent glasses are tinted with the cobalt pigment smalt. Cobalt blue in impure forms had long used in Chinese porcelain. Commercial production began in France in 1807, the first recorded use of cobalt blue as a color name in English was in 1777. The leading world manufacturer of blue in the 19th century was Benjamin Wegners Norwegian company Blaafarveværket. Germany was also famous for production, especially the blue colour works in the Ore Mountains of Saxony, capable, by its superior brilliancy and contrast, to subdue the brightness of other blues. Cobalt blue has been used in paintings since its discovery by Thénard by painters such as Turner and it is stable and lightfast and also compatible with all other pigments. Maxfield Parrish, famous partly for the intensity of his skyscapes, used cobalt blue, Cobalt blue was the primary blue pigment used in Chinese blue and white porcelain for centuries, beginning in the late 8th or early 9th century. Automobiles Several car manufacturers including Jeep and Bugatti have cobalt blue as one paint options, construction Because of its chemical stability in the presence of alkali, cobalt blue is used as a pigment in blue concrete. Glassmaking The blue seen on many pieces is cobalt blue. Cobalt glass almost perfectly filters out the bright yellow emission of ionized sodium, sports Major League Soccers Sporting Kansas City have had cobalt blue as the secondary color of its home uniforms since 2008. Vexillology Several countries including the Netherlands and Romania, and a U. S. state - Nevada - have cobalt blue as one of three shades of their flags, video Games Segas official logo color is cobalt blue. Sonic the Hedgehog, Segas current mascot, was colored to match, Cobalt blue is toxic when inhaled or ingested. Potters who fail to take precautions when using cobalt blue may succumb to cobalt poisoning. List of colors List of inorganic pigments Cobalt glass Roy, A, Cobalt blue, in Artists’ Pigments, Berrie, B. H. National Gallery of Art Washington,2007 History of Cobalt blue
24.
Paris green
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Paris green is an inorganic compound. It is a highly toxic emerald-green crystalline powder that has used as a rodenticide and insecticide. It is also used as a colorant for fireworks. The color of Paris green is said to range from a blue green when very finely ground. Paris green may be prepared by combining acetate and arsenic trioxide. Paris green was used to kill rats in Parisian sewers. It was also used in America and elsewhere as an insecticide for produce such as apples, around 1900 and this toxic mixture is said to have burned the trees and the grass around the trees. Paris green was heavily sprayed by airplane in Italy, Sardinia, similar natural compounds are the minerals chalcophyllite Cu 18Al 233 27·36H 2O, conichalcite CaCu, cornubite Cu 52 4·H 2O, cornwallite Cu 52 4·H 2O, and liroconite Cu 2Al 4·4H 2O. These vivid minerals range from blue to slightly yellowish green. It was popular as a pigment and would degrade, with moisture and molds. Paris green may have also used in wallpaper to some extent. Both pigments were used in printing ink formulations. The ancient Romans used one of them, possibly conichalcite, as a green pigment, the Paris green paint used by the Impressionists is said to have been composed of relatively coarse particles. Later, the chemical was produced with increasingly small grinds and without carefully removing impurities and it is likely that it was ground more finely for use in watercolors and inks, too
25.
Vermilion
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Vermilion is a brilliant red or scarlet pigment originally made from the powdered mineral cinnabar, and is also the name of the resulting color. The word vermilion came from the Old French word vermeillon, which was derived from vermeil, from the Latin vermiculus and it has the same origin as the English word vermin. The name originated because it had a color to the natural red dye made from an insect, the Kermes vermilio. The words for the color in Portuguese, Galician and Catalan have the same origin, the first recorded use of vermilion as a color name in English was in 1289. The term cinnabar was used interchangeably with vermilion until the 17th century, by the late 18th century cinnabar applied to the unground natural mineral only. Vermilion is a dense, opaque pigment with a clear, brilliant hue, the pigment was originally made by grinding a powder of cinnabar, which contains mercury. The chemical formula of the pigment is HgS, like most mercury compounds, Vermilion is not one specific hue, Mercuric sulfides make a range of warm hues – from bright orange-red to a duller reddish-purple that resembles fresh duck liver. Differences in hue are caused by the size of the particles of pigment. Larger crystals produce duller and less-orange hue, Cinnabar pigment was a side-product of the mining of mercury, and mining cinnabar was difficult, expensive and dangerous, because of the toxicity of mercury. The Greek philosopher Theophrastus of Eresus described the process in De Lapidibus, efforts began early to find a better way to make the pigment. The Chinese were probably the first to make a synthetic vermilion as early as the 4th century BC, the Greek alchemist Zosimus of Panopolis wrote that such a method existed. In the early ninth century the process was described by the Arab or Persian alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan in his book of recipes of colors. The process described by Jabir ibn Hayyan was fairly simple, Mercury and sulfur were mixed together, forming a black compound of sulphide of mercury, called Aethiopes mineralis. This was then heated in a flask, the compound vaporized, and recondensed in the top of the flask. The flask was broken, the vermilion was taken out, when first created the pigment was almost black, but as it was ground the red color appeared. The longer the color was ground, the finer the color became, the Italian Renaissance artist Cennino Cennini wrote, if you were to grind it every day even for twenty years it would keep getting better and more perfect. During the 17th century a new method of making the pigment was introduced, Mercury and melted sulfur were mashed to make black mercury sulfide, then heated in retort, producing vapors condensing as a bright, red mercury sulfide. To remove the sulfur these crystals were treated with an alkali, washed
26.
Zinc chromate
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Zinc chromate, ZnCrO4, is a chemical compound containing the chromate anion, appearing as odorless yellow powder or yellow-green crystals, but, when used for coatings, pigments are often added. It is used industrially in chromate conversion coatings, having developed by the Ford Motor Company in the 1920s. A process known as the Cronak process is used to create zinc chromate for use in industry and this process is done by putting zinc or a zinc plated metal in a solution of sodium dichromate and sulfuric acid for a few seconds. Zinc chromate can also be synthesized by using neutral potassium chromate and zinc sulfate, k2CrO4 + ZnSO4 → ZnCrO4 + K2SO4 Zinc chromate’s main use is in industrial painting as a coating over iron or aluminum materials. It was used extensively on aircraft by the U. S. military, especially during the 1930s and 1940s and its use as a corrosion-resistant agent was applied to aluminium alloy parts first in commercial aircraft, and then in military ones. During the 1940 and 1950s it was found as the paint in the wheel wells of retractable landing gear on U. S. military aircraft to protect the aluminium from corrosion. This compound was a useful coating because it is an anti-corrosive, since it is highly toxic it also destroys any organic growth on the surface. Zinc chromate is used in spray paints, artists’ paints, pigments in varnishes. When used as a pigment, it is known as Zinc Yellow and it is rarely used in art because the pigment degenerates into a brown color. This effect can be seen in Georges Seurats famous painting A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, the degradation of zinc yellow in Surats painting was thoroughly investigated and these findings were subsequently employed in a digital rejuvenation of the painting. Zinc chromate putty was used as sealant in addition to two O-rings between sections of the solid rocket booster on Space Shuttle Challenger. Blowholes in this putty may have been a contributor to the loss of the shuttle. Recent studies have shown not only is zinc chromate highly toxic. Exposure to zinc chromate can cause ulceration and cancer. Because of its toxicity the use of zinc chromate has greatly diminished in recent years
27.
Chromate and dichromate
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Chromate salts contain the chromate anion, CrO2−4. Dichromate salts contain the anion, Cr 2O2−7. They are oxoanions of chromium in the oxidation state +6 and they are moderately strong oxidizing agents. In an aqueous solution, chromate and dichromate ions can be interconvertible, chromates react with hydrogen peroxide giving products in which peroxide, O2−2, replaces one or more oxygen atoms. In acid solution the unstable blue peroxo complex Chromium oxide peroxide, CrO2, is formed, addition of pyridine results in the formation of the more stable complex CrO2py. In aqueous solution, chromate and dichromate anions exist in a chemical equilibrium,2 CrO2−4 +2 H+ ⇌ Cr 2O2−7 + H2O The predominance diagram shows that the position of the equilibrium depends on both pH and the analytical concentration of chromium. The chromate ion is the predominant species in solutions. Further condensation reactions can occur in acidic solution with the formation of trichromates, Cr 3O2−10. All polyoxyanions of chromium have structures made up of tetrahedral CrO4 units sharing corners, the chromate ion is a weak acid. HCrO−4 ⇌ CrO2−4 + H+, pKa ≈5.9 The hydrogen chromate ion,2 HCrO−4 ⇌ Cr 2O2−7 + H2O This equilibrium does not involve a change in hydrogen ion concentration, so should be independent of pH. The red line on the diagram is not quite horizontal due to the simultaneous equilibrium with the chromate ion. The hydrogenchromate ion may be protonated, with the formation of molecular chromic acid, H2CrO4, reported values vary between about −0.8 to 1.6. The dichromate ion is a weaker base than the chromate ion. HCr 2O−7 ⇌ Cr 2O2−7 + H+, pK =1.8 The pK value for this shows that it can be ignored at pH >4. The chromate and dichromate ions are fairly strong oxidizing agents, commonly three electrons are added to a chromium atom, reducing it to oxidation state +3. In acid solution the aquated Cr3+ ion is produced, Cr 2O2−7 +14 H3O+ +6 e− →2 Cr3+ +7 H2O ε0 =1.33 V In alkaline solution chromium hydroxide is produced. The redox potential shows that chromates are weaker oxidizing agent in alkaline solution than in acid solution. CrO2−4 +4 H 2O +3 e− → Cr 3 +5 OH− ε0 = −0.13 V Approximately 136,000 tonnes of hexavalent chromium, chromates and dichromates are used in chrome plating to protect metals from corrosion and to improve paint adhesion
28.
Museum of Modern Art
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The Museum of Modern Art is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. MoMA has been important in developing and collecting modernist art, and is identified as one of the largest and most influential museums of modern art in the world. The MoMA Library includes approximately 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, over 1,000 periodical titles, the archives holds primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art. The idea for The Museum of Modern Art was developed in 1929 primarily by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller and they became known variously as the Ladies, the daring ladies and the adamantine ladies. They rented modest quarters for the new museum in the Heckscher Building at 730 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, and it opened to the public on November 7,1929, nine days after the Wall Street Crash. Abby had invited A. Conger Goodyear, the president of the board of trustees of the Albright Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York. At the time, it was Americas premier museum devoted exclusively to art. One of Abbys early recruits for the staff was the noted Japanese-American photographer Soichi Sunami. Goodyear enlisted Paul J. Sachs and Frank Crowninshield to join him as founding trustees, Sachs, the associate director and curator of prints and drawings at the Fogg Museum at Harvard University, was referred to in those days as a collector of curators. Goodyear asked him to recommend a director and Sachs suggested Alfred H. Barr, under Barrs guidance, the museums holdings quickly expanded from an initial gift of eight prints and one drawing. Its first successful exhibition was in November 1929, displaying paintings by Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne. Abbys husband was opposed to the museum and refused to release funds for the venture. Nevertheless, he donated the land for the current site of the museum, plus other gifts over time. During that time it initiated many more exhibitions of noted artists, the museum also gained international prominence with the hugely successful and now famous Picasso retrospective of 1939–40, held in conjunction with the Art Institute of Chicago. In its range of presented works, it represented a significant reinterpretation of Picasso for future art scholars, Boy Leading a Horse was briefly contested over ownership with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. In 1941, MoMA hosted the exhibition, Indian Art of the United States. His brother, David Rockefeller, also joined the board of trustees in 1948. David subsequently employed the noted architect Philip Johnson to redesign the garden and name it in honor of his mother
29.
Whitney Museum of American Art
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The Whitney Museum of American Art – known informally as the Whitney – is an art museum located in Manhattan. It was founded in 1931 by Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, a wealthy and prominent American socialite, the Whitney focuses on 20th- and 21st-century American art. Its permanent collection more than 21,000 paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints, photographs, films, videos. The museums Annual and Biennial exhibitions have long been a venue for younger, from 1966 to 2014, the Whitney was located at 945 Madison Avenue at East 75th Street in Manhattans Upper East Side. Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, the namesake and founder, was herself a well-regarded sculptor as well as a serious art collector. With the aid of her assistant, Juliana R. Force, in 1929, she offered to donate over 500 works of art to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, but the museum declined the gift. This, along with the apparent preference for European modernism at the recently opened Museum of Modern Art, led Whitney to start her own museum, exclusively for American art, in 1929. Force became the first director of the museum, and under her guidance, in 1954, the museum left its original location and moved to a small structure on 54th Street connected to and behind the Museum of Modern Art on 53rd Street. On April 15,1958, a fire on the floor of MOMA that killed one person forced the evacuation of paintings. Among the paintings moved in the evacuation was A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte which had been on loan from the Art Institute of Chicago, in 1961, the museum began seeking a site for a larger building. The Whitney settled in 1966 at the southeast corner of Madison Avenue at 75th Street in Manhattans Upper East Side, in 1967, Mauricio Lasansky showed The Nazi Drawings. The exhibition traveled to the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York, the institution grappled with space problems for decades. From 1973 to 1983 the Whitney operated its first branch at 55 Water Street, in 1983 Philip Morris installed a Whitney branch in the lobby of its Park Avenue headquarters. In 1981 the museum opened a space in Stamford, Connecticut. Each museum had its own director, and all plans were to be approved by a Whitney committee, but each time the effort was abandoned, either because of the cost or the design or both. In order to secure space for the museums collections, then-director Thomas N. Armstrong III developed plans for a 10-story. The proposed addition, designed by Michael Graves and announced in 1985, Graves had proposed demolishing the flanking brownstones down to the East 74th Street corner for a complementary addition. After the project gradually lost the support of many of the museum’s trustees, between 1995 and 1998, the building underwent a renovation and addition by Richard Gluckman
30.
Playboy
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Playboy is an American mens lifestyle and entertainment magazine. It was founded in Chicago in 1953, by Hugh Hefner and his associates, with a presence in nearly every medium. In addition to the magazine in the United States, special nation-specific versions of Playboy are published worldwide. The magazine has a history of publishing short stories by notable novelists such as Arthur C. Clarke, Ian Fleming, Vladimir Nabokov, Saul Bellow, Chuck Palahniuk, P. G. Wodehouse, Haruki Murakami, the magazine generally reflects a liberal editorial stance, although it often interviews conservative celebrities. After a year-long removal of most nude photos in Playboy magazine and he formed HMH Publishing Corporation, and recruited his friend Eldon Sellers to find investors. Hefner eventually raised just over $8,000, including from his brother and mother. However, the publisher of a mens adventure magazine, Stag, contacted Hefner. Hefner, his wife Millie, and Sellers met to seek a new name, considering Top Hat, Gentleman, Sir, Satyr, Pan, the first issue, in December 1953, was undated, as Hefner was unsure there would be a second. He produced it in his Hyde Park kitchen, the first centerfold was Marilyn Monroe, although the picture used originally was taken for a calendar rather than for Playboy. Hefner chose what he deemed the sexiest image, a previously unused nude study of Marilyn stretched with an arm on a red velvet background with closed eyes. The heavy promotion centered around Marilyns nudity on the calendar, together with the teasers in marketing. The first issue sold out in weeks, copies of the first issue in mint to near mint condition sold for over $5,000 in 2002. The novel Fahrenheit 451, by Ray Bradbury, was serialized in the March, April, an urban legend started about Hefner and the Playmate of the Month because of markings on the front covers of the magazine. From 1955 to 1979, the P in Playboy had stars printed in or around the letter. The legend stated that this was either a rating that Hefner gave to the Playmate according to how attractive she was, the stars, between zero and 12, actually indicated the domestic or international advertising region for that printing. From 1966 to 1976, Robie Macauley was the Fiction Editor at Playboy, P. Donleavy, as well as poetry by Yevgeny Yevtushenko. Macauley also contributed all of the popular Ribald Classics series published between January 1978 and March 1984, christie Hefner, daughter of the founder Hugh Hefner, joined Playboy in 1975 and became head of the company in 1988
31.
Nancy Cameron
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The following is a list of Playboy Playmates of 1974, the 20th anniversary year of the publication. Playboy magazine names their Playmate of the Month each month throughout the year, nancy Cameron is an American model and actress. She was chosen as Playboy magazines Playmate of the Month for the January 1974 issue, Cameron appeared in a double-sided centerfold, with both her nude front and back visible. Her centerfold was photographed by Dwight Hooker, francine Parks is an American model. She was Playboy magazines Playmate of the Month for the February 1974 issue and her centerfold was photographed by Mario Casilli. Pamela Zinszer is an American model and she was Playboy magazines Playmate of the Month for the March 1974 issue. Her centerfold was photographed by Mario Casilli, marlene Morrow is an American model. She was Playboy magazines Playmate of the Month for the April 1974 issue and her centerfold was photographed by Larry Dale Gordon. Marilyn Lange is a chosen by Playboy magazine as the Playmate of the Month for May 1974, and later. The Playmate of the Year pictorial was featured in the June 1975 issue, at that time, she lived in Hawaii and played soccer. As a publicity stunt, the Chicago Sting of the mens North American Soccer League selected her in the round of the 1976 draft. Although she never played for them, she did work in the promotions department, sandy Johnson is an American model and actress. She was Playboy magazines Playmate of the Month for the June 1974 issue and her centerfold was photographed by Mario Casilli. Johnsons acting credits include 1978s Halloween as Judith Myers, carol Vitale was an American model and television program hostess/personality. She was Playboy magazines Playmate of the Month for its July 1974 issue and her centerfold was photographed by David Chan. In all, she appeared in three Playboy pictorials, as well as the cover of the August 1972 issue and she came to Playboys attention while working as a Bunny at the Miami Playboy Club. Vitale died on July 23,2008 at her condo in Aventura, Florida as a result of complications from lupus, scleroderma, Jeane Manson, born Jean Manson, is an American model, singer and actress. She was Playboy magazines Playmate of the Month for the August 1974 issue and her centerfold was photographed by Dwight Hooker
32.
Playboy Playmate
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A Playmate is a female model featured in the centerfold/gatefold of Playboy magazine as Playmate of the Month. The PMOMs pictorial includes nude photographs and a poster, along with a pictorial biography and the Playmate Data Sheet, which lists her birthdate, measurements, turn-ons. At the end of the year, one of the twelve Playmates of the Month is named Playmate of the Year, currently, Playmates of the Month are paid US$25,000 and Playmates of the Year receive an additional US$100,000 plus a car and a motorcycle. In addition, Anniversary Playmates are usually chosen to celebrate a year of the magazine. In addition, casting calls are held regularly in major US cities to offer opportunities for women to test for Playboy, the Playboy photographers and Hugh Hefner then select which models become Playmates. The Playmate of the Year is chosen personally by Hugh Hefner, according to Playboy, there is no such thing as a former Playmate because Once a Playmate, always a Playmate. Marilyn Monroe, who was featured in the first issue, was the one to appear as Sweetheart of the Month. The first model called a Playmate of the Month was Margie Harrison, Miss January 1954, generally a woman may appear only once as a Playmate, but in the early years of the magazine, some models were featured multiple times. Marilyn Waltz and Janet Pilgrim are tied for the most appearances, Margie Harrison and Marguerite Empey are the only other women to appear more than once as Playmates. Under current law in most US jurisdictions, publishing pictures of a model younger than 18 would be a felony. However, in the years of the magazine, laws regarding corruption of a minor were less well established. Several playmates – including Nancy Crawford, Donna Michelle, Linda Moon, Patti Reynolds, Elizabeth Ann Roberts – whose pictorial was called Schoolmate Playmate – posed when she was sixteen. Hugh Hefner and Roberts mother were arrested as a result, in more recent years, Ursula Buchfellner posed for the German edition of Playboy when she was sixteen and subsequently posed for the American edition when she was eighteen. Dutch Playmate twins Karin and Mirjam van Breeschooten appeared at age seventeen in their countrys edition of Playboy in June 1988, at eighteen, the youngest – i. e. last born – Playmate, as of April 2015 is Alexandra Tyler, born May 9,1994. Some women have become Playmates in their 30s, rebecca Anne Ramos is the oldest Playmate to date, appearing in her shoot at the age of 35. First Playmate, Margie Harrison in the issue of Playboy. Marilyn Monroe, who was featured in the first issue, was the one to appear as Sweetheart of the Month. First Playmate who was not an American citizen, Elsa Sorensen was a citizen of Denmark, youngest Playmate ever featured, Elizabeth Ann Roberts appeared at age 16
33.
Sunday in the Park with George
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Sunday in the Park with George is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and book by James Lapine. The musical was inspired by the painting A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte by Georges Seurat, the plot revolves around George, a fictionalized version of Georges Seurat, who immerses himself deeply in painting his masterpiece. The Broadway production opened in 1984 and it has enjoyed several major revivals, including the 2005-06 UK production first presented at the Menier Chocolate Factory and its subsequent 2008 Broadway transfer. Act I In 1884, Georges Seurat, known as George in the musical, is sketching studies for his famous painting and he announces to the audience, White, a blank page or canvas. The challenge, bring order to the whole, through design, composition, tension, balance, light and he conjures up the island, a small suburban park, around him, and retains some control of his surroundings as he draws them. His longtime mistress, Dot, models for him, despite her frustrations at having to get up early on a Sunday, the quiet of the park is interrupted by a group of rude bathers. George freezes them with a gesture, setting them as the subjects of his first painting, the setting abruptly changes to a gallery where the painting is on display. Jules and his wife Yvonne think Georges work has No Life, back on the island, Jules and Yvonne have a short discussion with George and depart. They take their coachman Franz with them, interrupting Franzs rendezvous with the Nurse, Dot, who has grown tired of standing still in the early morning sunlight, leaves the park mollified after George promises to take her to the Follies. George approaches the Old Lady, revealed to be his mother, and requests to draw her, in Georges studio he works on his painting obsessively while Dot prepares for their date and fantasizes about being a Follies girl. When George briefly stops painting to clean his brushes, he, Dot is ready to leave, but George chooses to continue painting instead, greatly upsetting her. In the park, on a Sunday some time later, George sketches a disgruntled Boatman to the disapproval of an observing Jules, Dot enters on the arm of Louis, a baker. Two chatting shop girls, both named Celeste, notice Dot with a new man, when Jules and Yvonnes daughter Louise attempts to pet the Boatmans dog, he shouts at her, then lashes out at George and storms off. George and Dot have an awkward, strained conversation as she works on the book she is using to teach herself how to read. As Jules and Yvonne mock the unconventional nature of Georges art, they discuss an initiative to have his work included in the group show. George sketches two dogs while whimsically trying to imagine the world from their perspective, describing their relief to be free of their routines on Sunday. Dot sees George, but he slips away before she can speak to him and she clearly misses and loves George, but Louis loves, respects and needs her in a way George cannot, and she has made her choice. As the park empties for the evening, George returns, time has passed, and a heavily pregnant Dot visits Georges studio
34.
Stephen Sondheim
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Stephen Joshua Sondheim is an American composer and lyricist known for more than a half-century of contributions to musical theatre. Sondheim has received an Academy Award, eight Tony Awards, eight Grammy Awards, a Pulitzer Prize, the Laurence Olivier Award, and he has been described by Frank Rich of The New York Times as now the greatest and perhaps best-known artist in the American musical theater. He also wrote the lyrics for West Side Story and Gypsy, Sondheim has also written film music, contributing Goodbye for Now to Warren Beattys 1981 Reds. He wrote five songs for 1990s Dick Tracy, including Sooner or Later by Madonna, the composer was president of the Dramatists Guild from 1973 to 1981. To celebrate his 80th birthday, the former Henry Millers Theatre was renamed the Stephen Sondheim Theatre on September 15,2010, Cameron Mackintosh has called Sondheim possibly the greatest lyricist ever. Sondheim was born into a Jewish family in New York City and his father manufactured dresses designed by his mother. The composer grew up on the Upper West Side of Manhattan and, after his parents divorced, on a farm near Doylestown, Pennsylvania. As the only child of parents living in the San Remo on Central Park West. When he lived in New York, Sondheim attended ECFS, the Ethical Culture Fieldston School known simply as Fieldston, Sondheim spent several summers at Camp Androscoggin. He traces his interest in theatre to Very Warm for May, the curtain went up and revealed a piano, Sondheim recalled. A butler took a duster and brushed it up, tinkling the keys, when Sondheim was ten, his father left his mother for another woman. Herbert sought custody of Stephen but was unsuccessful, Sondheim explained to biographer Secrest that he was what they call an institutionalized child, meaning one who has no contact with any kind of family. Youre in, though its luxurious, youre in an environment that supplies you with everything, No brothers and sisters, no parents, and yet plenty to eat, and friends to play with and a warm bed, you know. Sondheim detested his mother, who was said to be abusive and projected her anger from her failed marriage on her son, When my father left her. And she used me the way she used him, to come on to and to berate, beat up on, what she did for five years was treat me like dirt, but come on to me at the same time. She once wrote him a letter saying that the only ever had was giving him birth. When his mother died in the spring of 1992, Sondheim did not attend her funeral, when Sondheim was about ten years old, he became friends with James Hammerstein, son of lyricist and playwright Oscar Hammerstein II. The elder Hammerstein became Sondheims surrogate father, influencing him profoundly, Sondheim met Hal Prince, who would direct many of his shows, at the opening of South Pacific, Hammersteins musical with Richard Rodgers
35.
Ferris Bueller's Day Off
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Ferris Buellers Day Off is a 1986 American teen comedy film written, co-produced and directed by John Hughes, and co-produced by Tom Jacobson. The film stars Matthew Broderick as Ferris Bueller, a slacker who spends a day off from school, with Mia Sara. Ferris regularly breaks the wall to explain techniques and inner thoughts. Hughes wrote the screenplay in less than a week, filming began in September 1985 and finished the following November. Featuring many landmarks, including the Sears Tower and the Art Institute of Chicago, not just in the architecture and landscape, but the spirit. In 2014, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress, being deemed culturally, historically, in 2016, Paramount, Turner Classic Movies, and Fathom Events re-released the film and Pretty in Pink to celebrate its 30th anniversary. In suburban Chicago, high school senior Ferris Bueller fakes sickness to stay home, Ferris frequently breaks the fourth wall to talk about his friends and give the audience advice on how to skip school. His parents believe him, though his sister Jeannie is not convinced, dean of Students Edward R. Rooney notes and suspects Ferris is being truant again and commits to catching him. However, Ferris uses a computer to alter the schools records to reduce his absences from 9 to 2, Ferris convinces his friend Cameron Frye, who really is absent due to illness, to report that his girlfriend Sloane Petersons grandmother has died. Rooney doubts this, but they succeed as planned, borrowing Camerons fathers prized 1961 Ferrari 250 GT California Spyder against Camerons wishes, he, Ferris, and Sloane drive into Chicago to sightsee. Leaving the car with two parking attendants, who take it on a joyride, the trio visit the Art Institute of Chicago, Sears Tower, Chicago Mercantile Exchange. They then go to a French restaurant for lunch where Ferris poses as the Sausage King of Chicago Abe Froman while narrowly avoiding his father, who is eating lunch at the restaurant. Meanwhile, after failing to find Ferris, Rooney visits the Bueller residence and fails to enter, Jeannie, skipping class, returns home and discovers her brothers ruse, but encounters Rooney snooping. She kicks him and calls the police, who arrest her for false reporting after Rooney leaves, while at the station, Jeannie meets a juvenile delinquent, who advises her not to worry so much about Ferris. Just as things shine bright, they retrieve the car and notice that, due to the attendants joyride, the revelation shocks Cameron into a state of self-analysis, realizing his life is controlled by his fathers figure. They return the car to Camerons garage and unsuccessfully try to run it backwards to remove the miles, Ferris suggests that they crack it open and turn it back manually. Cameron refuses and vents anger towards his father, kicking, severely denting, and leaning on the car, Ferris offers to take the blame, though Cameron insists on taking a stand against his father after destroying the car. At the police station, Mrs. Bueller picks up Jeannie, Ferris returns Sloane home, but realizes he only has a limited time to return home to avoid trouble
36.
Looney Tunes: Back in Action
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Looney Tunes, Back in Action is a 2003 American live-action/animated fantasy spy action comedy film directed by Joe Dante. It is the third feature-length live-action animation hybrid film to feature Looney Tunes characters, after Who Framed Roger Rabbit, the plot revolves around Daffy Duck and Bugs Bunny helping aspiring daredevil Damian D. J. The film was released on November 14,2003 with mixed-to-positive critical reception. However, the film was a box office bomb, grossing $68.5 million worldwide against an $80 million budget and this was the final film to be scored by composer Jerry Goldsmith, who died less than a year after the films release. Tired of playing second banana to Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck demands his own cartoon from Warner Bros. but is promptly fired, aspiring stuntman DJ Drake is asked to escort Daffy off the studio lot, but the ensuing chase leads to the Batmobile demolishing the studio water tower. DJ is also fired in the process, and returns home with Daffy hitching a ride, discovering his father, action film star, DJ and Daffy head for Vegas. Meanwhile, Bugs routines fall apart without Daffy, so Vice-President of Comedy, Bugs informs Kate of the situation, so they steal Damians spy car, and pursue DJ and Daffy. In Las Vegas, DJ and Daffy meet Dusty in a owned by Acme operative Yosemite Sam. Dusty gives them a strange playing card, but when Sam attempts to kill them, they flee in the spy car with Bugs, the spy car, which can also fly, crashes in the Nevada desert. Marvin the Martian, imprisoned in the facility, escapes and leads a group of fellow inmates to obtain the playing card. Seeing that the card has Mona Lisas face on it, the group conclude they must view the painting in the Louvre, located in Paris. At the Louvre, they discover that the contains a viewing window, and looking through it. Elmer is disintegrated by Bugs after jumping out of a pointillism artwork, Bugs and Daffy reunite with DJ and Kate, and they leave Paris. DJ, Kate, Bugs, and Daffy travel to Africa, meeting Granny, Sylvester, and Tweety, Granny and company reveal themselves to be Mr. Chairman, Smith, and the Tasmanian Devil in disguise. Mr. Chairman uses a gun to transport himself and the heroes to the Acme headquarters where he forces DJ to give him the diamond. Marvin is sent to place the blue monkey on an Acme satellite which will emit a beam around the world to turn everyone, except Mr. Chairman. DJ and Kate rescue Damian from a trap, whilst Bugs. Bugs is incapacitated, prompting Daffy to become Duck Dodgers, in order to destroy the blue monkey, the transforming energy beam only strikes Mr. Chairman, turning him into a monkey
37.
Family Guy
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Family Guy is an American adult animated sitcom created by Seth MacFarlane for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The series centers on the Griffins, a family consisting of parents Peter and Lois, their children Meg, Chris, and Stewie, and their anthropomorphic pet dog Brian. The show is set in the city of Quahog, Rhode Island. The family was conceived by MacFarlane after developing two animated films, The Life of Larry and Larry & Steve, MacFarlane redesigned the films protagonist, Larry, and his dog, Steve, and renamed them Peter and Brian, respectively. MacFarlane pitched a pilot to Fox in 1998, and the show was greenlit. Shortly after the season of Family Guy had aired in 2002, Fox canceled the series. Adult Swim burned off the episode in 2003, finishing the original run. However, favorable DVD sales and high ratings for syndicated reruns on Adult Swim convinced the network to renew the show in 2004 for a fourth season, since its debut on January 31,1999,286 episodes of Family Guy have been broadcast. Its fifteenth season began on September 25,2016, Family Guy has been nominated for 12 Primetime Emmy Awards and 11 Annie Awards, and has won three of each. In 2009, it was nominated for an Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series, Family Guy has also received criticism, including unfavorable comparisons to The Simpsons. In 2008, MacFarlane confirmed that the cast was interested in producing a feature film, a spin-off series, The Cleveland Show, featuring Cleveland Brown, aired from September 27,2009, to May 19,2013. The Simpsons Guy, an episode with The Simpsons, aired on September 28,2014. Family Guy is a joint production by Fuzzy Door Productions and 20th Century Fox Television, in 2013, TV Guide ranked Family Guy the ninth Greatest TV Cartoon of All Time. On May 15,2016, Family Guy was renewed for a fifteenth season, living with the family is their witty, smoking, martini-swilling, sarcastic, English-speaking anthropomorphic dog Brian, though he is still considered a pet in many respects. Recurring characters appear alongside the Griffin family, TV news anchors Tom Tucker and Diane Simmons, Asian reporter Tricia Takanawa, and Blaccu-Weather meteorologist Ollie Williams also make frequent appearances. Actors Adam West and James Woods guest star as themselves in various episodes, the primary setting of Family Guy is Quahog, a fictional district of Providence, Rhode Island that was founded by Peters ancestor Griffin Peterson. MacFarlane resided in Providence during his time as a student at Rhode Island School of Design, MacFarlane often borrows the names of Rhode Island locations and icons such as Pawtucket and Buddy Cianci for use in the show. MacFarlane, in an interview with a program on WNAC-TV, Channel 64 in Providence, stated that the town is modeled after Cranston
38.
Muppet Babies
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Jim Hensons Muppet Babies, commonly known by the shortened title Muppet Babies, is an American animated television series that aired from September 15,1984 to November 2,1991 on CBS. The show portrays childhood versions of the Muppets living together in a nursery under the care of a woman called Nanny. Nanny appears in almost every episode, but her face is never visible, only the view of her pink skirt, purple sweater. Muppet Babies was produced by The Jim Henson Company and Marvel Productions, the rights are now held by The Walt Disney Company, which separately acquired both the Muppets characters and Marvel. Although the episodes were 30 minutes, it was shown in 60. Outside of the United States, the show was distributed by Walt Disney Television, the Muppet Babies live in a large nursery watched over by Nanny, who is seen only from the shoulders down. The babies imaginary games transition from the nursery into scenes that become real to the babies, often these fantasies are filled with stock footage scenes or live-action clips from popular movies such as Star Wars, Ghostbusters, and Indiana Jones. Each episode contains a musical number. When the pretend game becomes too perilous, or when an interruption occurs, the central idea of each episode is the power of imagination. Sometimes the babies use their imagination to solve a problem, Nanny is the voice of reason, congratulating them on their creativity or soothing their fears. The series stars Kermit the Frog, Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Animal, Scooter, Skeeter, Rowlf the Dog, dr. Bunsen Honeydew and Beaker made regular appearances as did Camilla in the form of Gonzos stuffed baby chick. In the final two seasons, Bean Bunny and Statler and Waldorf began making regular appearances, several Muppets made guest appearances including Janice as an older preteen, and Kermits nephew, Robin, a young tadpole. The Muppet Baby character Skeeter, Scooters twin sister, only appeared in this series and this was done because the producers wanted another female character added to the cast. Despite this, Skeeter was always voiced by a male actor, the film included a fantasy sequence in which Miss Piggy imagined what growing up with Kermit would have been like. While Piggy sang, baby versions of Rowlf, Fozzie, Scooter, the live-action sequence was so popular that The Jim Henson Company turned the idea into a half-hour cartoon program. I. Joe and The Transformers for Marvel Productions and Sunbow Productions, Muppet Babies proved highly popular and ran on CBS from 1984 to 1991, a total of seven seasons. At the height of its popularity it ran in two or three episode blocks, even after the conclusion of the series, it had remained so popular that CBS continued to air reruns of the series until the fall of 1992. For a brief run in the season, the program became Muppets, Babies & Monsters
39.
Mom and Pop Art
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Mom and Pop Art is the nineteenth episode of The Simpsons tenth season. It was first aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 11,1999, in this episode, Homer inadvertently becomes a well-praised outsider artist after his failed attempts to build a barbecue pit. His exhibit goes to the Louvre, and after Mr. Burns buys his artwork, however, after his new art appears in the Art in America show, Homers artwork is criticized for being too repetitive of his first piece. After his recent failure, Homer tries to devise something groundbreaking, Mom and Pop Art was directed by Steven Dean Moore and was the first episode Al Jean wrote after his return to The Simpsons writing staff. The episodes plot was conceived by Jean, who was inspired by a segment about found artists on the news magazine 60 Minutes. The episode features contemporary artist Jasper Johns as himself, and also features Italian actress Isabella Rossellini as Astrid Weller and it features references to several famous artworks, such as those of Leonardo da Vinci and Henri Rousseau. In its original broadcast, the episode was seen by approximately 8.5 million viewers, following the home video release of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season, Mom and Pop Art received mixed reviews from critics. Homer is relaxing on a Saturday when Marge tells him that he should be doing work around the house, Homer overcomes his reluctance and takes Bart to Mom & Pop Hardware to get some equipment. But while there, Homer sees a do it yourself barbecue pit and is compelled to buy it instead of anything that might help him with his work, Homer tries to install the pit, but bungles the job when he drops the parts of the barbecue into wet cement. He frantically tries to assemble the barbecue pit before the cement hardens, in the end, Homer is left with a mismatched collection of parts stuck in hardened cement, which angers him. He vents his rage on the construct, mangling it further, later, Homer takes the results of his work back to the store for a refund, which he does not receive. On the way home, Homer loses control of the containing the jumbled mess of concrete. It rolls down the highway and crashes into a womans car, Homer flees the scene of the accident, but the woman tracks him down. It turns out that she is an artist named Astrid Weller, Homers exhibit goes to the Louvre, American Style museum and when Mr. Burns buys his work, Homer becomes a success. Now officially an outsider artist, Homer uses his rage to continue his work and befriends other stereotypically pretentious artists. All the while, his easily achieved fame makes Marge jealous due to her lack of success at becoming a successful artist despite years of effort, down on his luck and starved for inspiration, Lisa recommends Homer visit the Springfield Art Museum. He goes back home, discouraged, but is given another suggestion by Lisa. She tells him about the artist Christo, causing Homer to try doing something similarly groundbreaking and he and Bart flood Springfield by opening all the fire hydrants and putting snorkels in the animals of the zoo
Georges Seurat, A Sunday on La Grande Jatte - 1884, 1884-86, Smarthistory[1]