1.
Prime Minister of Egypt
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The Prime Minister of Egypt is the head of the Egyptian government. In the late 1970s, Egypt had several cohabitation governments which proved to be unstable, from 1981 until 2011, the National Democratic Party had maintained a majority in the People’s Assembly and supplied the Egyptian president. The National Democratic Party was dissolved by the administrative court on 16 April 2011. The prime minister heads the cabinet, which in turn plays a role in shaping the agenda of the houses of Parliament. It may propose laws to Parliament as well as amendments during parliamentary meetings, when parties from opposite ends of the political spectrum control Parliament and the presidency, the power-sharing arrangement is known as cohabitation. Several cohabitation governments took control in the 1970s yet proved to be very unstable, from 1 March to 17 June 2014, Ibrahim Mahlab served as the Acting Prime Minister of Egypt. At the time of his appointment by Adly Mansour, he said, security and stability in the entire country, a new cabinet was formed on 19 September 2015. Egyptian President Abdel-Fattah El-Sisi accepted the resignation of the government and asked Petroleum Minister Sherif Ismail to form a new cabinet, as of April 2017, there are eight living former Prime Ministers of Egypt, as seen below. Living former Prime Ministers of Egypt The most recent Prime Minister to die was Abd El Aziz Mohamed Hegazi, cabinet of Egypt Politics of Egypt President of Egypt List of political parties in Egypt List of Prime Ministers of Egypt Media related to Prime ministers of Egypt at Wikimedia Commons
2.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
3.
Turkish people
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Turkish people, or the Turks, also known as Anatolian Turks, are a Turkic ethnic group and nation living mainly in Turkey and speaking Turkish, the most widely spoken Turkic language. They are the largest ethnic group in Turkey, as well as by far the largest ethnic group among the speakers of Turkic languages, ethnic Turkish minorities exist in the former lands of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, a Turkish diaspora has been established with modern migration, the ethnonym Turk may be first discerned in Herodotus reference to Targitas, first king of the Scythians, furthermore, during the first century AD. Pomponius Mela refers to the Turcae in the north of the Sea of Azov. The first definite references to the Turks come mainly from Chinese sources in the sixth century, in these sources, Turk appears as Tujue, which referred to the Göktürks. Although Turk refers to Turkish people, it may sometimes refer to the wider language group of Turkic peoples. In the 19th century, the word Türk only referred to Anatolian villagers, the Ottoman ruling class identified themselves as Ottomans, not usually as Turks. In the late 19th century, as the Ottoman upper classes adopted European ideas of nationalism the term Türk took on a more positive connotation. The Turkish-speakers of Anatolia were the most loyal supporters of Ottoman rule, Turkish Jews, Christians, or even Alevis may be considered non-Turks. On the other hand, Kurdish Arab followers of the Sunni branch of Islam who live in eastern Anatolia are sometimes considered Turks, article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a Turk as anyone who is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship. Anatolia was first inhabited by hunter-gatherers during the Paleolithic era, most of the Turkic peoples were followers of Tengriism, sharing the cult of the sky god Tengri, although there were also adherents of Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism. However, during the Muslim conquests, the Turks entered the Muslim world proper as servants, during the booty of Arab raids, the Turks began converting to Islam after Muslim conquest of Transoxiana through the efforts of missionaries, Sufis, and merchants. Although initiated by the Arabs, the conversion of the Turks to Islam was filtered through Persian, under the Umayyads, most were domestic servants, whilst under the Abbasids, increasing numbers were trained as soldiers. By the ninth century, Turkish commanders were leading the caliphs’ Turkish troops into battle, as the Abbasid caliphate declined, Turkish officers assumed more military and political power taking over or establishing provincial dynasties with their own corps of Turkish troops. During the 11th century the Seljuk Turks who were admirers of the Persian civilization grew in number and were able to occupy the province of the Abbasid Empire. By 1055, the Seljuk Empire captured Baghdad and began to make their first incursions into the edges of Anatolia, when the Seljuk Turks won the Battle of Manzikert against the Byzantine Empire in 1071, it opened the gates of Anatolia to them. Although ethnically Turkish, the Seljuk Turks appreciated and became the purveyors of the Persian culture rather than the Turkish culture, in dire straits, the Byzantine Empire turned to the West for help setting in motion the pleas that led to the First Crusade. Once the Crusaders took Iznik, the Seljuk Turks established the Sultanate of Rum from their new capital, Konya, by the 12th century the Europeans had begun to call the Anatolian region Turchia or Turkey, meaning the land of the Turks
4.
Isma'il Pasha
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Ismail Pasha, known as Ismail the Magnificent, was the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan from 1863 to 1879, when he was removed at the behest of the United Kingdom. His philosophy can be glimpsed at in a statement that he made in 1879, My country is no longer in Africa and it is therefore natural for us to abandon our former ways and to adopt a new system adapted to our social conditions. In 1867 he also secured Ottoman and international recognition for his title of Khedive in preference to Wāli which was used by his predecessors in the Ottoman Eyalet of Egypt. The second of the three sons of Ibrahim Pasha, and the grandson of Muhammad Ali, Ismail, of Albanian descent, was born in Cairo at Al Musafir Khana Palace and his mother was Circassian Hoshiar, third wife of his father. She was reportedly a sister of Valide Sultan Pertevniyal, Pertevniyal was a wife of Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire and mother of Abdülaziz I. In 1861 he was dispatched at the head of an army of 18,000 to quell an insurrection in Sudan, after the death of Said, Ismail was proclaimed Khedive on 19 January 1863, though the Ottoman Empire and the other Great Powers recognized him only as Wāli. Like all Egyptian and Sudanese rulers since his grandfather Muhammad Ali Pasha, he claimed the title of Khedive. Finally, in 1867, Ismail succeeded in persuading the Ottoman Sultan Abdülaziz to grant a firman finally recognizing him as Khedive in exchange for an increase in the tribute and he greatly expanded Cairo, building an entire new quarter of the city on its western edge modeled on Paris. He launched a vast railroad building project that saw Egypt and Sudan rise from having virtually none to the most railways per habitable kilometer of any nation in the world, education reform more than tenfold increased the education budget. Traditional primary and secondary schools were expanded and specialized technical and vocational schools were created, students were once again sent to Europe to study on educational missions, encouraging the formation of a Western-trained elite. A national library was founded in 1871, one of his most significant achievements was to establish an assembly of delegates in November 1866. Though this was supposed to be an advisory body, its members eventually came to have an important influence on governmental affairs. Village headmen dominated the assembly and came to exert increasing political and economic influence over the countryside and this was shown in 1876, when the assembly persuaded Ismail to reinstate the law that allowed landownership and tax privileges to persons paying six years land tax in advance. Ismail tried to reduce slave trading and extended Egypts rule in Africa, Ismail dreamt of expanding his realm across the entire Nile including its diverse sources, and over the whole African coast of the Red Sea. This, together with rumours about rich raw material and fertile soil, in 1865 the Ottoman Sublime Porte ceded the Ottoman Province of Habesh to Ismail. This province, neighbor of Ethiopia, first consisted of a coastal strip only, here Ismail occupied regions originally claimed by the Ottomans when they had established the province of Habesh in the 16th century. New economically promising projects, like huge cotton plantations in the Barka delta, were started, in 1872 Bogos was annexed by the governor of the new Province of Eastern Sudan and the Red Sea Coast, Werner Munzinger Pasha. In October 1875 Ismails army occupied the adjacent highlands of Hamasien, in March 1876 Ismails army suffered a dramatic defeat after an attack by Yohanness army at Gura
5.
Nubar Pasha
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Nubar Pasha (Arabic, نوبار باشا Armenian, Նուպար Փաշա was an Egyptian-Armenian politician and the first Prime Minister of Egypt. He served as Prime Minister three times during his career and his first term was between August 1878 and February 23,1879. His second term was served from January 10,1884 to June 9,1888 and his final term was between April 16,1894 and November 12,1895. Nubar was born Nubar Nubarian in Smyrna in January 1825, the son of an Armenian merchant named Mgrdich, who had married a relative of Boghos Bey Yusufian, an influential minister of Muhammad Ali. In 1845 he became first secretary to Ibrahim Pasha, the heir apparent, here he was so completely successful that he was made a bey, in 1853 he was sent to Vienna on a similar mission, and remained there until the death of Abbas in July 1854. Here Nubar was mainly instrumental in the completion of railway communication between Cairo and Suez, and exhibited strong organising ability combined with readiness of resource, on the accession of Ismail Pasha, Nubar Bey was in the prime of life. The gratified Ismail created Nubar a pasha, and the sultan himself, persuaded to visit Cairo, confirmed the title so rarely accorded to a Christian. Half the work was, however, yet to be done, and Nubar was sent to Paris to complete the arrangements, and to settle the differences between Egypt and the Canal Company. In what he used to call an expensive moment of enthusiasm, he left these differences to the arbitration of the emperor Napoleon III, in June 1867 Ismail was declared khedive of Egypt, with succession in favor of his eldest son. Nubar now had a task to undertake than ever before. That in spite of the jealousies of all the powers, in spite of the opposition of the Sublime Porte, he should have succeeded, places him at once in the first rank of statesmen of his period. Nubar made no attempt to get rid of the jurisdiction exercised by the consular representatives of the foreign powers — such a proposal would have had, at that time. Nubar remained out of office until 1884, in the interval Great Britain had intervened in Egypt — the battle of Tel al-Kebir had been fought, Urabi Pasha had been banished, and Sir Evelyn Baring had succeeded Sir Edward Baldwin Malet. At this period he used to say, I am not here to govern Egypt, I am simply the greaser of the official wheels. It might have been well if Nubar had confined himself to this modest programme, riyad Pasha, who succeeded him, was, with one interval of eight months, prime minister until April 1894, when Nubar returned to office. In November 1895 Nubar completed his fifty years of service, and, accepting a pension and he lived little more than three years longer, spending his time between Cairo and Paris, where he died in January 1899. Nubarashen, a suburb of Yerevan, was founded in 1930 with the help of Boghos Nubar, Nubar Pashas son and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
6.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
7.
Tewfik Pasha
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Muhammed Tewfik Pasha, also known as Tawfiq of Egypt, was khedive of Egypt and the Sudan between 1879 and 1892 and the sixth ruler from the Muhammad Ali Dynasty. He was the eldest son of Khedive Ismail, and was born on November 15,1852 and he was not sent to Europe to be educated like his younger brothers, but grew up in Egypt. In 1866 Ismail succeeded in his endeavor to alter the order of succession to the Khedivate of Egypt, the title, instead of passing to the eldest living male descendant of Muhammad Ali, was now to descend from father to son. But he found, after the change had made, that the Great Powers interpreted the new arrangement as applying strictly to the eldest son. He was given a palace near Cairo to live in, and for years he passed an uneventful life, farming. In Cairo on 15 January 1873 he married Princess Emina Ilhamy, daughter of Damad Ibrahim Ilhami Pasha, in 1878 he was appointed president of the council after the dismissal of Nubar Pasha. He went back to his estate, and settled once more to a quiet country life. He was undisturbed only for a short time, on 26 June 1879, Ismail, at the insistence of Britain and France, was deposed by the sultan, who sent orders at the same time that Tewfik should be proclaimed Khedive. The new khedive was so displeased by the news of his accession that he soundly boxed the ears of the servant who first brought the tidings to him, disorder prevailed until November 1879, when the dual control was reestablished by the governments of Britain and France. For over two years Major Evelyn Baring, Mr. Auckland Colvin, and Monsieur de Blignieres practically governed the country, during all this time the disaffection in the Egyptian army was increasing. Tewfik had been blamed for his failure to take a line with the rebels, but his attitude was governed by his relations with Britain and France. The dissatisfaction culminated in the movement headed by Urabi Pasha. His answer was, I am still Khedive, and I remain with my people in the hour of their danger, at his palace of Qasr el-Raml, three miles from the town, he was beyond reach of the shells, but his life was nevertheless imperiled. When the rebel soldiers attacked the palace he managed to make his escape, here he was obliged to agree that a guard of British bluejackets should protect him from further risk. He showed his courage equally during the epidemic at Alexandria in 1883. When cholera broke out, he insisted upon going to Alexandria and his wife accompanied him, and he went round the hospitals, setting an excellent example to the authorities of the city, and encouraging the patients by kind and hopeful words. In 1884, Sir Evelyn Baring went back to Egypt as diplomatic agent and his first task was to demand that Tewfik should abandon the Sudan. Tewfik gave his consent with natural reluctance, but, having consented and he behaved with equal propriety during the negotiations between Sir H. Drummond Wolff and the Turkish envoy, Mukhtar Pasha, in 1886
8.
Fuad I of Egypt
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Fuad I was the Sultan and later King of Egypt and Sudan, Sovereign of Nubia, Kordofan, and Darfur. The ninth ruler of Egypt and Sudan from the Muhammad Ali dynasty, he became Sultan of Egypt and Sudan in 1917 and he substituted the title of King for Sultan when the United Kingdom recognised Egyptian independence in 1922. His name is sometimes spelled Fouad, Fuad was born in Giza Palace in Cairo, the seventh son of Ismail the Magnificent. He spent his childhood with his father in Naples. He got his education from the academy in Turin, Italy. Prior to becoming sultan, Fuad had played a role in the establishment of Cairo University. He became the universitys first rector in 1908, and remained in the post until his resignation in 1913 and he was succeeded as rector by then-minister of Justice Hussein Rushdi Pasha. In 1913, Fuad made unsuccessful attempts to secure the throne of Albania for himself, at the time, Egypt and Sudan was ruled by his nephew, Abbas II, and the likelihood of Fuad becoming the monarch in his own country seemed remote. This, and the fact that the Muhammad Ali dynasty was of Albanian descent, Fuad also served as President of the Egyptian Geographic Society from 1915 until 1918. Fuad came under consideration as a candidate for the Albanian throne and he ascended the throne of the Sultanate of Egypt upon the death of his brother Hussein Kamel in 1917. In the aftermath of the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, the United Kingdom ended its protectorate over Egypt, on 15 March 1922, Fuad issued a decree changing his title from Sultan of Egypt to King of Egypt. In 1930, he attempted to strengthen the power of the Crown by abrogating the 1923 Constitution, large scale public dissatisfaction compelled him to restore the earlier constitution in 1935. The 1923 Constitution granted Fuad vast powers and he made frequent use of his right to dissolve Parliament. During his reign, cabinets were dismissed at royal will, Fuad was an instrumental force in modern Egyptian historiography. Fuad married his first wife in Cairo,30 May 1895 at the Abbasiya Palace in Cairo,14 February 1896 and she was his cousin and the only daughter of Field Marshal Prince Ibrahim Fahmi Ahmad Pasha. They had two children, a son, Ismail Fuad, who died in infancy, and a daughter, unhappily married, the couple divorced in 1898. During a dispute with the brother of his first wife, Fuad was shot in the throat and he survived, but carried that scar the rest of his life. Fuad married his wife at the Bustan Palace in Cairo on 24 May 1919
9.
Kingdom of Egypt
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The Kingdom of Egypt was the independent Egyptian state established under the Muhammad Ali Dynasty in 1922 following the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence by the United Kingdom. Between 1936-52, the British continued to maintain military presence and political advisors, in line with the change in status from sultanate to kingdom, the Sultan of Egypt, Fuad I, saw his title changed to King. The kingdoms sovereignty was subject to limitations imposed by the British, who retained enormous control over Egyptian affairs. Throughout the kingdoms existence Sudan was formally united with Egypt, however, actual Egyptian authority in Sudan was largely nominal due to Britains role as the dominant power in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Other political forces emerging in this included the Communist Party, and the Muslim Brotherhood. King Fuad died in 1936 and Farouk inherited the throne at the age of sixteen, alarmed by Italys recent invasion of Abyssinia, he signed the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, requiring Britain to withdraw all troops from Egypt, except in the Suez Canal Zone. The kingdom was plagued by corruption, and its citizens saw it as a puppet of the British and this, coupled with the defeat in the 1948-1949 Palestine War, led to the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 by the Free Officers Movement. Farouk abdicated in favour of his infant son Fuad II, in 1953 the monarchy was formally abolished and the Republic of Egypt was established. The legal status of Sudan was only resolved in 1954, when Egypt, in 1914, Khedive Abbas II sided with the Ottoman Empire and the Central Powers in the First World War, and was promptly deposed by the British in favor of his uncle Hussein Kamel. A group known as the Wafd attended the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 to demand Egypts independence, included in the group was political leader, Saad Zaghlul, who would later become Prime Minister. When the group was arrested and deported to the island of Malta, from March to April 1919, there were mass demonstrations that turned into uprisings. This is known in Egypt as the First Revolution, British repression of the anti-occupation riots led to the death of some 800 people. In November 1919, the Milner Commission was sent to Egypt by the British to attempt to resolve the situation, in 1920, Lord Milner submitted his report to Lord Curzon, the British Foreign Secretary, recommending that the protectorate should be replaced by a treaty of alliance. As a result, Curzon agreed to receive an Egyptian mission headed by Zaghlul, the mission arrived in London in June 1920 and the agreement was concluded in August 1920. In February 1921, the British Parliament approved the agreement and Egypt was asked to send another mission to London with full powers to conclude a definitive treaty, Adli Pasha led this mission, which arrived in June 1921. The mission returned to Egypt in disgust, in December 1921, the British authorities in Cairo imposed martial law and once again deported Zaghlul. British influence, however, continued to dominate Egypts political life and fostered fiscal, administrative, Britain retained control of the Canal Zone, Sudan and Egypts external protection. Representing the Wafd Party, Zaghlul was elected Prime Minister in 1924 and he demanded that Britain recognize the Egyptian sovereignty in Sudan and the unity of the Nile Valley
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