1.
First Lady of the United States
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First Lady of the United States is the informal but accepted title held by the wife of the President of the United States, concurrent with the presidents term of office. Although the first lady’s role has never been codified or officially defined, melania Trump is the current First Lady. While the title was not in use until much later, Martha Washington, the wife of George Washington. During her lifetime she was referred to as Lady Washington. Since the 1790s the role of first lady has changed considerably and it has come to include involvement in political campaigns, management of the White House, championship of social causes, and representation of the president at official and ceremonial occasions. Additionally, over the individual first ladies have held influence in a range of sectors. Historically, should a president be unmarried, or a widower, the use of the title First Lady to describe the spouse or hostess of an executive began in the United States. In the early days of the republic, there was not a generally accepted title for the wife of the president. Indulging in no indolence, she left the pillow at dawn, sometime after 1849, the title began being used in Washington, D. C. social circles. The title first gained recognition in 1877, when newspaper journalist Mary C. Ames referred to Lucy Webb Hayes as the First Lady of the Land while reporting on the inauguration of Rutherford B, the frequent reporting on Lucy Hayes activities helped spread use of the title outside Washington. A popular 1911 comedic play about Dolley Madison by playwright Charles Nirdlinger, titled The First Lady in the Land, by the 1930s, it was in wide use. Use of the later spread from the United States to other nations. The wife of the Vice President of the United States is sometimes referred to as the Second Lady of the United States, the position of the First Lady is not an elected one and carries only ceremonial duties. Nonetheless, first ladies have held a highly visible position in American society, the role of the First Lady has evolved over the centuries. She is, first and foremost, the hostess of the White House and she organizes and attends official ceremonies and functions of state either along with, or in place of, the president. Lisa Burns identifies four main themes of the first ladyship, as public woman, as political celebrity, as political activist. Martha Washington created the role and hosted many affairs of state at the national capital and this socializing became known as the Republican Court and provided elite women with an opportunity to play backstage political role
2.
John Adams
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John Adams was an American patriot who served as the second President of the United States and the first Vice President. He was a lawyer, diplomat, statesman, political theorist, and, as a Founding Father and he was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent, particularly with his wife and closest advisor Abigail. He collaborated with his cousin, revolutionary leader Samuel Adams, Adams was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, where he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence. He assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, as a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers. Adams was the author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 which influenced American political theory. Adamss credentials as a revolutionary secured for him two terms as President George Washingtons vice president and also his own election in 1796 as the second president. In his single term as president, he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the army, the major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamiltons opposition. Due to his strong posture on defense, Adams is often called the father of the American Navy and he was the first U. S. president to reside in the executive mansion, now known as the White House. In 1800, Adams lost re-election to Thomas Jefferson and retired to Massachusetts and he eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson upon the latters own retirement by initiating a correspondence which lasted fourteen years. He and his wife established a family of politicians, diplomats, Adams was the father of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States. He died on the anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Modern historians in the aggregate have favorably ranked his administration, John Adams was born on October 30,1735 to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two brothers, Peter and Elihu. Adams birthplace was then in Braintree, Massachusetts, and is preserved at Adams National Historical Park, Adams mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a Congregationalist deacon, a farmer, a cordwainer, the Deacon also served as a selectman and supervised the building of schools and roads. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship, though raised in modest surroundings, Adams felt an acute responsibility to live up to his familys heritage of reverence. Journalist Richard Brookhiser wrote that Adams Puritan ancestors believed they lived in the Bible, England under the Stuarts was Egypt, they were Israel fleeing
3.
Martha Washington
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Martha Washington was the wife of George Washington, the first president of the United States. Although the title was not coined until after her death, Martha Washington is considered to be the first First Lady of the United States, during her lifetime she was often referred to as Lady Washington. Widowed at 25, she had four children with her first husband Daniel Parke Custis, two of her children by Custis survived to young adulthood. She brought great wealth to her marriage to Washington, which enabled him to buy land and she also brought nearly 100 dower slaves for her use during her lifetime, they and their descendants reverted to her first husbands estate at her death and were inherited by his heirs. She and Washington did not have children together but they did rear her two children by Daniel Parke Custis, including son John Jacky Parke Custis, as well as helped both of their extended families. Martha Dandridge was born on June 2,1731 on her parents plantation Chestnut Grove in the British colony, Province of Virginia. She was the oldest daughter of John Dandridge, a Virginia planter and immigrant from England, by his wife Frances Jones, who was of American birth and English, Welsh, and French descent. Martha had three brothers and four sisters, John, William, Bartholomew, Anna Marie Fanny Bassett, Frances Dandridge, Elizabeth Aylet Henley, Marthas father may also have fathered an out-of-wedlock half-brother to Martha named Ralph Dandridge, who was probably white. They had four children together, Daniel, Frances, John, Daniel and Frances died in childhood. The other two children, John Parke Custis and Martha Parke Custis, survived to young adulthood, in all, she was left in custody of some 17,500 acres of land and 300 slaves, apart from other investments and cash. According to her biographist, she ran the five plantations left to her when her first husband died. Martha Dandridge Custis, age 27, and George Washington, age nearly 27, married on January 6,1759, as a man who lived and owned property in the area, Washington likely knew both Martha and Daniel Parke Custis for some time before Daniels death. During March 1758 he visited her twice at White House, the time he came away with either an engagement of marriage or at least her promise to think about his proposal. At the time, she was also being courted by the planter Charles Carter, Washingtons suit was of blue and silver cloth with red trimming and gold knee buckles. The bride wore purple silk shoes with spangled buckles, which are displayed at Mount Vernon. The couple honeymooned at White House for several weeks before setting up house at Washingtons Mount Vernon estate and they appeared to have had a solid marriage. Martha and George Washington had no children together, but they raised Marthas two surviving children and her daughter, nicknamed Patsy, died as a teenager during an epileptic seizure, classed as SUDEP. John Parke Jacky Custis returned from college to comfort his mother, Custis later married and had children, he served as an aide to Washington during the siege of Yorktown in 1781 during the American Revolutionary War
4.
Martha Jefferson Randolph
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Martha Jefferson Randolph was the daughter of Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, and his wife Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson. Born at Monticello, near Charlottesville, Virginia and she married Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr. who served as a politician at the federal and state levels and was elected a governor of Virginia. Martha was very close to her father in his old age, Martha Jefferson was born on September 27,1772 at Monticello, her fathers estate in Virginia, which was then British America, to Thomas Jefferson and Martha Wayles Skelton. During her parents ten years of marriage, they had six children, Martha Patsy, Jane, a son who lived for only a few weeks in 1777, Mary Wayles Polly, Lucy Elizabeth, only Martha and Mary survived more than a few years. Martha was tall and slim with angular features and red hair and her paternal grandparents were Peter Jefferson, a planter and surveyor who died when her father was Thirty Three, and Jane Randolph. Jefferson vaguely knew that his grandfather had a place on the Fluvanna River which he called Snowden after a mountain in Wales near which the Jeffersons were supposed to have once lived and her mother was the only child and daughter of John Wayles and his first wife, Martha Eppes. Her maternal grandfather died in 1773, and her parents inherited 135 slaves,11,000 acres, the debts took her father years to satisfy, contributing to his financial problems. Her mother died on September 6,1782, four months after the birth of the Jeffersons last child and she later wrote that about this period, stating in those melancholy rambles I was his constant companion, a solitary witness to many a violent burst of grief. Her mother asked her father to never again, and he never did. Her request has been attributed to protective feelings for her children, from age 12 to 17, after her mothers death, she lived in Paris with her father while he served as U. S. Jefferson enrolled her at the Pentemont Abbey, a convent school. After Patsy expressed a desire to convert to Catholicism and said she was considering religious orders, in 1790 at the age of 18, Martha married Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr. a planter. Soon after their marriage, her father, Thomas Jefferson, deeded eight slaves from Monticello as a gift, including Molly Hemings. Thomas Jefferson Randolph, who married Jane Hollins Nicholas, ellen Wayles Randolph, who was named after deceased sister, and was married to Joseph Coolidge Cornelia Jefferson Randolph. Virginia Jefferson Randolph, who married Nicholas Philip Trist, James Madison Randolph, who was the first child born in the White House. Benjamin Franklin Randolph, who married Sally Champe Carter, meriwether Lewis Randolph, who married Elizabeth Martin. After his death, Martin remarried to Andrew Jackson Donelson, a nephew of President Andrew Jackson, septimia Anne Randolph, who married Dr. David Scott Meikleham. George Wythe Randolph, who briefly in 1862 was Secretary of War of the Confederate States of America, Martha Randolph educated her children at home, likely with the help of private tutors, as most planters did
5.
Second Lady of the United States
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The wife of the Vice President of the United States is sometimes referred to as Second Lady of the United States, but this title is much less common. The term Second Lady, coined in contrast to the First Lady, the title later fell out of favor, but was revived in the 1980s. The second ladys visibility in the sphere has been a somewhat recent development. Floride Calhoun, wife of Vice President John C, Calhoun, was a central figure in the Petticoat Affair, a social-political scandal which involved the social ostracism of Secretary of War John H. Eaton and his wife Margaret ONeill Eaton further damaging already-strained relations between Vice President Calhoun and President Andrew Jackson and she challenged performers over their use of profane lyrics and often debated with her critics, such as Dead Kennedys singer Jello Biafra. Lynne Cheney, wife of Vice President Dick Cheney, championed education reform and she is a particularly outspoken supporter of American history education, having written five bestselling books on this topic for children and their families. She has been involved in various causes, including breast cancer awareness, at the 2016 Democratic National Convention, Dr. Jill Biden said, Let me start by thanking you for allowing me to serve as Second Lady of the United States for the past eight years. This was the first time the title was used by an incumbent at a national convention. The term remains an unfamiliar and uncertain one even when it is used, there have been 17 periods of vacancy in the role, the longest of which continued for 16 years between the service of vice presidential spouses Abigail Adams and Ann Gerry. The most recent second lady vacancy was for 132 days in 1974, as of April 2017, there are five living former Second Ladies. The most recent second lady to die was Nelson Rockefellers widow, the most recently serving second lady to die was Walter Mondales wife, Joan Mondale, on February 3,2014. Barbara Bush, wife of George H. W. Jill Biden, – The Official White House site for the Second Lady Wives of Vice Presidents. Archived from the original on September 1,2005, – List of the wives of Vice Presidents Ask Yahoo. – What is the title for the wife of the vice president. Archived from the original on 13 January 2013
6.
Ann Gerry
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Ann Thompson Gerry was the wife of Vice-President Elbridge Gerry. She is regarded as the second Second Lady of the United States, following Abigail Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Aaron Burr, and George Clinton were widowers during their tenures as Vice-President. Ann Thompson was the daughter of James Thompson a wealthy Irishman who made his fortune in the merchant trade, thompsons business was by 1750 based in New York City, where Ann was born in 1763. She was educated in Dublin, Ireland, while her brothers were educated in Scotland. Upon completion of her education in the mid-1780s she returned to New York, there she caught the eye of Elbridge Gerry, a Marblehead, Massachusetts politician twenty years her elder who was serving in the Confederation Congress. Their romance was well underway by late 1785, and they were married on January 12,1786. The couple had ten children between 1787 and 1801 and her husband was frequently concerned over her health, but was also frequently away. She was thereafter supported by her children, living with her son, James Thompson Gerry, the commander of the USS Albany and she died in New Haven, Connecticut on March 17,1849. She was buried in New Havens Old Burying Ground
7.
Weymouth, Massachusetts
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Weymouth is a city in metropolitan Greater Boston. As of the 2010 census, Weymouth had a population of 55,643. Weymouth is one of fourteen Massachusetts municipalities that have applied for and it is named after Weymouth, Dorset, a coastal town in England. It is the second-oldest European settlement in Massachusetts, as of the census of 2010, there were 53,743 people,22,435 households, and 13,595 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,174.2 people per square mile, There were 22,573 housing units at an average density of 1,327.1 per square mile. 75% housing units were owner-occupied and 25% of housing units were renter-occupied. The racial makeup of the city was 89. 7% White,3. 1% Black or African American,0. 2% Native American,3. 2% Asian,0. 0% Pacific Islander,0. 6% from other races, and 1. 2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 1% of the population,30. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the family size was 3.08. In the city, the population was out with 22. 0% under the age of 18,6. 6% from 18 to 24,32. 7% from 25 to 44,23. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 90.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.3 males, the median income for a household in the city was $41,665, and the median income for a family was $54,083. Males had an income of $42,497 versus $35,963 for females. The per capita income for was $24,976, about 9. 1% of families and 9. 8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7. 3% of those under age 18 and 7. 4% of those age 65 or over. Weymouth has the 10th highest Irish population in the United States, data is from the 2009-2013 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates. Weymouth is located at 42°12′23″N 70°56′45″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 21.6 square miles, of which,17.0 square miles of it is land and 4.6 square miles of it is water. Weymouth contains the Weymouth Back River and the Weymouth Fore River, its surroundings, formerly industrial, are now set aside as parks, There are also a lot of streets named after people and trees. Weymouth residents often designate which of four districts they live in
8.
Province of Massachusetts Bay
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The Province of Massachusetts Bay was a crown colony in British North America and, from 1776, one of the thirteen original states of the United States. It was chartered on October 7,1691, by William and Mary, the joint monarchs of the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The charter took effect on May 14,1692, and included the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the Plymouth Colony, the Province of Maine, Marthas Vineyard, Nantucket, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. The modern Commonwealth of Massachusetts is the successor, Maine has been a separate U. S. state since 1820. The name Massachusetts comes from the Massachusett, an Algonquian tribe, the name has been translated as at the great hill, at the place of large hills, or at the range of hills, with reference to the Blue Hills, and in particular, Great Blue Hill. Colonial settlement of the shores of Massachusetts Bay began in 1620 with the founding of the Plymouth Colony, over the next ten years there was a major migration of Puritans to the area, leading to the founding of a number of new colonies in New England. By the 1680s the number of colonies had stabilized at five, in addition to Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts Bay was the most populous and economically significant, housing a sizable merchant fleet. The colonies at times struggled against the Indian population, which had suffered a decline in population prior to the arrival of the first permanent settlers. In the 1630s the Pequot tribe was destroyed, and King Philips War in the 1670s resulted in the expulsion, pacification. The latter war was costly to the colonists of New England. Massachusetts and Plymouth were both somewhat politically independent from England in their days, but this situation changed after the restoration of Charles II to the English throne in 1660. Charles sought closer oversight of the colonies, and to introduce and enforce economic control over their activities, the Navigation Acts passed in the 1660s were widely disliked in Massachusetts, where merchants often found themselves trapped and at odds with the rules. These issues and others led to the revocation of the first Massachusetts Charter in 1684, when James was deposed in the 1688 Glorious Revolution, Massachusetts political leaders conspired against Andros, arresting him and other English authorities in April 1689. This led to the collapse of the Dominion, as the other colonies then quickly reasserted their old forms of government, the Plymouth colony had never had a royal charter, so its governance had always been on a somewhat precarious footing. Massachusetts, however, was placed into constitutional anarchy by the uprising, provincial agents traveled to London where Increase Mather, representing the old colony leaders, petitioned new rulers William and Mary to restore the old colonial charter. When King William learned that this result in a return to the predominantly entrenched religious rule. Instead, the Lords of Trade decided to solve two problems at once by combining the two colonies, accordingly, on October 7,1691, they issued a charter for the Province of Massachusetts Bay, and appointed Sir William Phips its governor. Although the effect of change has been subject to debate among historians
9.
British America
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English America, and later British America, were the English, and later British, territories in North America, Central America, the Caribbean, and Guyana from 1607 to 1783. After that, British North America was used to describe the remainder of Britains continental North American possessions, the term British North America was first used informally in 1783, but it was uncommon before the Report on the Affairs of British North America, called the Durham Report. British America gained large amounts of new territory following the Treaty of Paris which ended Britains involvement in the Seven Years War, at the start of the American War of Independence in 1775, the British Empire included 20 colonies north and east of New Spain. East and West Florida were ceded to Spain in the Treaty of Paris which ended the American Revolution, all but one of the remaining colonies of British North America apart from the British West Indies united together from 1867 to 1873 forming the Dominion of Canada. The first such permanent settlement was founded at Jamestown by the Virginia Company whose investors expected to reap rewards from their speculative investments, Virginia Native Americans had established settlements long before the English settlers arrived, and there were an estimated 14,000 natives in the region. Native American political leadership sought to resettle the English colonizers from Jamestown to another location, other colonizers, both English and German, did join the Powhatans. The first colonizers were welcomed by the Indians with dancing, feasting, there were twenty British colonies in North America in 1775
10.
Quincy, Massachusetts
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Quincy is the largest city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. It is a part of Metropolitan Boston and is Bostons immediate southern suburb. Its population in 2010 was 92,271, making it the 8th largest city in the state, first settled in 1625, Quincy was briefly part of Dorchester and Boston before becoming the north precinct of Braintree in 1640. In 1792, Quincy was split off from Braintree, the new town was named after Colonel John Quincy, maternal grandfather of Abigail Adams, Quincy became a city in 1888. For more than a century, Quincy was home to a thriving industry, the city was also the site of the Granite Railway. Shipbuilding at the Fore River Shipyard was another key part of the citys economy, in the 20th century, both Howard Johnsons and Dunkin Donuts were founded in the city. It was visited in 1621 by Plymouth Colony commander Myles Standish and Squanto, four years later, a party led by Captain Wollaston established a post on a low hill near the south shore of Quincy Bay east of present-day Blacks Creek. The settlers found the area suitable for farming, as Chickatawbut and this settlement was named Mount Wollaston in honor of the leader, who left the area soon after 1625, bound for Virginia. The Wollaston neighborhood in Quincy still retains Captain Wollastons name, upon the departure of Wollaston, Thomas Morton took over leadership of the post, and the settlement proceeded to gain a reputation for debauchery with Indian women and drunkenness. In 1627, Morton was arrested by Standish for violating the code of conduct in a way harmful to the colony and he was sent back to England, only to return and be arrested by Puritans the next year. The area of Quincy now called Merrymount is located on the site of the original English settlement of 1625, the area was first incorporated as part of Dorchester in 1630 and was briefly annexed by Boston in 1634. The area became Braintree in 1640, bordered along the coast of Massachusetts Bay by Dorchester to the north and Weymouth to the east, beginning in 1708, the modern border of Quincy first took shape as the North Precinct of Braintree. Following the American Revolution, Quincy was officially incorporated as a town named for Col. John Quincy in 1792. In 1845 the Old Colony Railroad opened, the Massachusetts Historical Commission stated that the railroad was the beginning of a trend toward suburbanization, Quincy became as accessible to Boston as was Charlestown. The first suburban land company, Bellevue Land Co. had been organized in northern Quincy in 1870, Quincys population grew by over 50 percent during the 1920s. Among the citys several firsts was the Granite Railway, the first commercial railroad in the United States, Quincy granite became famous throughout the nation, and stonecutting became the citys principal economic activity. Quincy was also home to the first iron furnace in the United States, in the 1870s, the city gave its name to the Quincy Method, an influential approach to education developed by Francis W. Parker while he served as Quincys superintendent of schools. Parker, a proponent of progressive education, put his ideas into practice in the citys underperforming schools, four years later
11.
United First Parish Church
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United First Parish Church is a Unitarian Universalist congregation in Quincy, Massachusetts, established as the parish church of Quincy in 1639. The current building was constructed in 1828 by noted Boston stonecutter Abner Joy to designs by Alexander Parris. It is called the Church of the Presidents because two American Presidents, John Adams and John Quincy Adams, attended the church along with their wives, Abigail Adams, all four are interred beneath the church in a family crypt. The pew in which they sat is marked with a plaque and it was a Puritan congregationalist church when first established, but since the mid-18th century has been Unitarian, in spirit if not in name. The 1828 church is constructed of locally quarried granite, and is one of the finest Greek Revival church buildings in New England and it has a Greek temple front, supported by four monolithic granite columns which may have been the largest set in the United States at the time. Each column is 25 feet tall and weighs an estimated 25 tons, above the main facade rises a two-stage tower. Its lower section is oblong and unadorned, while the stage is stepped back. It has clock faces on each side, and is topped by a cupola with eight columns. President John Adams financed the construction through a land donation. However, the pillars are from local quarry, as the Adams quarry was not deep enough for a full-height pillar. Its original bell was cast by Paul Revere, but was melted down, the unusual domed ceiling represents a passion flower surrounded by lotuses. The fine mahogany altar is original, both John Adams and his son John Quincy Adams, together with their first ladies, are buried in a family vault in the churchs basement. Only one other church in the United States contains a presidential tomb, the Washington National Cathedral in Washington, D. C. where the remains of President Woodrow Wilson are interred
12.
Abigail Adams Smith
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Abigail Nabby Amelia Adams Smith was the firstborn of Abigail and John Adams, founding father and second President of the United States. She was named for her mother, at the age of 18, Nabby met and fell in love with Royall Tyler. Her father thought she was too young to have a suitor, at one point the two were even engaged to be married. But John Adams, then the U. S. minister to the Kingdom of Great Britain, eagerly called for his wife, for a time, Nabby maintained a long distance relationship with Tyler, but eventually broke off the engagement, leaving Tyler depressed. Shortly afterward Nabby met Colonel William Stephens Smith, who was serving as her fathers secretary and was 10 years her senior and they were married at the American ministers residence in London on June 12,1786. Nabbys observations of European life and customs, and of many of the statesmen of the day, were later published. Their children were, William Steuben Smith John Adams Smith Thomas Hollis Smith Caroline Amelia Smith In 1810, on October 8,1811 a mastectomy was performed by John Warren. The operation was performed by Warren and several assistants without any anesthesia in a room of the Adams home. Her mother, husband, and daughter Caroline were also on hand to assist, the exact details of the surgery are not known but it was described as a typical 19th century operation. Before the surgery began Dr. Warren strapped Nabby into a chair to restrain her, once the diseased breast was exposed, other physicians held her left arm back, so that Dr. Warren would have better access to the diseased tissue. He began the surgery by thrusting the large fork into her breast and he then sliced at the base of the breast until it was completely severed from her chest. After removing the breast, he saw that the cancer had spread to the nodes under Abigails arms. To stop Abigails bleeding, Dr. Warren applied the heated spatula to cauterize the open cuts, the surgery took around 25 minutes, but dressing the wounds took more than an hour. Warren and his assistants later expressed astonishment that Abigail endured the pain of the surgery and cauterization without crying out and they were so horrifying that they caused her mother, husband, and daughter to turn away. About seven months after the surgery, in 1812, Abigail finally started to feel well once more, so then she returned home to New York. But then she began feeling pain in her abdomen and spine, at first a local doctor in New York said that the pain was from rheumatism, but later in 1813 new tumors began to appear in the scar tissue as well as on the skin. This was because when Dr. Warren removed her breast, tiny malignant cancers were left behind, so in spring of 1813 her doctor diagnosed her yet again with cancer, except it spread everywhere in her body. She then wanted to return to her father and mothers house to die there, Nabby Adams Smith died on August 9,1813 at the age of 48
13.
John Quincy Adams
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John Quincy Adams was an American statesman who served as a diplomat, United States Senator, member of the House of Representatives, and was the sixth President of the United States from 1825 to 1829. He was a member of the Federalist, Democratic-Republican, National Republican and he was the son of President John Adams and Abigail Adams and thus contributed to the formation of the Adams political family. Adams shaped U. S. foreign policy using his ardently nationalist commitment to U. S. republican values, as a diplomat, Adams played an important role in negotiating key treaties, most notably the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. As Secretary of State, he negotiated with Britain over the United States northern border with Canada, negotiated with Spain the annexation of Florida, historians generally concur that he was one of the greatest diplomats and secretaries of state in American history. Adams was elected president in a close and controversial four-way contest in 1824, as president he sought to modernize the American economy and promote education. Adams enacted a part of his agenda and paid off much of the national debt, however he was stymied time and again by a Congress controlled by opponents, and his lack of patronage networks helped politicians sabotage him. He lost his 1828 bid for re-election to Andrew Jackson, after leaving office, he was elected as U. S. Representative from Massachusetts in 1830, serving for the last 17 years of his life with greater acclaim than he had achieved as president, animated by his growing revulsion against slavery, Adams became a leading opponent of the Slave Power. Adams predicted the Unions dissolution over slavery, and in such a case, historians have in the aggregate ranked Adams as the 21st most successful president. John Quincy Adams was born on July 11,1767, to John Adams and he was named for his mothers maternal grandfather, Colonel John Quincy, after whom Quincy, Massachusetts, is named. Young Adams was educated by private tutors – his cousin James Thaxter and his fathers law clerk and he soon began to exhibit his literary skills in 1779, when he initiated a diary which he kept until just before he died in 1848. The diary comprised an unprecedented fifty volumes, representing one of the most extensive, much of Adams youth was spent accompanying his father overseas. He accompanied his father on diplomatic missions to France from 1778 until 1779, Adams acquired an education at institutions such as Leiden University. He matriculated in Leiden on January 10,1781, for nearly three years, beginning at the age of 14, he accompanied Francis Dana as a secretary on a mission to Saint Petersburg, Russia, to obtain recognition of the new United States. He spent time in Finland, Sweden, and Denmark and, in 1804, during these years overseas, Adams became fluent in French and Dutch and became familiar with German and other European languages. Though Adams enjoyed Europe, he and his family decided he needed to return to the United States to complete his education and he entered Harvard College, graduated in 1787 with a Bachelor of Arts degree, and was elected by Phi Beta Kappa. Adams, mainly with the influence of his father, had excelled in studies and reached fluency in Latin. Upon entering Harvard he had already translated Virgil, Horace, Plutarch, after graduating from Harvard, he studied law with Theophilus Parsons in Newburyport, Massachusetts from 1787 to 1789
14.
Founding Fathers of the United States
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Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin were members of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay were authors of the The Federalist Papers, Jay, Adams and Franklin negotiated the Treaty of Paris that would end the American Revolutionary War. Washington was Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army and was President of the Constitutional Convention, according to the CIA, Washington, Jay and Franklin helped define the powers of the Executive Branch All held additional important roles in the early government of the United States. The term Founding Fathers is sometimes used to refer to the Signers of the version of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Of the 55 Framers, only 39 were signers of the Constitution, a further subset of Founding Founders includes those who signed the Continental Association or the Articles of Confederation. The phrase Founding Fathers is a twentieth century appellation and was first coined by Warren G. Harding in 1916, the First Continental Congress met briefly in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1774 and consisted of fifty-six delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies that became the United States of America. On the list of attendees was George Washington, who would soon be out of military retirement to command the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Also in attendance was Patrick Henry, and John Adams, who were elected by their respective colonial assemblies, other notable delegates included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts, John Dickinson from Pennsylvania and New Yorks John Jay. This congress in addition to formulating appeals to the British crown, when the Second Continental Congress came together on May 10,1775, it was, in effect, a reconvening of the First Congress. Many of the same 56 delegates who attended the first meeting participated in the second, notable new arrivals included Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, John Hancock of Massachusetts, and John Witherspoon of New Jersey. Hancock was elected Congress President two weeks into the session when Peyton Randolph was summoned back to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses, Thomas Jefferson replaced Randolph in the Virginia congressional delegation. The second Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, Witherspoon was the only active clergyman to sign the Declaration. He also signed the Articles of Confederation and attended the New Jersey convention that ratified the Federal Constitution, the newly founded country of the United States had to create a new government to replace the British Parliament. The Americans adopted the Articles of Confederation, a declaration that established a government which was made up of a one-house legislature. Its ratification by all thirteen colonies gave the second Congress a new name, the Congress of the Confederation, later, the Constitutional Convention took place during the summer of 1787, in Philadelphia. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention, the result of the Convention was the United States Constitution. The Founding Fathers represented a cross-section of 18th-century American leadership, almost all of them were well-educated men of means who were leaders in their communities. Many were also prominent in national affairs, virtually every one had taken part in the American Revolution, at least 29 had served in the Continental Army, most of them in positions of command
15.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
16.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
17.
Massachusetts Bay Colony
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Territory claimed but never administered by the colonial government extended as far west as the Pacific Ocean. The earlier Dutch colony of New Netherlands disputed many of these claims, arguing that they held rights to lands beyond Rhode Island up to the side of Cape Cod. The Massachusetts Bay Colony began in 1628 and was the second attempt at colonization. The colony was successful, with about 20,000 people migrating to New England in the 1630s, the population was strongly Puritan, and its governance was dominated by a small group of leaders who were strongly influenced by Puritan religious leaders. Its governors were elected, and the electorate were limited to freemen who had been examined for their religious views, as a consequence, the colonial leadership exhibited intolerance to other religious views, including Anglican, Quaker, and Baptist theologies. The colonists initially had decent relationships with the local Indian populations and these led first to the Pequot War and then to King Philips War, after which most of the Indians in southern New England made peace treaties with the colonists. The colony was successful, engaging in trade with England. A shortage of currency in the colony prompted it to establish a mint in 1652. Political differences with England after the English Restoration led to the revocation of the charter in 1684. King James II established the Dominion of New England in 1686 to bring all of the New England colonies under firmer crown control, Sir William Phips arrived in 1692 bearing the charter and formally took charge of the new province. The political and economic dominance of New England by the state of Massachusetts was made possible in part by the early dominance in these spheres by the Massachusetts Bay colonists. The total Indian population in 1620 has been estimated to be 7,000 with the population of New England at 15–18,000, the land-use patterns of the natives included plots cleared for agricultural purposes, and woodland territories for the hunting of game. Land divisions between the tribes were well understood, during the early 17th century, several European explorers charted the area, including Samuel de Champlain and John Smith. Plans began in 1606 for the first permanent British settlements on the east coast of North America, on April 10,1606, King James I of England granted a charter forming two joint-stock companies. Under this charter, the first Colony and the second Colony were to be ruled by a Council composed of 13 individuals in each colony, the charter provided for an additional council of 13 persons to have overarching responsibility for the combined enterprise. No name was given to either the company or council governing the respective colonies, the first Colony ranged from the 34th- to 41st-degree latitude north, the second Colony ranged from the 38th- to 45th-degree latitude. The London Company proceeded to establish Jamestown, the Plymouth Company under the guidance of Sir Ferdinando Gorges covered the more northern area, including present-day New England, and established the Sagadahoc Colony in 1607 in present-day Maine. The experience proved exceptionally difficult for the 120 settlers, however, Gorges noted that there was no more speech of settling plantations in those parts for a number of years
18.
Dorothy Quincy
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Dorothy Quincy Hancock Scott was an American hostess, daughter of Justice Edmund Quincy of Braintree and Boston, and the wife of Founding Father John Hancock. Her aunt, also named Dorothy Quincy, was the subject of Oliver Wendell Holmes poem Dorothy Q and she was raised at the Quincy Homestead in what is now Quincy, Massachusetts. The house in which she lived has been designated a National Historic Landmark and she married John Hancock, who presided at the formation of the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and was two-time Governor of Massachusetts, in 1775. Their first child, Lydia Henchman Hancock was born in 1776, in 1787, their son, John George Washington Hancock, was ice skating on a pond in Milton, Massachusetts, and died as a result of drowning when he fell through the ice at age 8. In 1796, after Hancocks death in 1793, Quincy married Captain James Scott and they lived in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and had no children together. When Captain Scott died, Dorothy moved back into the Hancock Mansion at 30 Beacon Street in Boston for about 10 years, after that time she lived at 4 Federal Street in Boston. Dorothy was a hostess, and a great deal was written about her. Many chroniclers of the note that she was beautiful, well spoken. She witnessed the Battle of Lexington while staying with her husbands aunt, Lydia Hancock. When Hancock told her after the battle that she could not go back to her father in Boston, she retorted, Recollect Mr. Hancock, I shall go to my father tomorrow. Ellen C. D. Q Woodbury, Dorothy Quincy, wife of John Hancock, With events of her time, works by or about Dorothy Quincy in libraries
19.
John Hancock
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John Hancock was an American merchant, statesman, and prominent Patriot of the American Revolution. He served as president of the Second Continental Congress and was the first, before the American Revolution, Hancock was one of the wealthiest men in the Thirteen Colonies, having inherited a profitable mercantile business from his uncle. Hancock began his career in Boston as a protégé of Samuel Adams. As tensions between colonists and Great Britain increased in the 1760s, Hancock used his wealth to support the colonial cause and he became very popular in Massachusetts, especially after British officials seized his sloop Liberty in 1768 and charged him with smuggling. Although the charges against Hancock were eventually dropped, he has often described as a smuggler in historical accounts. Hancock was one of Bostons leaders during the crisis led to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775. He served more than two years in the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, and as president of Congress, was the first to sign the Declaration of Independence, Hancock returned to Massachusetts and was elected governor of the Commonwealth, serving in that role for most of his remaining years. He used his influence to ensure that Massachusetts ratified the United States Constitution in 1788, according to the Gregorian calendar, John Hancock was born on January 23,1737, according to the Julian calendar then in use, the date was January 12,1736. He was born in Braintree, Massachusetts, in a part of town eventually became the separate city of Quincy. He was the son of the Reverend John Hancock of Braintree and Mary Hawke Thaxter, as a child, Hancock became a casual acquaintance of young John Adams, whom the Reverend Hancock had baptized in 1735. The Hancocks lived a life, and owned one slave to help with household work. After Hancocks father died in 1744, John was sent to live with his uncle and aunt, Thomas Hancock, Thomas Hancock was the proprietor of a firm known as the House of Hancock, which imported manufactured goods from Britain and exported rum, whale oil, and fish. Thomas Hancocks highly successful business made him one of Bostons richest and he and Lydia, along with several servants and slaves, lived in Hancock Manor on Beacon Hill. The couple, who did not have any children of their own, after graduating from the Boston Latin School in 1750, Hancock enrolled in Harvard College and received a bachelors degree in 1754. Upon graduation, he began to work for his uncle, just as the French, Thomas Hancock had close relations with the royal governors of Massachusetts and secured profitable government contracts during the war. John Hancock learned much about his uncles business during these years and was trained for eventual partnership in the firm, Hancock worked hard, but he also enjoyed playing the role of a wealthy aristocrat and developed a fondness for expensive clothes. From 1760 to 1761, Hancock lived in England while building relationships with customers and suppliers, upon returning to Boston, Hancock gradually took over the House of Hancock as his uncles health failed, becoming a full partner in January 1763. He became a member of the Masonic Lodge of St. Andrew in October 1762, which connected him with many of Bostons most influential citizens
20.
Old Ship Church
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The Old Ship Church is a Puritan church built in 1681 in Hingham, Massachusetts. It is the only surviving 17th-century Puritan meetinghouse in America and its congregation, gathered in 1635 and officially known as First Parish in Hingham, occupies the oldest church building in continuous ecclesiastical use in the United States. On October 9,1960, it was designated a National Historic Landmark and on November 15,1966, the more familiar delicately spired white Colonial churches of New England would not be built for more than half a century. Within the church, the ceiling, made of oak beams, looks like the inverted frame of a ship. Built in 1681, it is the oldest church in use as a house of worship in North America. The most distinctive feature of the structure is its Hammerbeam roof, a Gothic open timber construction, some of those working on the soaring structure were no doubt ship carpenters, others were East Anglians familiar with the method of constructing a hammerbeam roof. The first minister of the Hingham congregation who built Old Ship was the Rev. Peter Hobart, natives of Hingham in the county of Norfolk in East Anglia, Peter Hobart, his father Edmund and his brother Capt. Joshua Hobart were among Hinghams most prominent early settlers, Edmund Hobart and his wife Margaret, said Cotton Mather, were eminent for piety. and feared God above many. Assisting Hobart in the foundation of the congregation was Rev. Robert Peck, Hobarts senior and formerly rector of St Andrews Church in Hingham, Norfolk. After 44 years of service, minister Peter Hobart died on January 20,1679, Hobarts diary of events in Hingham, begun in the year 1635, was continued on his death by his son David. By the time Old Ship was built, Harvard-educated Rev. John Norton, joshua Hobart, brother of Rev. Peter Hobart. Ultimately, the town appropriated £430 for the new building, said to be the equal of any in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the modern frame edifice, devoid of ornamentation, was raised in 1681, and accommodated its first worship service the following year. Old Ship, with its stark wooden pulpit and stripped-down interior, could not have been further from the houses of known to many of the East Anglians who settled Hingham. It was, in a sense, the anti-Wool church and it was a community undertaking and every freeman in the town had been assessed for the cost of the structure according to his worth, in amounts ranging from one pound to fifteen pounds. The John Leavitt pew in Old Ship Church, designated for the deacon, the current minister is Kenneth Read-Brown, a descendant of Rev. Peter Hobart. The congregation is Unitarian Universalist and is a Welcoming Congregation, Old Ship Church is surrounded by a large colonial graveyard amidst gently undulating hills. The graveyard, Hingham Cemetery, is called the First Settlers cemetery, though more commonly it is called Old Ship Church Cemetery. It was originally part of a 6-acre tract of land granted by the town to Thomas Gill, the oldest burials date from at least 1672, before the building of the current meeting house
21.
Hingham, Massachusetts
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Hingham is a town in metropolitan Greater Boston on the South Shore of the U. S. state of Massachusetts in northern Plymouth County. At the 2010 census, the population was 22,157, Hingham is known for its colonial history and location on Boston Harbor. The town was named after Hingham, Norfolk, England, and was first settled by English colonists in 1633, the town of Hingham was dubbed Bare Cove by the first colonizing English in 1633, but two years later was incorporated as a town under the name Hingham. The land on which Hingham was settled was deeded to the English by the Wampanoag sachem Wompatuck in 1655, the town was within Suffolk County from its founding in 1643 until 1803, and Plymouth County from 1803 to the present. The eastern part of the split off to become Cohasset in 1770. A statue of President Lincoln adorns the area adjacent to downtown Hingham Square, Hingham was born of religious dissent. Peck was known for what the eminent Norfolk historian Rev. Francis Blomefield called his violent schismatical spirit, Peck lowered the chancel railing of the church, in accord with Puritan sentiment that the Anglican church of the day was too removed from its parishioners. He also antagonized ecclesiastical authorities with other forbidden practices, Hobart, born in Hingham, Norfolk, in 1604 and, like Peck, a graduate of Magdalene College, Cambridge, sought shelter from the prevailing discipline of the high church among his fellow Puritans. The cost to those who emigrated was steep and they sold their possessions for half their value, noted a contemporary account, and named the place of their settlement after their natal town. While most of the early Hingham settlers came from Hingham and other villages in East Anglia. The early settlers of Dorchester, Massachusetts, for instance, had come under the guidance of Rev. John White of Dorchester in Dorset, prominent East Anglian Puritans like the Hobarts and the Cushings, for instance, were used to holding sway in matters of governance. Eventually the controversy became so heated that John Winthrop and Thomas Dudley were drawn into the fray, the bitter trainband controversy dragged on for several years, culminating in stiff fines. Although the town was incorporated in 1635, the colonists didnt get around to negotiating purchase from the Wampanoag, on July 4,1665, the tribes chief sachem, Josiah Wompatuck, sold the township to Capt. Joshua Hobart and Ensign John Thaxter, representatives of Hinghams colonial residents, having occupied the land for 30 years, the Englishmen presumably felt entitled to a steep discount. The sum promised Josiah Wompatuck for the land encompassing Hingham was to be paid by two Hingham landowners, Lieut, John Smith and Deacon John Leavitt, who had been granted 12 acres on Hinghams Turkey Hill earlier that year. Now the two men were instructed to deliver payment for their 12-acre grant to Josiah the chief Sachem, with that payment the matter was considered settled. The third town clerk of Hingham was Daniel Cushing, who emigrated to Hingham from Hingham, Norfolk, Cushings meticulous records of early Hingham enabled subsequent town historians to reconstruct much of early Hingham history as well as that of the early families. Cushing was rather unusual in that he included the towns gossip along with the more conventional formal record-keeping
22.
Meeting house
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A meeting house is a building where religious and sometimes public meetings take place. The colonial meeting house in America was typically the first public building built as new villages sprang up, a meeting-house had a dual purpose as a place of worship and for public discourse, but sometimes only for. the service of God. As the towns grew and the separation of church and state in the United States matured the buildings which were used as the seat of government were called a town-house or town-hall. They also use the term mouth-houses to emphasize their use as a place for discourse, a meetinghouse differs from an LDS temple, which is reserved for special forms of worship. Some Unitarian congregations, although some prefer the term chapel or church, the Unification Church Christadelphians Provisional Movement The Oxford English Dictionary states that a meeting house in England is always a. nonconformist or dissenting place of worship. Moot hall Notes Sources Congdon, Herbert Wheaton, media related to Category, Meeting houses at Wikimedia Commons
23.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
24.
Predestination
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Predestination, in theology, is the doctrine that all events have been willed by God, usually with reference to the eventual fate of the individual soul. Explanations of predestination often seek to address the paradox of free will, in this usage, predestination can be regarded as a form of religious determinism, and usually predeterminism. There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the views on predestination of first-century AD Judaism, josephus wrote during the first century that the three main Jewish sects differed on this question. He argued that the Essenes and Pharisees argued that Gods providence orders all human events and he wrote that the Sadducees did not have a doctrine of providence. Biblical scholar N. T. Wright asserts that Essenes were content to wait for God to liberate Israel while Pharisees believed Jews needed to act in cooperation with God, in the New Testament, Romans 8–11 presents a statement on predestination. In Romans 8, 28–30, Paul writes, We know that in everything God works for good with those who love him, who are called according to his purpose. For those whom he foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son, and those whom he predestined he also called, and those whom he called he also justified, and those whom he justified he also glorified. Biblical scholars have interpreted this passage in several ways, many say this only has to do with service, those he chose of service and is not about salvation. Catholic biblical commentator Brendan Byrne wrote that the mentioned in this passage should be interpreted as applied to the Christian community corporately rather than individuals. Another Catholic commentator, Joseph Fitzmyer, wrote that this teaches that God has predestined the salvation of all humans. Douglas Moo, a Protestant biblical interpreter, reads the passage as teaching that God has predestined a certain set of people to salvation, similarly, N. T. Instead, Wright asserts that Gods will works through that of humans to accomplish salvation. Origen, writing in the century, taught that Gods providence extends to every individual. He believed Gods predestination was based on Gods foreknowledge of every individuals merits, later in the fourth and fifth centuries, Augustine of Hippo also taught that God orders all things while preserving human freedom. Prior to 396, Augustine believed that predestination was based on Gods foreknowledge of whether individuals would believe, scholars are divided over whether Augustines teaching implies double predestination, or the belief that God chooses some people for damnation as well as some for salvation. Catholic scholars tend to deny that he held such a view while some Protestants, julian, bishop of Eclanum, expressed the view that Augustine was bringing Manichean thoughts into the church. For Vincent of Lérins, this was a disturbing innovation and this new tension eventually became obvious with the confrontation between Augustine and Pelagius culminating in condemnation of Pelagianism at the Council of Ephesus in 431. Pelagius denied Augustines view of predestination in order to affirm that salvation is achieved by an act of free will, the Second Council of Orange in 529 also condemned the position that some have been truly predestined to evil by divine power. Damascene teaches that peoples actions are done in cooperation with God
25.
Original sin
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The concept of original sin was first alluded to in the 2nd century by Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyon in his controversy with certain dualist Gnostics. Other church fathers such as Augustine also developed the doctrine, seeing it as based on the New Testament teaching of Paul the Apostle, tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose and Ambrosiaster considered that humanity shares in Adams sin, transmitted by human generation. The Jansenist movement, which the Catholic Church declared to be heretical, the story of the Garden of Eden and the Fall of Man represents a tradition among the Abrahamic peoples, with a presentation more or less symbolical of certain moral and religious truths. The idea of divine justice taking the form of punishment is also ubiquitous in the Hebrew Bible. St Pauls idea of redemption hinged on the contrast between the sin of Adam and the death and resurrection of Jesus. Therefore, just as sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin, for as in Adam all die, so in Christ all will be made alive. Up till then the transgression in the Garden of Eden had not been given great significance, as the Jesus scholar, Geza Vermes has said, Paul believed that Adams transgression in a mysterious way affected the nature of the human race. The primeval sin, a Pauline creation with no biblical or post-biblical Jewish precedent, was irreparable by ordinary human effort, the formalized Christian doctrine of original sin was first developed in the 2nd century by Irenaeus, the Bishop of Lyon, in his struggle against Gnosticism. Irenaeus contrasted their doctrine with the view that the Fall was a step in the direction by Adam, with whom, Irenaeus believed. The Greek Fathers emphasized the cosmic dimension of the Fall, namely that since Adam human beings are born into a fallen world and they thus did not teach that human beings are deprived of free will and involved in total depravity, which is one understanding of original sin. During this period the doctrines of human depravity and the sinful nature of human flesh were taught by Gnostics. Christian Apologists insisted that Gods future judgment of humanity implied humanity must have the ability to live righteously, when Adam sinned, human nature was thenceforth transformed. Adam and Eve, via sexual reproduction, recreated human nature and their descendants now live in sin, in the form of concupiscence, a term Augustine used in a metaphysical, not a psychological sense. Augustine insisted that concupiscence was not a being but a bad quality, in Augustines view, all of humanity was really present in Adam when he sinned, and therefore all have sinned. Original sin, according to Augustine, consists of the guilt of Adam which all humans inherit, as sinners, humans are utterly depraved in nature, lack the freedom to do good, and cannot respond to the will of God without divine grace. Justo Gonzalez interprets Augustines teaching that grace is irresistible, results in conversion, Pelagius claimed that the influence of Adam on other humans was merely that of bad example. Augustine held that the effects of Adams sin are transmitted to his descendants not by example, a wounded nature comes to the soul and body of the new person from his/her parents, who experience libido. Augustines view was that human procreation was the way the transmission was being effected and he did not blame, however, the sexual passion itself, but the spiritual concupiscence present in human nature, soul and body, even after baptismal regeneration
26.
William Cranch
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William Cranch was an American judge and the second reporter of decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States. Born in Weymouth, Massachusetts, he was a nephew of Abigail Adams and his father was Richard Cranch, an English-born clockmaker and Massachusetts legislator and his mother was Mary Smith, the elder sister of Abigail Smith Adams. His uncle by marriage was John Adams, the second President of the United States and his first cousin was John Quincy Adams, the sixth President. William Cranch graduated from Harvard College with honors in 1787 and was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1790, from 1791 to 1800, Cranch worked as a legal agent for a real estate firm in Washington. When land speculation bankrupted him, his uncle John Adams rescued him by appointing him to be Inspector of Public Buildings in 1800, then, in 1801, Cranch was selected as one of the two associate justices for the District of Columbia Circuit Court. The nomination was put forth on February 28,1801, and Cranch was confirmed by the United States Senate on March 3,1801, in 1805, Cranch became a member of the first board of Trustees for Public Schools and served on that board for 7 years. On February 21,1806, President Thomas Jefferson elevated Cranch to Chief Judge of the Circuit Court, Cranchs elevation was confirmed by the United States Senate on February 24,1806. In this role he swore in two Presidents of the United States, John Tyler and Millard Fillmore, each of whom assumed the presidency upon the death of his predecessor, Cranch would hold the position of Chief Judge in the District until his death in 1855. While serving as a Circuit judge, Cranch also served as the reporter of the Supreme Court from 1801 to 1815. At the time, the reporter was an unofficial post and he used his own funds to produce the reports, Cranch took on the responsibility because of his respect for precedent. He was slow in producing his reports of cases and their accuracy was questioned, during his tenure on the court, Cranch published a biography about Adams and edited his own volume of reports on civil and criminal cases from the District. On February 3,1826, the Columbian College board of trustees elected Cranch and William Thomas Carroll, on June 13 of the same year, with President John Quincy Adams in attendance, Professor Cranch delivered the first law lecture in the court room of the City Hall. Cranch died in Washington, DC on September 1,1855 and he was buried at Congressional Cemetery. In 1871, the Cranch Public School Building, named in his honor, opened at the southwest corner of 12th and G, SE in Washington, DC. Cranch was elected an Associated Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1809, Cranch is also known for several decisions that set a precedent for jury nullification, including, United States v. Fenwick,25 F. Cas. 675, Right to make legal argument to jury, stettinius v. United States,22 F. Cas. 573, Right to make legal argument to jury, Cranch also handed down important precedent in a variety of topics, for example in a criminal law case regarding the mens rea of intoxication, Cranch wrote, Cranch died in Washington, D. C. aged 86. William Cranchs daughter Abigail Adams Cranch married William Greenleaf Eliot, William Eliot and Abigail Cranch were the parents of Henry Ware Eliot and the grandparents of T. S. Eliot
27.
Braintree, Massachusetts
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Braintree, officially the Town of Braintree, is a suburban New England city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. Although officially known as a town, Braintree adopted a charter, effective 2008. The population was 35,744 at the 2010 census, the town is part of the Greater Boston area with access to the MBTA Red Line and is a member of the Metropolitan Area Planning Commissions South Shore Coalition. The first and current mayor of Braintree is Joe Sullivan, Braintree, Massachusetts is named after Braintree, Essex in England. The town of Braintree was settled in 1625, colonized in 1635 and incorporated in 1640 and it comprised land that was later split into Quincy, Randolph, and Holbrook. Braintree was part of Suffolk County until the formation of Norfolk County in 1793, the town of Braintree was the birthplace of presidents John Adams and John Quincy Adams, as well as statesman John Hancock. General Sylvanus Thayer, the Father of West Point was also born in Braintree, Braintree was the site of the infamous 1920 murders that led to the trial of Sacco and Vanzetti. It was the retirement home of the co-inventor of the telephone, braintrees population grew by over 50% during the 1920s. In January 2008, Braintree converted from a town meeting form of government to a mayor-council government. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 14.5 square miles. The total area is 4. 34% water Park and recreation locations in Braintree include Pond Meadow Park, Sunset Lake, summers are typically warm to hot, rainy, and humid, while winters oscillate between periods of cold rain and snow, with cold temperatures. Spring and fall are mild, with varying conditions dependent on wind direction. Prevailing wind patterns that blow offshore minimize the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, the hottest month is July, with a mean temperature of 69.7 °F. The coldest month is January, with a mean of 25.7 °F, periods exceeding 90 °F in summer and below freezing in winter are not uncommon but rarely extended, with about 13 and 25 days per year seeing each, respectively. The citys average window for freezing temperatures is November 9 through April 5, official temperature records have ranged from −21 °F in February 1934, up to 101 °F in August 1949 and 1974. Braintrees coastal location on the North Atlantic moderates its temperature, but makes the city prone to Noreaster weather systems that can produce much snow. The city averages 48.63 inches of precipitation a year, snowfall increases dramatically as one goes inland away from the city —away from the moderating influence of the ocean. Most snowfall occurs from December through March, as most years see no snow in April and November
28.
David McCullough
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David Gaub McCullough is an American author, narrator, historian, and lecturer. He is a winner of the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award and a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Born and raised in Pittsburgh, McCullough earned a degree in English literature from Yale University. His first book was The Johnstown Flood, and he has written nine more on such topics as Harry S. Truman, John Adams, the Brooklyn Bridge. McCullough has also narrated numerous documentaries, such as The Civil War by Ken Burns, as well as the 2003 film Seabiscuit, McCulloughs two Pulitzer Prize-winning books, Truman and John Adams, have been adapted by HBO into a TV film and a miniseries, respectively. McCullough was born in the Point Breeze neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and he was educated at Linden Avenue Grade School and Shady Side Academy, in his hometown of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. One of four sons, McCullough had a marvelous childhood with a range of interests, including sports. McCulloughs parents and his grandmother, who read to him often and his parents often talked about history, a topic he says should be discussed more often. McCullough loved school, every day, he contemplated many career choices, ranging from architect, actor, painter, writer, to lawyer, in 1951, McCullough began attending Yale University. He said that it was a privilege to study English at Yale because of faculty members such as John OHara, John Hersey, Robert Penn Warren, McCullough occasionally ate lunch with the Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist and playwright Thornton Wilder. Wilder, says McCullough, taught him that a competent writer maintains an air of freedom in the storyline, so that a reader will not anticipate the outcome, while at Yale, he became a member of Skull and Bones. He served apprenticeships at Time, Life, the United States Information Agency, and American Heritage, once I discovered the endless fascination of doing the research and of doing the writing, I knew I had found what I wanted to do in my life. While attending Yale, McCullough studied Arts and earned his bachelors degree in English and he graduated with honors in English literature. After graduation, McCullough moved to New York City, where Sports Illustrated hired him as a trainee and he later worked as an editor and writer for the United States Information Agency in Washington, D. C. After working for years, including a position at American Heritage, in editing and writing. McCullough had no anticipation that was going to write history, but stumbled upon a story that thought was powerful, exciting, while working at American Heritage, McCullough wrote in his spare time for three years. The Johnstown Flood, a chronicle of one of the worst flood disasters in United States history, was published in 1968 to high praise by critics, John Leonard, of The New York Times, said of McCullough, We have no better social historian. Despite rough financial times, he decided to become a full-time writer, after the success of The Johnstown Flood, two new publishers offered him contracts, one to write about the Great Chicago Fire and another about the San Francisco earthquake
29.
Cotton Tufts
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Cotton Tufts was a Massachusetts physician. He was a cousin of John Adams and he was the grandson of Peter Tufts, who emigrated to the United States in 1654. Cotton graduated from Harvard in 1749, studied medicine, and settled at Weymouth and he was one of the original members of the Massachusetts Medical Society, its president 1787-1795, and one of the founders of the Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1780. In 1765 he wrote spirited and patriotic instructions to the representatives of Weymouth against the Stamp Act. He was a representative of the state and a councillor, for years an active member of the state senate. On April 19,1775, British forces were returning to Boston from the Battles of Lexington and Concord, on their march they were continually shot at by colonial militiamen. Dr. Cotton Tufts did nothing to save the life of Samuel Whittemore who at the time was 78 years old and fought against the British in what is now Arlington, Massachusetts on April 19,1775. Whittemore was in his fields when he spotted an approaching British relief brigade under Earl Percy, Whittemore loaded his musket and ambushed the British from behind a nearby stone wall, killing one soldier. He then drew his dueling pistols and killed a grenadier and mortally wounded a second, by the time Whittemore had fired his third shot, a British detachment reached his position, Whittemore drew his sword and attacked. He was shot in the face, bayoneted thirteen times, and he was found alive, trying to load his musket to fight again. He was taken to Dr. Cotton Tufts of Medford, who perceived no hope for his survival, however, Whittemore lived another 18 years until dying of natural causes at the age of 96. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John
30.
Alexander Hamilton
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Alexander Hamilton was an American statesman and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. As the first Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton was the author of the economic policies of the George Washington administration. He took the lead in the funding of the debts by the Federal government, as well as the establishment of a national bank, a system of tariffs. His vision included a central government led by a vigorous executive branch. This was challenged by Virginia agrarians Thomas Jefferson and James Madison who formed a rival party and they favored strong states based in rural America and protected by state militias as opposed to a strong national army and navy. They denounced Hamilton as too friendly toward Britain and toward monarchy in general, Hamilton was born out of wedlock in Charlestown, to a married mother of British and French Huguenot ancestry and a Scottish father. His father, James A. Hamilton, was the son of laird Alexander Hamilton of Grange. Orphaned as a child by his mothers death and his fathers abandonment, Hamilton was taken in by an older cousin and he was recognized for his intelligence and talent, and sponsored by a group of wealthy local men to travel to New York City to pursue his education. Hamilton attended Kings College, choosing to stay in the Thirteen Colonies to seek his fortune, discontinuing his studies before graduating when the college closed its doors during British occupation of the city, Hamilton played a major role in the American Revolutionary War. At the start of the war in 1775, he joined a militia company, in early 1776, he raised a provincial artillery company, to which he was appointed captain. He soon became the aide to General Washington, the American forces commander-in-chief. Hamilton was dispatched by Washington on numerous missions to convey plans to his generals, after the war, Hamilton was elected as a representative to the Congress of the Confederation from New York. He resigned to practice law, and founded the Bank of New York, Hamilton was among those dissatisfied with the weak national government. He led the Annapolis Convention, which successfully influenced Congress to issue a call for the Philadelphia Convention in order to create a new constitution, Hamilton became the leading cabinet member in the new government under President Washington. These programs were funded primarily by a tariff on imports, to overcome localism, Hamilton mobilized a nationwide network of friends of the government, especially bankers and businessmen, which became the Federalist Party. A major issue in the emergence of the American two-party system was the Jay Treaty and it established friendly trade relations with Britain, to the chagrin of France and the supporters of the French Revolution. Hamilton played a role in the Federalist party, which dominated national. In 1795, he returned to the practice of law in New York and he tried to control the policies of President Adams
31.
First Report on the Public Credit
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The report analyzed the financial standing of the United States of America and made recommendations to reorganize the national debt and to establish the public credit. Commissioned by the House of Representatives on September 21,1789, during the American Revolution, the Continental Congress, under the Articles, amassed huge war debts, but lacked the power to service these obligations through taxation or duties on imports. As an expedient, the government resorted to printing money and bills of credit. To avoid bankruptcy, the Continental Congress eliminated $195 million of its $200 million debt by fiat, in post-war years, Continental currency - Continentals - would be deemed worthless. With its finances in disarray, the legislature abdicated its fiscal responsibilities, by the end of the war, over $90 million in state debt was outstanding. Much of the state and national fiscal disorder, exacerbated by a crisis in urban commercial centers. With ratification of the US Constitution in 1788, Congress became empowered to impose import duties, the national debt of the United States, according to the Report, included $40 million in domestic debt as well as a foreign debt $12 million, both inherited from the Continental Congress. In addition, the thirteen states altogether owed $25 million from debts incurred during the American Revolution, the combined US debt, as calculated, stood at $77 million. A consensus arose in Congress that the source of revenue be tariff. These fees would serve to cover operating expenses for the government as well as to pay interest and principal on foreign. Under the guidance of Representative James Madison, leader of the House, Congress created the executive departments in September 1789, and Alexander Hamilton was confirmed by the Senate to regulate the powerful Treasury Department. Madison, having “actively promoted” Hamilton’s appointment, was expected to cooperate in creating a central government. With sources of revenue legislated, Congress proceeded to address the issue of public credit. Establishing government credit – the ability to borrow – was deemed a necessity if the nation was to endure, in order to convince investors to purchase United States securities, a system was needed to reliably pay interest. Various plans had been considered to pay down the debt under the new federal government. Some advocates wanted to scale back the debt to ease tax burdens. Proposals to default on the loans were termed partial- or full “repudiation”, none of these, however, suggested defaulting on any portion of the $12 million foreign debt - plus $1.5 million in interest - regarded as a “sacred obligation paid in full”. A significant portion of the nations $40 million domestic debt was owed to American patriots who had supported the War of Independence through loans or personal service, schemes more in sympathy with the ex-soldiers who had relinquished their certificates to speculators at reduced rates were termed “discrimination”
32.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
33.
Diplomatic rank
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Diplomatic rank is the system of professional and social rank used in the world of diplomacy and international relations. The current system of ranks was established by the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. There are three ranks, two of which remain in use, Ambassador, an Ambassador is a head of mission who is accredited to the receiving countrys head of state. They head a mission known as an embassy, which is usually headquartered in a chancery in the receiving states capital. A papal nuncio is considered to have Ambassadorial rank, and they preside over a nunciature, commonwealth countries send a High Commissioner who presides over a High Commission and has the same diplomatic rank as an Ambassador. A Minister is a head of mission who is accredited to the countrys head of state. A Minister heads a legation rather than an embassy, however, the last legations were upgraded to embassies in the late 1960s, and the rank of Minister is now obsolete. An envoy or an internuncio is also considered to have the rank of Minister. A chargé daffaires ad interim is a diplomat who heads a diplomatic mission in the absence of an ambassador. The body of accredited to a country form the Diplomatic corps. Ambassadors have precedence over chargés, and precedence within each rank is determined by the date on which diplomatic credentials were presented, the longest-serving ambassador is the Dean of the Diplomatic Corps, who speaks for the entire diplomatic corps on matters of diplomatic privilege and protocol. In many Catholic countries, the nuncio is always considered the Dean of the Diplomatic Corps. Envoys and Ministers represented their government, and were accredited to the receiving sovereign, Ministers resident formed an intermediate class, between ministers and chargés. This rank was created by the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle Chargés daffaires were accredited by their Foreign Minister to the receiving Foreign Minister, the rank of Envoy was short for Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, and was more commonly known as Minister. For example, the Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States to the French Empire was known as the United States Minister to France, an Ambassador was regarded as the personal representative of his sovereign as well as his government. Only major monarchies would exchange Ambassadors with each other, while smaller monarchies, because of diplomatic reciprocity, Great Powers would only send a Minister to a smaller monarchy or a republic. For example, in the years of the Second French Empire, the United Kingdom sent an Ambassador to Paris, while Sweden-Norway. The rule that only monarchies could send Ambassadors was more honored in the breach than the observance and this had been true even before the Congress of Vienna, as England continued to appoint ambassadors after becoming a republic in 1649. Countries that overthrew their monarchs proved to be unwilling to accept the lower rank accorded to a republic, after the Franco-Prussian War, the French Third Republic continued to send and receive ambassadors
34.
Court of St James's
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The Court of St Jamess is the royal court for the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. The Marshal of the Diplomatic Corps, who acts as the link between the British monarch and foreign missions, is permanently based at St Jamess Palace. In 1886, there were only six Ambassadors in London, with 37 other countries represented by Ministers, by 2015, this had increased to 175 foreign missions accredited to the Court of St Jamess,47 high commissions from Commonwealth countries and 128 embassies from non-Commonwealth countries. The court is named after St Jamess Palace, hence the s at the end of the name, when the courts name is spoken, it is sometimes incorrectly identified as the Court of St James, without a separate iz pronunciation for the possessive apostrophe-ess suffix. Her Majestys Diplomatic Service Diplomatic rank List of diplomatic missions in the United Kingdom List of diplomatic missions of the United Kingdom
35.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
36.
Peacefield
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Peacefield, also called Old House, is a historic home formerly owned by the Adams family of Quincy, Massachusetts. It is now part of the Adams National Historical Park, the Adams were at that time still resident in London, but returned in 1788 to occupy the house and its 40 acres of farmland and orchards. They were disagreeably surprised by the house, however, after their years in England, the house at that time consisted of only two low-ceilinged rooms on the ground floor, two bedrooms, and an attic. Abigail Adams wrote it feels like a wrens nest, during the subsequent 12 years, with Adams resident in Philadelphia first as Vice President and then as President, Abigail Adams attended to the house and farm. She greatly expanded it, adding what is now the side of the front facade, with a fine hallway and large parlor on the ground floor. The additions were built in the Georgian style with a gambrel roof creating a full attic story. Adams returned to the house full-time in 1801 after his defeat for a presidential term. His son John Quincy Adams also returned to the house at that time, further extensions to the house were made by his son, Charles Francis Adams. The house was given by the Adams family to the United States in 1946, other nearby sites include the John Adams Birthplace, John Quincy Adams Birthplace, and United First Parish Church, where both presidents and their wives are buried. The family and the home are intertwined with the political and intellectual history of the birth of the American nation. Two older and smaller houses are located on the property, as well as the 1870 Gothic Revival Stone Library, the property contains a historic orchard of heirloom apples, and formal eighteenth century flower gardens. Adams National Historical Park McCullough, David, dearest Friend, A Life of Abigail Adams. National Park Service web page on Peacefield
37.
Adams National Historical Park
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There is an off-site Visitors Center less than a mile away. Regularly scheduled tours of the houses are offered in season, by guided tour only, access to United First Parish Church, where the Adamses worshipped and are buried, is provided by the congregation for which they ask a small donation. The church is across the street from the Visitors Center and this house is a National Historic Landmark, the birthplace of John Adams. In 1720 it was purchased by Deacon John Adams, Sr. the father of the second president. The younger Adams lived here until 1764, when he married Abigail Smith and it is a few feet from the John Quincy Adams Birthplace home, where John and Abigail Adams moved. The younger Adams grew up in the home, and he, the Old House was originally constructed in 1731 for Leonard Vassall, a sugar planter, and was used as his summer house. The house stood empty for some time before it, along with 75 acres, was purchased by Adams on September 23,1787 for 600 pounds, the Adams family moved in the next year and occupied it until 1927, when it was sold to the Adams Memorial Society. The National Park Service acquired it in 1947, and has been a National Historic Site ever since, in his will, John Quincy Adams requested that the library be built out of stone so that it would be fireproof. Henry Adams wrote his nine volume History of the United States in the library, the church where both Presidents and their First Ladies are entombed in the Adams Crypt has never been administered by the National Park service. It is owned by the congregation of Unitarian Universalists. In the past ten years, the congregation has used almost $2 million of its own resources to preserve the building, december 19,1960 — the birthplaces of both presidents were designated National Historic Landmarks. October 15,1966 — The entire historic site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, december 30,1970 — The privately owned United First Parish Church was also designated a National Historic Landmark. November 2,1998 — The historic site was redesignated Adams National Historical Park, National Register of Historic Places listings in Quincy, Massachusetts Hugh, Howard, Roger Straus
38.
Independence Day (United States)
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It declared that the thirteen American colonies regarded themselves as a new nation, the United States of America, and were no longer part of the British Empire. Independence Day is the National Day of the United States, Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail, The second day of July,1776, I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, adamss prediction was off by two days. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2,1776, although not a signer of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected as President, also died on July 4,1831. He was the third President in a row who died on the anniversary of independence, calvin Coolidge, the 30th President, was born on July 4,1872, so far he is the only U. S. President to have been born on Independence Day. In 1777 thirteen gunshots were fired in salute, once at morning and once again as evening fell, on July 4 in Bristol, ships in port were decked with red, white, and blue bunting. In 1778, from his headquarters at Ross Hall, near New Brunswick, New Jersey, General George Washington marked July 4 with a ration of rum for his soldiers. Across the Atlantic Ocean, ambassadors John Adams and Benjamin Franklin held a dinner for their fellow Americans in Paris, in 1779, July 4 fell on a Sunday. The holiday was celebrated on Monday, July 5, in 1781 the Massachusetts General Court became the first state legislature to recognize July 4 as a state celebration. In 1783, Moravians in Salem, North Carolina, held a celebration of July 4 with a music program assembled by Johann Friedrich Peter. This work was titled The Psalm of Joy and this is recognized as the first recorded celebration and is still celebrated there today. In 1870 the U. S. Congress made Independence Day an unpaid holiday for federal employees, in 1938 Congress changed Independence Day to a paid federal holiday. Independence Day is a holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer-themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors, Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on day to appear at a public event to praise the nations heritage, laws, history, society. Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue, many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, decorations are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag
39.
Alien and Sedition Acts
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The Alien and Sedition Acts were four bills passed by the Federalist-dominated 5th United States Congress and signed into law by President John Adams in 1798. The Federalists argued that the bills strengthened national security during a naval war with France. Critics argued that they were primarily an attempt to suppress voters who disagreed with the Federalist party, three of the acts were repealed after the Democratic-Republican party of Thomas Jefferson came to power. Following cessation of hostilities, the act was used by President Harry S. Truman to continue to imprison, then deport, in 1948 the Supreme Court determined that presidential powers under the acts continued after cessation of hostilities until there was a peace treaty with the hostile nation. The revised Alien Enemies Act remains in effect today, the Naturalization Act increased the residency requirement for American citizenship from five to fourteen years. At the time, the majority of immigrants supported Thomas Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans, lastly, the controversial Sedition Act restricted speech that was critical of the federal government. Under the Sedition Act, the Federalists allowed people who were accused of violating the laws to use truth as a defense. The Sedition Act resulted in the prosecution and conviction of many Jeffersonian newspaper owners who disagreed with the government, the acts were denounced by Democratic-Republicans and ultimately helped them to victory in the 1800 election, when Thomas Jefferson defeated the incumbent, President Adams. The Sedition Act and the Alien Friends Act were allowed to expire in 1800 and 1801, the Alien Enemies Act, however, remains in effect as Sections 21–24 of Title 50 of the United States Code. Opposition to the Federalists, spurred by Democratic-Republicans, reached new heights with the Democratic-Republicans support of France, some appeared to desire in the United States an event similar to the French Revolution, in order to overthrow the government. As the unrest sweeping Europe spread to the United States, calls for secession reached unparalleled heights, some of this agitation was seen by Federalists as having been caused by French and French-sympathizing immigrants. The Alien Act and the Sedition Act were meant to guard against this threat of anarchy. They were a political issue in the elections of 1798 and 1800, controversial then. Opposition to them resulted in the highly controversial Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, authored by James Madison, prominent prosecutions under the Sedition Act include, James Thomson Callender, a Scottish citizen, had been expelled from Great Britain for his political writings. Callender, already residing in Virginia and writing for the Richmond Examiner, was indicted in mid-1800 under the Sedition Act and convicted, fined $200, matthew Lyon was a Democratic-Republican congressman from Vermont. He was the first individual to be placed on trial under the Alien and he was indicted in 1800 for an essay he had written in the Vermont Journal accusing the administration of ridiculous pomp, foolish adulation, and selfish avarice. While awaiting trial, Lyon commenced publication of Lyons Republican Magazine, at trial, he was fined $1,000 and sentenced to four months in jail. After his release, he returned to Congress. 102–08 Benjamin Franklin Bache was editor of the Philadelphia Aurora, Bache had accused George Washington of incompetence and financial irregularities, and the blind, bald, crippled, toothless, querulous Adams of nepotism and monarchical ambition
40.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
41.
White House
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The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States, located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D. C. It has been the residence of every U. S. president since John Adams in 1800, the term White House is often used to refer to actions of the president and his advisers, as in The White House announced that. The residence was designed by Irish-born architect James Hoban in the Neoclassical style, construction took place between 1792 and 1800 using Aquia Creek sandstone painted white. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he added low colonnades on each wing that concealed stables and storage. In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior, reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Exterior construction continued with the addition of the semi-circular South portico in 1824, because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later in 1909, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office, in the main mansion, the third-floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as an area for social events. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space, by 1948, the houses load-bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the rooms were completely dismantled. Once this work was completed, the rooms were rebuilt. The Executive Residence is made up of six stories—the Ground Floor, State Floor, Second Floor, the property is a National Heritage Site owned by the National Park Service and is part of the Presidents Park. In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of Americas Favorite Architecture, in May 1790, New York began construction of Government House for his official residence, but he never occupied it. The national capital moved to Philadelphia in December 1790, the July 1790 Residence Act named Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the temporary national capital for a 10-year period while the Federal City was under construction. The City of Philadelphia rented Robert Morriss city house at 190 High Street for Washingtons presidential residence, the first president occupied the Market Street mansion from November 1790 to March 1797, and altered it in ways that may have influenced the design of the White House. As part of an effort to have Philadelphia named the permanent national capital, Pennsylvania built a much grander presidential mansion several blocks away. President John Adams also occupied the Market Street mansion from March 1797 to May 1800, on Saturday, November 1,1800, he became the first president to occupy the White House. The Presidents House in Philadelphia became a hotel and was demolished in 1832, the Presidents House was a major feature of Pierre Charles LEnfants plan for the newly established federal city, Washington, D. C
Abigail Adams by Gilbert Stuart
"First Lady Abigail Adams", First Ladies: Influence & Image, C-SPAN[33]
Texts on Wikisource:
