1.
Arabic language
–
Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
Arabic language
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The Galland Manuscript of
One Thousand and One Nights, 14th century
Arabic language
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al-ʿArabiyyah in written Arabic (
Naskh script)
Arabic language
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Bilingual traffic sign in
Qatar.
Arabic language
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Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works.
2.
Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
Mediterranean Sea
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Circa the 6th century BCE: In ancient times the Mediterranean provided sources of food and local commerce and direct routes for trade and communications, colonisation, and war. Numerous cities and colonies were situated at its shores or within the basin: Greek (red) and Phoenician (yellow)
colonies in antiquity; and other cities (grey), including the provincial
"Rom".
Mediterranean Sea
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Map of the Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea
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With its highly indented coastline and large number of islands, Greece has the longest Mediterranean coastline.
Mediterranean Sea
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The
Battle of Lepanto, 1571, ended in victory for the European
Holy League against the Ottoman Turks.
3.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
Egypt
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The
Giza Necropolis is the oldest of the
ancient Wonders and the only one still in existence.
Egypt
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Flag
Egypt
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The Greek Ptolemaic queen
Cleopatra VII and her son by Julius Caesar,
Caesarion at the
Temple of Dendera.
Egypt
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The 1803
Cedid Atlas, showing
Ottoman Egypt.
4.
Abu Qir
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Abu Qir, formerly also spelled Abukir or Aboukir, is a town on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt, near the ruins of ancient Canopus and 23 kilometers northeast of Alexandria by rail. It is located on Abu Qir Peninsula, with Abu Qir Bay to the east, the towns present name is Arabic for Father Cyrus, an Egyptian Christian martyr. Near the village are remains of ancient buildings, Egyptian, Greek. About 3 kilometers southeast of the village are the ruins of Canopus, a little farther east, the now-dry Canopic branch of the Nile entered the Mediterranean. The latter title is applied properly to an engagement between the French expeditionary army and the Turks fought on 25 July the following year, see Battle of Abukir of 1799. The town contains a castle that was used as a prison by Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century. In 2000, an Italian archeologist discovered the remains of British officers, sailors, marines, women, and children on Nelsons Island, köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as hot desert, but it lies at the northern coast of Egypt, moderating its temperatures. Due to its proximity to Alexandria, it has a similar climate. The wettest places in Egypt are Rafah, Alexandria, Abu Qir, Rosetta, Baltim, Kafr El Dawwar, Mersa Matruh. Abu Qir Bay Alexandria Cyrus and John Nelsons Island HMS Aboukir Baynes, T. S. ed. Canopus, Encyclopædia Britannica,5, New York, Charles Scribners Sons, p.23. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Aboukir, Encyclopædia Britannica,1, Cambridge University Press, griffith, Francis Llewellyn, Canopus, in Chisholm, Hugh, Encyclopædia Britannica,5, Cambridge University Press, p.203
Abu Qir
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Specialized hospital at Abu Qir
5.
Alexandria
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Alexandria is the second largest city and a major economic centre in Egypt, extending about 32 km along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country. Its low elevation on the Nile delta makes it vulnerable to rising sea levels. Alexandria is Egypts largest seaport, serving approximately 80% of Egypts imports and exports and it is an important industrial center because of its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez. Alexandria is also an important tourist destination, Alexandria was founded around a small Ancient Egyptian town c.331 BC by Alexander the Great. Alexandria was the second most powerful city of the ancient world after Rome, Alexandria is believed to have been founded by Alexander the Great in April 331 BC as Ἀλεξάνδρεια. Alexanders chief architect for the project was Dinocrates, Alexandria was intended to supersede Naucratis as a Hellenistic center in Egypt, and to be the link between Greece and the rich Nile valley. The city and its museum attracted many of the greatest scholars, including Greeks, Jews, the city was later plundered and lost its significance. Just east of Alexandria, there was in ancient times marshland, as early as the 7th century BC, there existed important port cities of Canopus and Heracleion. The latter was rediscovered under water. An Egyptian city, Rhakotis, already existed on the shore also and it continued to exist as the Egyptian quarter of the city. A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt and never returned to his city, after Alexanders departure, his viceroy, Cleomenes, continued the expansion. Although Cleomenes was mainly in charge of overseeing Alexandrias continuous development, the Heptastadion, inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the center of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a generation to be larger than Carthage. In a century, Alexandria had become the largest city in the world and and it became Egypts main Greek city, with Greek people from diverse backgrounds. Alexandria was not only a center of Hellenism, but was home to the largest urban Jewish community in the world. The Septuagint, a Greek version of the Tanakh, was produced there, in AD115, large parts of Alexandria were destroyed during the Kitos War, which gave Hadrian and his architect, Decriannus, an opportunity to rebuild it. On 21 July 365, Alexandria was devastated by a tsunami, the Islamic prophet, Muhammads first interaction with the people of Egypt occurred in 628, during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha. He sent Hatib bin Abi Baltaeh with a letter to the king of Egypt and Alexandria called Muqawqis In the letter Muhammad said, I invite you to accept Islam, Allah the sublime, shall reward you doubly. But if you refuse to do so, you bear the burden of the transgression of all the Copts
Alexandria
–
Alexandria Ἀλεξάνδρεια
Alexandria
Alexandria
–
Residential neighborhood in Alexandria
Alexandria
–
Fishing in Alexandria
6.
Rosetta
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Rosetta is a port city of the Nile Delta, located 65 km east of Alexandria, in Egypts Beheira governorate. Founded around in the 9th century, Rosetta boomed with the decline of Alexandria following the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517, during the 19th century, it was a popular British tourist destination, known for its charming Ottoman mansions, citrus groves and comparative cleanliness. Both the Arabic name Rašīd and the western name Rosetta or Rosette are corruptions of a Coptic toponym, the site of Rosetta was inhabited throughout the history of Ancient Egypt, then known as Khito, a hieratic word meaning the populace, under Menes reign. In the Ptolemaic era, the town was renamed to Bolbitine, during the Seventh Crusade, Louis IX of France briefly occupied the town in 1249. Rosetta witnessed the defeat of the British Fraser campaign, on 19 September 1807, rafah, Alexandria, Abu Qir, Rosetta, Baltim, Kafr el-Dawwar and Mersa Matruh are the wettest places in Egypt. The population of Rashid has increased since the 1980s, as follows,1983,36,711,1986,51,789, and 1996,58,432 Rosetta, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago,1983. Thomas Brinkhoff, City Population, http, //www. citypopulation. de Egypt statistics This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Gilman. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed
Rosetta
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Pea-green
boats in Rosetta
Rosetta
–
An identical copy of the Rosetta Stone
7.
Canopus (Egypt)
–
Canopus, also known as Canobus, was an Ancient Egyptian coastal town, located in the Nile Delta. Its site is in the outskirts of modern-day Alexandria, around 25 kilometers from the center of that city. Canopus was located on the bank at the mouth of the westernmost branch of the Delta – known as the Canopic or Heracleotic branch. It belonged to the seventh Egyptian Nome, known as Menelaites and it was the principal port in Egypt for Greek trade before the foundation of Alexandria, along with Naucratis and Heracleion. Its ruins lie near the present Egyptian village of Abu Qir, the settlements Egyptian name was Peguat or Pikuat. The Greeks called it Canopus after a commander of the era of the Trojan War supposedly buried there. The English form of the name derives from the Latinized form used under Roman rule, Canopus was the site of a temple to the Egyptian god Serapis. The name of Canopus appears in the first half of the 6th century BC in a poem by Solon, the exact date of the foundation of Canopus is unknown, but Herodotus refers to it as an ancient port. Homeric myth claims that it was founded by Menelaus, and named after Canopus, the pilot of his ship, legend describes how Menelaus built a monument to his memory on the shore, around which the town later grew up. The real origin of the name Canopus is said to be Ancient Egyptian Kah Nub, there is unlikely to be any connection with canopy. A temple to Osiris was built by Pharaoh Ptolemy The Good, but, according to Herodotus, very near to Canopus was an older shrine, Osiris was worshipped at Canopus under a peculiar form, that of a vase with a human head. In Ptolemy III Euergetes ninth regnal year, an assembly of priests at Canopus passed an honorific decree that, inter alia, conferred various new titles on the king and his consort. This was the earliest of the series of inscriptions of the Rosetta Stone Series. There are three such Decrees altogether, the town had a large trade in henna. In Roman times, the town was notorious for its dissoluteness, juvenals Satire VI referred to the debauchery that prevailed there. The emperor Hadrian built a villa at Tivoli,18 miles away from Rome, one of these was borrowed from Canopus. The Egyptian city of Abu Qir, honoring two Christian martyrs, is located a few miles away from the ruins of Canopus and it is a village, at the end of a little peninsula north-east of Alexandria. It has a trade in quails, which are caught in nets hung along the shore, off Aboukir on 1 August 1798, the French Mediterranean fleet was destroyed within the roads by British Admiral Horatio Nelson on 25 July 1799
Canopus (Egypt)
–
Map of Nile Delta showing ancient Canopus,
Heracleion, and
Menouthis
8.
Heracleion
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Heracleion is also a spelling of Heraklion, Cretes largest city and capital. Heracleion, also known as Thonis, was an ancient Egyptian city located near the Canopic Mouth of the Nile and its ruins are located in Abu Qir Bay, currently 2.5 km off the coast, under 10 m of water. Its legendary beginnings go back to as early as the 12th century BC and its importance grew particularly during the waning days of the Pharaohs. In the Late Period, it was Egypts main port for international trade, Heracleion was originally built on some adjoining islands in the Nile Delta, and was intersected by canals. It had a number of harbors and anchorages and was the city of Naucratis until it was superseded by Alexandria. Heracleion was said by Herodotus to have been visited by Paris, also, it was believed that Heracles himself had visited the city, resulting in the Greeks calling it by the Greek name Heracleion rather than its original Egyptian name Thonis. Until very recently the site had been only from a few literary and epigraphic sources, one of which interestingly mentions the site as an emporion. The city was mentioned by the ancient historians Diodorus and Strabo, Herodotus was told that Thonis was the warden of the Canopic mouth of the Nile, Thonis arrested Alexander, the son of Priam, because Alexander had abducted Helen of Troy and taken much wealth. The city is mentioned in the Decree of Canopus honoring Pharaoh Ptolemy III. The city of Heracleion was also the site of the celebration of the ‘mysteries of Osiris each year during the month of Khoiak, the god in his ceremonial boat was brought in procession from the temple of Amun in that city to his shrine in Canopus. The city had a temple of Khonsou, son of Amun. Later, the worship of Amun became more prominent, Heracleion flourished especially from the 6th to the 4th century BC, as revealed by numerous archaeological finds. Pharaoh Nectanebo I made many additions to the temple in the 4th century B. C, the city sank in the 3rd or 2nd century AD, probably due to liquefaction of the silts on which it was built following earth tremors. The ruins submerged in the sea were located by the French underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio in 2000, until then, the scholars were not sure if Heracleion and Thonis were in fact one and the same city. Canopus, Egypt Menouthis Spectacular finds of lost city revealed, sunken Egyptian city reveals 1, 200-year-old secrets. Photos of underwater treasures of Heracleion
Heracleion
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Map of Nile Delta showing ancient
Canopus, Heracleion, and
Menouthis
Heracleion
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The stelae of Ptolemy VIII from the temple of Heracleion
Heracleion
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Ptolemaic coins from the submerged Heracleion
9.
Menouthis
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Menouthis was a sacred city in ancient Egypt, devoted to the Egyptian goddess Isis and god Serapis. The city was submerged under water in the 8th century as a result of earthquakes or a Nile flood and its exact location remained uncertain until 2000 when an archaeological team led by Franck Goddio reported rediscovery of Menouthis underwater a little northeast of Alexandria. Menouthis is also the name of a song by E. S, posthumus, inspired by the ancient city
Menouthis
–
Map of Nile Delta showing ancient
Canopus,
Heracleion, and Menouthis
10.
Battle of the Nile
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The British fleet was led in the battle by Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson, they decisively defeated the French under Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys dAigalliers. Bonaparte sought to invade Egypt as the first step in a campaign against British India and he chased the French for more than two months, on several occasions only missing them by a matter of hours. Bonaparte was aware of Nelsons pursuit and enforced absolute secrecy about his destination and he was able to capture Malta and then land in Egypt without interception by the British naval forces. With the French army ashore, the French fleet anchored in Aboukir Bay,20 miles northeast of Alexandria, Commander Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys dAigalliers believed that he had established a formidable defensive position. The British fleet arrived off Egypt on 1 August and discovered Brueyss dispositions and his ships advanced on the French line and split into two divisions as they approached. One cut across the head of the line and passed between the anchored French and the shore, while the other engaged the seaward side of the French fleet. Trapped in a crossfire, the leading French warships were battered into surrender during a fierce battle, while the centre succeeded in repelling the initial British attack. As British reinforcements arrived, the centre came under renewed assault and, at 22,00, the battle reversed the strategic situation between the two nations forces in the Mediterranean and entrenched the Royal Navy in the dominant position that it retained for the rest of the war. It also encouraged other European countries to turn against France, and was a factor in the outbreak of the War of the Second Coalition. Bonapartes army was trapped in Egypt, and Royal Navy dominance off the Syrian coast contributed significantly to its defeat at the Siege of Acre in 1799 which preceded Bonapartes return to Europe. Nelson had been wounded in the battle, but he was proclaimed a hero across Europe and was subsequently made Baron Nelson—although he was dissatisfied with his rewards. His captains were highly praised and went on to form the nucleus of the legendary Nelsons Band of Brothers. The legend of the battle has remained prominent in the popular consciousness, despite significant efforts, British control of Northern European waters rendered these ambitions impractical in the short term, and the Royal Navy remained firmly in control of the Atlantic Ocean. However, the French navy was dominant in the Mediterranean, following the withdrawal of the British fleet after the outbreak of war between Britain and Spain in 1796. During the spring of 1798, Bonaparte assembled more than 35,000 soldiers in Mediterranean France and Italy and he also formed the Commission des Sciences et des Arts, a body of scientists and engineers intended to establish a French colony in Egypt. On 9 June, the fleet arrived off Malta, then under the ownership of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, Bonaparte demanded that his fleet be permitted entry to the fortified harbour of Valletta. When the Knights refused, the French general responded by ordering a large invasion of the Maltese Islands. While Bonaparte was sailing to Malta, the Royal Navy re-entered the Mediterranean for the first time in more than a year and this squadron, consisting of three ships of the line and three frigates, was entrusted to Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson
Battle of the Nile
–
"The Destruction of
L'Orient at the Battle of the Nile"
George Arnald, 1827,
National Maritime Museum, in
Greenwich,
London,
England
Battle of the Nile
–
Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson,
Lemuel Francis Abbott, 1800,
National Maritime Museum. Visible on his cocked hat is the
aigrette presented by the Ottoman Sultan as a reward for the victory at the Nile
Battle of the Nile
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François-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers artist unknown,
Palace of Versailles
Battle of the Nile
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Battle of the Nile, Augt 1st 1798,
Thomas Whitcombe, 1816,
National Maritime Museum. The British fleet bears down on the French line.
11.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
Royal Navy
–
Royal Navy
Royal Navy
–
The
Battle of Sluys as depicted in
Froissart's Chronicles; late 14th century
Royal Navy
–
A late 16th century painting of the
Spanish Armada in battle with English warships
Royal Navy
–
The Dutch
Raid on the Medway in 1667 during the Second Anglo–Dutch War
12.
French First Republic
–
In the history of France, the First Republic, officially the French Republic, was founded on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The First Republic lasted until the declaration of the First Empire in 1804 under Napoleon, under the Legislative Assembly, which was in power before the proclamation of the First Republic, France was engaged in war with Prussia and Austria. The foreign threat exacerbated Frances political turmoil amid the French Revolution and deepened the passion, in the violence of 10 August 1792, citizens stormed the Tuileries Palace, killing six hundred of the Kings Swiss guards and insisting on the removal of the king. A renewed fear of action prompted further violence, and in the first week of September 1792, mobs of Parisians broke into the citys prisons. This included nobles, clergymen, and political prisoners, but also numerous common criminals, such as prostitutes and petty thieves, many murdered in their cells—raped, stabbed and this became known as the September Massacres. The resulting Convention was founded with the purpose of abolishing the monarchy. The Conventions first act, on 10 August 1792, was to establish the French First Republic, the King, by then a private citizen bearing his family name of Capet, was subsequently put on trial for crimes of high treason starting in December 1792. On 16 January 1793 he was convicted, and on 21 January, throughout the winter of 1792 and spring of 1793, Paris was plagued by food riots and mass hunger. The new Convention did little to remedy the problem until late spring of 1793, despite growing discontent with the National Convention as a ruling body, in June the Convention drafted the Constitution of 1793, which was ratified by popular vote in early August. The Committees laws and policies took the revolution to unprecedented heights, after the arrest and execution of Robespierre in July 1794, the Jacobin club was closed, and the surviving Girondins were reinstated. A year later, the National Convention adopted the Constitution of the Year III and they reestablished freedom of worship, began releasing large numbers of prisoners, and most importantly, initiated elections for a new legislative body. On 3 November 1795, the Directory was established, the period known as the French Consulate began with the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799. Members of the Directory itself planned the coup, indicating clearly the failing power of the Directory, Napoleon Bonaparte was a co-conspirator in the coup, and became head of the government as the First Consul. He would later proclaim himself Emperor of the French, ending the First French Republic and ushering in the French First Empire
French First Republic
–
Napoleon Bonaparte seizes power during the Coup of 18 Brumaire
French First Republic
–
Flag
13.
Natural gas
–
It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of bonds in the gas. Natural gas is a fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a feedstock in the manufacture of plastics. Natural gas is found in underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in proximity to. Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms, biogenic and thermogenic, biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material. In petroleum production gas is burnt as flare gas. The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of gas are flared or vented annually. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, most, Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal. However, it is not to be confused with gasoline, especially in North America, Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE. They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to salt water to extract the salt. The worlds first industrial extraction of gas started at Fredonia, New York. By 2009,66000 km³ had been used out of the total 850000 km³ of estimated remaining reserves of natural gas. An annual increase in usage of 2–3% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less, unwanted natural gas was a disposal problem in the active oil fields. If there was not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it was expensive to pipe to the end user. In the 19th century and early 20th century, unwanted gas was burned off at oil fields
Natural gas
–
Natural gas coming out of the ground in Taiwan.
Natural gas
–
The global
Natural Gas Trade in 2013, numbers are in billion cubic meters per year.
Natural gas
–
Natural gas
drilling rig in Texas.
Natural gas
–
The location of
shale gas compared to other types of gas deposits.
14.
Horatio Nelson
–
Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronté KB was a British flag officer in the Royal Navy. He was wounded several times in combat, losing most of one arm in the attempt to conquer Santa Cruz de Tenerife. He was shot and killed during his victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Nelson was born into a moderately prosperous Norfolk family and joined the navy through the influence of his uncle, Maurice Suckling and he rose rapidly through the ranks and served with leading naval commanders of the period before obtaining his own command in 1778. He developed a reputation in the service through his valour and firm grasp of tactics but suffered periods of illness. The outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars allowed Nelson to return to service and he fought in several minor engagements off Toulon and was important in the capture of Corsica and subsequent diplomatic duties with the Italian states. In 1797, he distinguished himself while in command of HMS Captain at the Battle of Cape St Vincent. The following year, he won a victory over the French at the Battle of the Nile. In 1801, he was dispatched to the Baltic and won another victory and he subsequently commanded the blockade of the French and Spanish fleets at Toulon and, after their escape, chased them to the West Indies and back but failed to bring them to battle. After a brief return to England, he took over the Cádiz blockade in 1805, on 21 October 1805, the Franco-Spanish fleet came out of port, and Nelsons fleet engaged them at the Battle of Trafalgar. The battle was Britains greatest naval victory, but during the action Nelson and his body was brought back to England where he was accorded a state funeral. Nelsons death at Trafalgar secured his position as one of Britains most heroic figures, numerous monuments, including Nelsons Column in Trafalgar Square, London, and the Nelson Monument in Edinburgh, have been created in his memory and his legacy remains highly influential. Horatio Nelson was born on 29 September 1758 in a rectory in Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, England and he was named after his godfather Horatio Walpole then 2nd Baron Walpole, of Wolterton. His mother, who died on 26 December 1767, when he was nine years old, was a great-niece of Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, the de facto first Prime Minister of Great Britain. She lived in the village of Barsham, Suffolk, and married the Reverend Edmund Nelson at Beccles church, Suffolk, Nelsons aunt, Alice Nelson was the wife of Reverend Robert Rolfe, Rector of Hilborough, Norfolk and grandmother of Sir Robert Monsey Rolfe. Rolfe twice served as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, Nelson attended Paston Grammar School, North Walsham, until he was 12 years old, and also attended King Edward VI’s Grammar School in Norwich. Shortly after reporting aboard, Nelson was appointed a midshipman and began officer training, early in his service, Nelson discovered that he suffered from seasickness, a chronic complaint that dogged him for the rest of his life. He twice crossed the Atlantic, before returning to serve under his uncle as the commander of Sucklings longboat, at his nephews request, Suckling arranged for Nelson to join the expedition as coxswain to Commander Lutwidge aboard the converted bomb vessel HMS Carcass
Horatio Nelson
–
Vice Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson, by
Lemuel Francis Abbott
Horatio Nelson
–
Captain
Maurice Suckling
Horatio Nelson
–
Captain Horatio Nelson, painted by
John Francis Rigaud in 1781, with Fort San Juan—the scene of his most notable achievement to date—in the background. The painting itself was begun and nearly finished prior to the battle, when Nelson held the rank of lieutenant; when Nelson returned, the artist added the new captain's gold-braided sleeves.
Horatio Nelson
–
Lady Nelson, Nelson's wife, formerly Frances "Fanny" Nisbet of the island of
Nevis,
West Indies. A painting of the British school circa 1800, formerly attributed to
Richard Cosway, from an earlier copy.
15.
Battle of Abukir (1799)
–
The Battle of Abukir was a battle in which Napoleon Bonaparte defeated Seid Mustafa Pashas Ottoman army on 25 July 1799, during the French campaign in Egypt. It is considered the first pitched battle with this name, as there already was a battle on 1 August 1798. No sooner had the French forces returned from a campaign to Syria, Seid Mustafa Pasha was an experienced commander who had fought against the Russians. He knew that cavalry charges against the French squares was futile, so, he sought to avoid them by fortifying his beachhead with two defensive lines. From this beachhead Mustafa could carry out the invasion of Egypt, however, Napoleon immediately saw the flaw in the tactic as it meant that the Turks had nowhere to run if routed. The French attacked the Ottoman positions and quickly broke through the first defensive line before it was fully completed, the second line, however, proved tougher to defeat and the French withdrew for a while. At this point, cavalry general Murat saw his opportunity and attacked with his cavalry, murats charge was so rapid that he burst inside Mustafas tent and captured the Turkish commander, severing two of the Turks fingers with his sabre. In return, Mustafa shot Murat in the jaw, immediately, Murat was operated on and resumed his duties the next day. The Turkish army fled in panic, some Ottomans drowned trying to swim to the British ships two miles away from shore, while others fled to Abukir castle, but they surrendered shortly thereafter. The Turks suffered about 8,000 casualties and the French only 1,000, news of the victory reached France before Napoleon arrived in October and this made him even more popular, an important asset considering the troubles brewing in the French Directory. This battle temporarily secured Frances control over Egypt, the Ottoman army led by Britain, declared war on France. Two armies were to attack Egypt, one carried by the British fleet, as usual, Bonaparte chose to take the initiative in February and conquered Gaza, El Arish and Jaffa but failed before the town of Saint-Jean-dAcre after two months of siege. This city was defended by its governor, Djezzar Pasha and his fellow student of the Ecole Militaire in Paris, Antoine de Phélippeaux. In addition, the city was continually replenished with men, food, the French army being decimated by the plague, Napoleon ended his dreams of conquest in the East. He dreamed of taking Constantinople and then invading India to help the insurgency against the British. He also dreamed that once in Constantinople, he could returned with his army to France through Vienna, on July 14,1799, a British fleet of 60 ships landed with 16,000 men under the command of Mustapha Pasha, a veteran of the last Russo-Turkish war. They stormed the fortifications of the harbor and put 300 French troops under the command of Battalion Chief Godart, the peninsula changed hands and Turkish flags fluttered on the bastions of the city. Napoleon brought together as many troops as possible, on 25 July, the Turks were on the defensive and relied on a strong redoubt between their lines and the sea
Battle of Abukir (1799)
–
The Battle of Abukir, by
Antoine-Jean Gros 1806. The Coronation Room
Battle of Abukir (1799)
–
Battle of Abukir
16.
Napoleon
–
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51
Napoleon
–
The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries, by
Jacques-Louis David, 1812
Napoleon
–
Imperial coat of arms
Napoleon
–
Napoleon's father
Carlo Buonaparte was
Corsica 's representative to the court of
Louis XVI of France.
Napoleon
–
Napoleon Bonaparte, aged 23, Lieutenant-Colonel of a battalion of Corsican
Republican volunteers
17.
Alexander Cochrane
–
Sir Alexander Inglis Cochrane GCB RN was a senior Royal Navy commander during the Napoleonic Wars and achieved the rank of Admiral. He was knighted for his service, Alexander Inglis Cochrane was born a younger son of the Scottish peer Thomas Cochrane, the eighth Earl of Dundonald, and his wife. He joined the Royal Navy as a boy and served with British naval forces in North America and he served during the American War of Independence. Cochrane also participated in the Egyptian operations in 1801, Cochrane had been incensed that the brilliant Sir Edward Pellew a tarpaulin officer, had preferred as Admiral of the White, to the East Indies station to himself, a well connected aristocrat. Cochrane tried to implicate Sir Edward Pellew, who had relations with the Governor of Ferrol. Exmouth papers In 1805 he was commander of the Leeward Islands Station. He conducted operations against the French and Spanish on 6 February 1806 at the Battle of San Domingo during the Napoleonic Wars, a cannonball blew his hat off his head while he was on the deck of his flagship, HMS Northumberland. He was knighted and appointed KCB on 29 March 1806 in recognition of his service, other rewards included thanks from both Houses of Parliament, freedom of the city of London, and a sword valued at 100 guineas. In Barbados, Cochrane met with General Francisco de Miranda, who had defeated by Spanish naval forces in an attempt to liberate Venezuela. As Spain was then at war with Britain, Cochrane and the governor of Trinidad agreed to some support for an unsuccessful second attempt to invade Venezuela. In 1809 he commanded forces in the conquest of Martinique. He landed the force under Major-General Robert Ross that burned Washington, during the Battle of Baltimore, Cochrane directed the bombardment of Fort McHenry in Baltimore, which proved ineffectual. He resisted calls by his officers to attack the fort more aggressively with frigates at close range. He ordered a raid by boats to assist the army encamped near Baltimore in their proposed attack on Hampstead hill. Cochrane led the British force that won the Battle of Lake Borgne in December 1814 and his forces built a hard short road to New Orleans for use by British armed forces. But, the British army was defeated at the Battle of New Orleans on January 8,1815, news that Britain had ratified the peace treaty had not reached the combatants at the Battle of New Orleans. The peace treaty was being carried to Washington, D. C. for ratification by the U. S. Congress, the Duke of Wellington held that the failure of the New Orleans campaign was largely the fault of Cochrane. In a eulogy to General Edward Pakenham -- Wellingtons brother-in-law, killed at New Orleans, he said, I cannot, the expedition to New Orleans originated with that colleague
Alexander Cochrane
–
Sir Alexander Cochrane
18.
HMS Ajax (1798)
–
HMS Ajax was an Ajax class 74-gun third rate ship of the line of the British Royal Navy. She was built by John Randall & Co of Rotherhithe and launched on the Thames on 3 March 1798. After a brief spell under Captain John Osborn in April 1799, the Ajax was placed in May 1799 under the command of Captain Alexander Cochrane, on 9 January 1800 she captured the French privateer Avantageux in the Channel. In 1801, Cochrane and Ajax participated in the Egyptian operations, on 31 January Ajax anchored at Marmorice on the coast of Karamania. On 1 March, some 70 warships, together with transports carrying 16,000 troops, bad weather delayed disembarkation by a week, but on the 8th, Cochrane directed a landing by 320 boats, in double line abreast, which brought the troops ashore. French shore batteries opposed the landing, but the British were able to drive them back, Ajax had two of her seamen killed in the landings. The naval vessels provided a force of 1,000 seamen to fight alongside the army, on 13 March, Ajax lost one man killed and two wounded in an action on shore, on 21 March she lost two killed and two wounded. Ajax returned to Plymouth from Egypt on 8 June 1802 after the signing of the Treaty of Amiens, on 31 May 1805 Captain William Brown took command of Ajax. Calder sailed towards the French with his force, the battle lasted for more than four hours as the fleets became confused in the failing light and thick patchy fog, which prevented either side from gaining a decisive victory. Still, the British were able to capture two Spanish ships, the 80-gun San Rafael and the 74-gun Firme, the action cost Ajax two men killed and 16 wounded. Captains Brown and Lechmere were later called as witnesses at the martial of Sir Robert Calder for his failure to resume the battle the next day in the action in July. As a result, First Lieutenant John Pilfold commanded Ajax at the Battle of Trafalgar, Ajax was seventh in line in Nelson’s column and she fired on both the French 74-gun Bucentaure and the Spanish 136-gun Santissima Trinidad. During the battle Ajax assisted HMS Orion in forcing the surrender of the French 74-gun Intrépide, Ajax lost two men killed and nine wounded during the battle. A storm followed the battle and Ajax rescued seamen from ships in danger of sinking, Lieutenant Pilfold received the Trafalgar medal and a direct promotion to Post-captain in December. Although he missed the battle, Brown was still the official captain, in 1847 the Admiralty awarded the Naval General Service Medal with clasp Trafalgar to all surviving claimants from the battle. After Trafalgar, Ajax was at the blockade of Cadiz, on 25 November, Thunderer detained the Ragusan ship Nemesis, which was sailing from Isle de France to Leghorn, Italy, with a cargo of spice, indigo dye, and other goods. Ajax shared the money with ten other British warships. On 1 February 1807 Ajax, under the command of Captain Henry Blackwood, during the operation an accidental fire destroyed Ajax
HMS Ajax (1798)
–
Watercolour of HMS Ajax, in the collections of the
National Maritime Museum; no artist or date given
HMS Ajax (1798)
–
Battle of Cape Finisterre, by
William Anderson, c.1810
HMS Ajax (1798)
–
Duckworth's squadron forcing the Dardanelles
19.
Ralph Abercromby
–
Sir Ralph Abercromby KB was a Scottish soldier and politician. He rose to the rank of lieutenant-general in the British Army, was noted for his services during the Napoleonic Wars and he twice served as MP for Clackmannanshire, and he was appointed Governor of Trinidad. He was the eldest son of George Abercromby of Tullibody, Clackmannanshire, and he was born at Menstrie Castle, Clackmannanshire. Educated at Rugby and at the University of Edinburgh, he was sent to Leipzig University in 1754 to study law with a view to career as an advocate. He was a member of Canongate Kilwinning Lodge No 2, Edinburgh, on returning from the continent, Abercromby expressed a strong preference for the military profession, and a cornets commission was accordingly obtained for him in the 3rd Dragoon Guards. He rose through the grades to the rank of lieutenant-colonel of the regiment and brevet colonel in 1780. When that regiment was disbanded in 1783, he retired upon half pay and he also entered Parliament as MP for Clackmannanshire. He was a supporter of the American cause in the American Revolutionary War. When France declared war against Great Britain in 1793, he resumed his duties and he was appointed command of a brigade under the Duke of York for service in the Netherlands, where he commanded the advanced guard in the action at Le Cateau. During the 1794 withdrawal to Holland, he commanded the forces in the action at Boxtel and was wounded directing operations at Fort St Andries on the Waal. In 1795, he was appointed a Knight of the Bath for his services and that same year, he was appointed to succeed Sir Charles Grey as commander-in-chief of the British forces in the West Indies. In 1796, Grenada was suddenly attacked and taken by a detachment of the army under his orders, afterwards, Abercromby secured possession of the settlements of Demerara and Essequibo in South America, the islands of Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and Trinidad. A major assault on the port of San Juan, Puerto Rico, Abercromby returned to Europe and, in reward for his services, was appointed colonel of the 2nd Regiment of Dragoons. He was also made Lieutenant-Governor of the Isle of Wight, Governor of Fort George and Fort Augustus in the Scottish Highlands and he again entered Parliament as member for Clackmannanshire from 1796 to 1798. From 1797 to 1798, he was Commander-in-Chief of the forces in Ireland, when he was appointed to the command in Ireland, an invasion of that country by the French was confidently anticipated by the British government. The campaign of 1799 ended in disaster, but friend and foe alike confessed that the most decisive victory could not have more conspicuously proved the talents of this distinguished officer, in 1801, he was sent with an army to recover Egypt from France. The debarkation of the troops at Abukir, in the face of opposition, is justly ranked among the most daring. Abercromby was injured at the Battle of Alexandria on 21 March 1801 and died of his wounds seven days later aboard HMS Foudroyant and he was buried on St. Johns Bastion within Fort Saint Elmo in Valletta, Malta
Ralph Abercromby
–
Sir Ralph Abercromby, by
John Hoppner
Ralph Abercromby
–
A medalion showing the Capture of Trinidad and Tobago by the British in 1797.
Ralph Abercromby
–
Sir Ralph Abercromby, Commander of the British forces that captured
Trinidad and Tobago.
Ralph Abercromby
–
Death of Gen Sir Ralph Abercrombie by Sir Robert Ker Porter. Abercromby is in the centre and labeled "20."
20.
Battle of Alexandria
–
The British position on the night of 20 March extended across the isthmus, the right wing resting upon the ruins of Nicopolis and the sea, the left on the lake of Abukir and the Alexandria canal. In the second line were two brigades and the cavalry. On 21 March, the troops were under arms at 3 a. m. and at 3,30 a. m. the French attacked, the French army now moved forward with great rapidity in their usual formation of columns. The brunt of the attack fell upon Moores command, and in particular upon the 28th Regiment of Foot, the British repulsed the first shock but a French column penetrated in the dark between two British regiments. A confused fight ensued in the ruins, in which the 42nd Black Watch captured a colour, other regiments that assisted in the overthrow of the French column were the 23rd, 40th and 58th. In a second attack the cavalry inflicted severe losses on the 42nd. Sir Ralph Abercromby was here engaged in conflict with some French dragoons. About half-past eight the combat began to wane, and the last shots were fired at ten, the 42nd, twice charged by cavalry, had but 13 men wounded by the sabre. The forces engaged on this day were approximately 14,000 British to about 9,000 French, losses for the British were,1,468 killed, wounded and missing, including Abercromby, Moore and three other generals wounded. The French on the hand had 1,160 killed and 3,000 wounded. The British advanced upon Alexandria and laid siege to it, the French garrison surrendered on 2 September 1801. French campaign in Egypt and Syria
Battle of Alexandria
–
The Battle of Alexandria, 21 March 1801 Painting by
Philip James de Loutherbourg
Battle of Alexandria
–
Jacques-françois Meno
Battle of Alexandria
–
The map of the British plan for the battle.
Battle of Alexandria
–
Abercromby (center) fights two French dragoons (from an English book)
21.
Siege of Alexandria
–
The Siege of Alexandria was fought between 17 August and 2 September 1801, during the French Revolutionary Wars, between French and British forces and was the last action of the Egyptian Campaign. The French had occupied Alexandria, a fortified harbour city on the Nile Delta in northern Egypt, since 2 July 1798. The battle between the British and French at Canope on 21 March 1801 resulted in a French repulse, the French under Menou, disheartened by this failure, retired to Alexandria. With Abercrombies death, John Hely-Hutchinson succeeded as commander of the British force in August and he now intended to lay siege to Alexandria and bottle Menou up. Hutchinson left Coote with 6,000 men and then sent part of the reserve with Baron Charles De Hompesh to capture Rosetta and he then advanced to Cairo, which he reached, after a few skirmishes, in mid June. Joined by a sizable Turkish force Hutchinson invested Cairo and on 27 June the 13, 000-strong French garrison under General Augustin Daniel Belliard, General John Moore then escorted them to the coast via Rosetta. Hutchinson, with Cairo out of the way, now began the reduction of Alexandria. He had thirty five battalions in total, both sides mounted combined assaults but the French soldiers, unable to break out and with food shortages and disease taking their toll, became increasingly disillusioned with the campaign. Menou knew he had no hope and on 26 August asked for terms, the terms as amended by British commanders and put into effect are known as the Capitulation of Alexandria. By 2 September total of 10,000 French surrendered under terms which allowed them to keep their weapons and baggage. However, all French ships and cannons at Alexandria were surrendered to the British, historians relate that the French garrison, feeling abandoned by an uncaring Republic, gradually abandoned the high standards of conduct and service characteristic of the French Revolutionary Army. Many soldiers refused to renew their oath to the Republic, or did so half-heartedly and he would so start the 19th-century tradition of horse meat consumption in France. After the surrender, a dispute arose over the fate of French archaeological, one of the key artifacts was the Rosetta Stone which had been discovered in mid-July 1799 by French scientists of the Institut dÉgypte. Menou refused to hand them over, claiming they belonged to the institute, how exactly the stone came into British hands is disputed. Colonel Tomkyns Hilgrove Turner, who escorted the stone to Britain, claimed later that he had seized it from Menou. Turner brought the stone to Britain aboard Egyptienne, landing in February 1802, on 11 March it was presented to the Society of Antiquaries of London. Later it was taken to the British Museum, where it remains to this day, inscriptions painted in white on the artifact state Captured in Egypt by the British Army in 1801 on the left side and Presented by King George III on the right. French Campaign in Egypt and Syria Citations Bibliography Barthorp, Michael, napoleons Egyptian Campaigns 1798-1801, Osprey Publishing,1992
Siege of Alexandria
–
Map of Egypt with Alexandria highlighted
22.
Canopus, Egypt
–
Canopus, also known as Canobus, was an Ancient Egyptian coastal town, located in the Nile Delta. Its site is in the outskirts of modern-day Alexandria, around 25 kilometers from the center of that city. Canopus was located on the bank at the mouth of the westernmost branch of the Delta – known as the Canopic or Heracleotic branch. It belonged to the seventh Egyptian Nome, known as Menelaites and it was the principal port in Egypt for Greek trade before the foundation of Alexandria, along with Naucratis and Heracleion. Its ruins lie near the present Egyptian village of Abu Qir, the settlements Egyptian name was Peguat or Pikuat. The Greeks called it Canopus after a commander of the era of the Trojan War supposedly buried there. The English form of the name derives from the Latinized form used under Roman rule, Canopus was the site of a temple to the Egyptian god Serapis. The name of Canopus appears in the first half of the 6th century BC in a poem by Solon, the exact date of the foundation of Canopus is unknown, but Herodotus refers to it as an ancient port. Homeric myth claims that it was founded by Menelaus, and named after Canopus, the pilot of his ship, legend describes how Menelaus built a monument to his memory on the shore, around which the town later grew up. The real origin of the name Canopus is said to be Ancient Egyptian Kah Nub, there is unlikely to be any connection with canopy. A temple to Osiris was built by Pharaoh Ptolemy The Good, but, according to Herodotus, very near to Canopus was an older shrine, Osiris was worshipped at Canopus under a peculiar form, that of a vase with a human head. In Ptolemy III Euergetes ninth regnal year, an assembly of priests at Canopus passed an honorific decree that, inter alia, conferred various new titles on the king and his consort. This was the earliest of the series of inscriptions of the Rosetta Stone Series. There are three such Decrees altogether, the town had a large trade in henna. In Roman times, the town was notorious for its dissoluteness, juvenals Satire VI referred to the debauchery that prevailed there. The emperor Hadrian built a villa at Tivoli,18 miles away from Rome, one of these was borrowed from Canopus. The Egyptian city of Abu Qir, honoring two Christian martyrs, is located a few miles away from the ruins of Canopus and it is a village, at the end of a little peninsula north-east of Alexandria. It has a trade in quails, which are caught in nets hung along the shore, off Aboukir on 1 August 1798, the French Mediterranean fleet was destroyed within the roads by British Admiral Horatio Nelson on 25 July 1799
Canopus, Egypt
–
Map of Nile Delta showing ancient Canopus,
Heracleion, and
Menouthis
23.
Alboran Sea
–
The Alboran Sea is the westernmost portion of the Mediterranean Sea, lying between the Iberian Peninsula and the north of Africa. The Strait of Gibraltar, which lies at the west end of the Alboran Sea and its average depth is 1,461 feet and maximum depth is 4,920 feet. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Alboran Sea as follows, the Eastern limit of the Strait of Gibraltar, A line joining from tip of Cap Gibraltar in Europe to the tip of the Península de Almina of Ceuta in Africa. A line joining from Cabo de Gata in Andalusia in Europe to Cap Fegalo in Algeria in Africa, several small islands dot the sea, including the eponymous Isla de Alborán. Most, even including those close to the Moroccan shore are controlled by Spain, reoccurring earthquakes at a depth of about 600 km indicates that this subduction is ongoing and that complex interactions between the lithosphere and mantle are forming the region. The internal zones are made of Late Paleozoic to Triassic rocks that were piled up during the Tertiary and has extended since the Early Miocene. The seafloor is morphologically complex with several sub-basins, including three main sub-basins named West, East, and South Alboran Basins, ridges, and seamounts, the most prominent structure in the Alboran Sea is the 180 km -long Alboran Ridge which stretches southwest from the volcanic Alborán Island. Thus there is typically a vertical rotary circulation, also known as a gyre, the Alboran Sea is a transition zone between ocean and sea, containing a mix of Mediterranean and Atlantic species. The Alboran sea also hosts important commercial fisheries, including sardines, in 2003, the World Wildlife Fund raised concerns about the widespread drift net fishing endangering populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals. An arc of mountains, known as the Gibraltar Arc, wraps around the northern, western, the Gibraltar Arc is made up of the Baetic Cordillera of southern Spain and the Rif Mountains of Morocco
Alboran Sea
–
A satellite image centred on the Alboran Sea. To the left, the Iberian Peninsula, and to the right, the north of Africa.
24.
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean as seen from the western coast of
Portugal
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean, not including
Arctic and
Antarctic regions
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean as seen from
Atlantic City, New Jersey.
Atlantic Ocean
–
Myrtle Beach, South Carolina view of the Atlantic Ocean.
25.
Indian Ocean
–
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, the Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara, the mine of gems in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar, in Hindi. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf, the oceans continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres in width. An exception is found off Australias western coast, where the width exceeds 1,000 kilometres. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m and its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m deep, Sunda Trench has a depth of 7, 258–7,725 m. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the basin is covered by pelagic sediments. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments, glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes. The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok Strait, the Strait of Malacca, the Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere is in this ocean, marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include, The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April, from May until October south, in the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are milder. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency, among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jubba and Irrawaddy River. The oceans currents are controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise, during the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, north of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C, exceeding 28 °C to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly, surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia
Indian Ocean
–
The economically important
Silk Road (red) and spice
trade routes (blue) were blocked by the
Ottoman Empire in ca. 1453 with the fall of the
Byzantine Empire. This spurred exploration, and a new sea route around Africa was found, triggering the
Age of Discovery.
Indian Ocean
–
Extent of the Indian Ocean according to the
CIA World Factbook
Indian Ocean
–
British heavy cruisers
Dorsetshire and
Cornwall under Japanese air attack and heavily damaged on 5 April 1942
Indian Ocean
–
A
dhow off the coast of Kenya
26.
Levantine Sea
–
Levantine Sea is the easternmost part of the Mediterranean Sea. The Levantine Sea is bordered by Turkey in the north, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and the Gaza Strip in the east, Egypt and Libya in the south, and the Aegean Sea in the northwest. The western border to the open Mediterranean is defined as a line from the cape Ras al-Hilal in Libya to the island of Gavdos, the largest island in the Levantine Sea is Cyprus. The greatest depth of 4384 meters is found in the Pliny Trench, the Levantine Sea stretches over an area of 320,000 km2. The northern part of the Levantine Sea between Cyprus and Turkey is called Cilician Sea, also in the north are the large bays Gulf of İskenderun and Gulf of Antalya. The Leviathan gas field is located in area under the Levantine basin in the southeastern part of the Mediterranean. The Suez Canal was completed in 1869, linking the Levantine Sea to the Red Sea, the Red Sea is higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal serves as a tidal strait that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. This migration of species is known as the Lessepsian migration, after Ferdinand de Lesseps, construction of the Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s has reduced the flow of freshwater and silt into the Levantine Sea. Eastern Mediterranean Levant Özsoy, E. and H. Güngör, simultaneous Deep and Intermediate Depth Convection in the Northern Levantine Sea, Winter 1992, Ocean. Study and Analysis of Water Masses Formation in the Levantine Sea
Levantine Sea
–
Map of the Levantine Sea
27.
Red Sea
–
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait, to the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez. The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion, the sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley. The Red Sea has an area of roughly 438,000 km2, is about 2250 km long and. It has a depth of 2211 m in the central median trench. However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life, the sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the worlds northernmost tropical sea, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Red Sea as follows, On the North. The Southern limits of the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba, a line joining Husn Murad and Ras Siyyan. Red Sea is a translation of the Greek Erythra Thalassa, Latin Mare Rubrum, Arabic, البحر الأحمر. Al-Baḥr Al-Aḥmar, Somali Badda Cas and Tigrinya Qeyyiḥ bāḥrī, the name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red-coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the waters surface. A theory favored by modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions, herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably. Historically, it was known to western geographers as Mare Mecca. Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf or Gulf of Arabia. C, in that version, the Yam Suph is translated as Erythra Thalassa. The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms — the others being the Black Sea, the White Sea and the Yellow Sea. The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the part of the Indian Ocean. The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians, one such expedition took place around 2500 BC, and another around 1500 BC. Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea, historically, scholars argued whether these trips were possible
Red Sea
–
Red Sea
Red Sea
–
Tihama on the Red Sea near Khaukha,
Yemen
Red Sea
–
Annotated view of the Nile and Red Sea, with a dust storm
Red Sea
–
Dust storm over the Red Sea
28.
Southern Ocean
–
As such, it is regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions, smaller than the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans but larger than the Arctic Ocean. This ocean zone is cold, northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer subantarctic waters. By way of his voyages in the 1770s, Captain James Cook proved that waters encompassed the southern latitudes of the globe. Since then, geographers have disagreed on the Southern Oceans northern boundary or even existence, considering the part of the Pacific, Atlantic. Others regard the seasonally-fluctuating Antarctic Convergence as the natural boundary, Borders and names for oceans and seas were internationally agreed when the International Hydrographic Bureau, the precusor to the IHO, convened the First International Conference on 24 July 1919. The IHO then published these in its Limits of Oceans and Seas, Australian authorities regard the Southern Ocean as lying immediately south of Australia. Map publishers using the term Southern Ocean on their maps include Hema Maps, Southern Ocean is an obsolete name for the Pacific Ocean or South Pacific, coined by Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the first European to discover it, who approached it from the north. The South Seas is an archaic synonym. A1745 British Act of Parliament established a prize for discovering a Northwest Passage to the Western and Southern Ocean of America, authors using Southern Ocean to name the waters encircling the unknown southern polar regions used varying limits. James Cooks account of his second voyage implies New Caledonia borders it, peacocks 1795 Geographical Dictionary said it lay to the southward of America and Africa, John Payne in 1796 used 40 degrees as the northern limit, the 1827 Edinburgh Gazetteer used 50 degrees. The United Kingdoms South Australia Act 1834 described the waters forming the southern limit of the new colony of South Australia as the Southern Ocean. The Colony of Victorias Legislative Council Act of 1881 delimited part of the division of Bairnsdale as along the New South Wales boundary to the Southern ocean. The limit then followed the west coast of Tasmania southwards to the South East Cape and then went eastwards to Broughton Island, New Zealand, the northern limits of the Southern Ocean were moved southwards in the IHOs 1937 second edition of the Limits of Oceans and Seas. From this edition, much of the northern limit ceased to abut land masses. As is discussed in detail below, prior to the 2002 edition the limits of oceans explicitly excluded the seas lying within each of them. The Great Australian Bight was unnamed in the 1928 edition, and it therefore encompassed former Southern Ocean waters but was technically not inside any of the three adjacent oceans by 1937. To perform direct comparisons of current and former limits of oceans it is necessary to consider, or at least be aware of, the limits of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans have therefore been extended South to the Antarctic Continent. The IHO readdressed the question of the Southern Ocean in a survey in 2000, of its 68 member nations,28 responded, and all responding members except Argentina agreed to redefine the ocean, reflecting the importance placed by oceanographers on ocean currents
Southern Ocean
–
1928 First Edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas with original IHO delineation of Southern Ocean abutting land-masses.
Southern Ocean
–
Earth's oceans
Southern Ocean
–
1937 Second Edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas showing IHO's pre-1953 delineation of Southern Ocean moved southwards.
Southern Ocean
–
1564 Typus Orbis Terrarum, a map by
Abraham Ortelius showed the imagined link between the proposed continent of Antarctica and
South America.
29.
Algoa Bay
–
Algoa Bay is a bay in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. It is located in the east coast,425 miles east of the Cape of Good Hope, Algoa Bay is bounded in the west by Cape Recife and in the east by Cape Padrone. The bay is up to 436 m deep, the harbour city of Port Elizabeth is situated adjacent to the bay, as is the new Coega deep water port facility. The Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias was the first European to reach Algoa Bay in 1488 and he gave the bay a name meaning Bay of the Rock, which was changed in Portugal to Bahia de Lagoa or Bay of the Lagoon, and which eventually became Algoa Bay. Trawlers should exercise the greatest caution, the chemical weapons were dumped in the bay in the aftermath of World War II. During that conflict, Port Elizabeth was used as a research, manufacturing, the condition of the canisters and projectiles are not currently known. The metropolitan municipality of Nelson Mandela Bay, which includes Port Elizabeth, is located on the shore of Algoa Bay. The combined surface area of islands is said to be 40 ha. The second group consists of Bird, Seal and Stag Islands, all six islands and their adjacent waters are declared nature reserves and form part of the Addo Elephant National Park. The islands are closed to the public, worthy of mention as an obstacle to navigation is Despatch Rock,2.4 km due east of the Port Elizabeth suburb of Summerstrand. The rock, which is submerged at high tide, is marked with a light, further south, about 1 km southwest of Cape Recife, the western starting point of the bay is Thunderbolt Reef. Though not in the bay, this hazard to navigation has claimed many ships carelessly entering or leaving, Thunderbolt Reef is submerged save for spring low tides and the surf crashing on it can be observed from the mainland. St. Croix Island at 33°47′58″S 25°46′11″E is 3.9 km from the nearest land, the BirdLife fact sheet states the 12 ha island is only 58 m above sea level. It adds that the island is rocky and “supports minimal vegetation”, the island runs 700 m along a northwest, southeast axis and is about 360 m wide at its broadest – along the west coast. Its highest point is halfway along the north coast, Brenton Island is equally sparsely vegetated and is less than 20 m in elevation, and is roughly 250 m ×200 m in size with a northwest-southeast orientation. It is 5.75 km to sea from the nearest point on the mainland and 1.75 km south of St. Croix. Jahleel, at less than 10 m in height, is just over 1 km from the closest beach, jahleel is about the same size as Brenton and has a north-south axis. It is 5.75 km west of St. Croix, vasco da Gama named this group of islands Ilhéus Châos
Algoa Bay
–
Algoa Bay with
Port Elizabeth in the foreground
Algoa Bay
–
St. Croix Island seen from the nearest landfall at Hougham Park, just east of the
Coega harbour development. From here the island is about 4 km to sea. Two disused stone bungalows, used by
guano collectors and then by the
University of Port Elizabeth for research purposes are visible.
Algoa Bay
–
Brenton Island seen from the same location as the previous image. The island is just less than 6 km (3.7 mi) offshore.
30.
Antongil Bay
–
Helodranon Antongila, more commonly called Antongil Bay in English, is the largest bay in Madagascar. It is at the end of the east coast of the island. The bay is about 60 kilometres long and 30 kilometres wide, at the northern end of the bay is the island of Nosy Mangabe and the town of Maroantsetra. In the southern end of the bay is found the town of Mananara Avaratra and the mouth of the Mananara River
Antongil Bay
–
Antongil Bay
31.
Bay of Arguin
–
The Bay of Arguin is a bay on the Atlantic shore of Mauritania. It is located south of Cap Blanc, north of Cap Timiris, the bay contains three islands, including Arguin and Tidra, as well as numerous sandbanks. Smaller bays includes Dakhlet Nouadhibou in the north and Baie de Tanoudert in the east, other promontories includes Minou, Cap Sainte-Anne, Argun, Alzaz, one stream flowing only when the climate is partly wet, the Oued Chibka is in the northcentral part. Places by the bay includes Nouadhibou in the north, Arkeiss and Tel-Alloul to the east and Teichott, RGueiba, the bay would be first known in 1035 as Abdallah ibn Yasin founded a ribat in the island of Tidra and was the origin of the Almoravid Dynasty. The first European to visit the bay was Nuno Tristão in 1443, the area is also known as the place where the French French frigate Méduse was wrecked in 1816. Satellite photographs of the bay by the European Space Agency
Bay of Arguin
–
Map of the bay showing the Banc d'Arguin National Park
32.
Bight of Benin
–
The Bight of Benin or Bay of Benin is a bight in the Gulf of Guinea area on the western African coast. It extends eastward for about 400 miles from Cape St. Paul to the Nun outlet of the Niger River, to the east it is continued by the Bight of Bonny. The Republic of Benin and this bight were both named after the Benin Empire, on December 25,2003, UTAGE Flight 141 crashed in the Bight. Historical associations with the Atlantic slave trade led to the becoming known as the Slave Coast. The Bight of Benin has an association with slavery, its shore being known as the Slave Coast. An old rhyme says, Beware, beware the Bight of the Benin, a variation goes, Beware beware, the Bight of Benin, one comes out, where fifty went in. This is said to be a jingle or sea shanty about the risk of malaria in the Bight. A third version of the couplet is Beware and take care of the Bight of Benin, theres one comes out for forty goes in. The author Philip McCutchan has written a book titled Beware, beware the Bight of Benin, a short story by Elizabeth Coatsworth, The Forgotten Island, deals with a treasure from Benin. A variation of the rhyme is also mentioned, in Patrick OBrians novel The Commodore, Dr. Maturin recites the rhyme when he learned of his ships destination. Commodore Aubrey checks him, telling him it is bad luck to say out loud on the way in. The rhyme is also quoted in chapter Context of John Brunners novel Stand on Zanzibar. The Bight of Benin is mentioned throughout the novel, david Bramhalls trilogy The Greatest Cape also mentions the rhyme, one of the characters in the first volume, The Black Joke, having been a pirate and a slaver. In 2007, a collection of stories entitled The Bight of Benin. The stories are set in Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria, avant-garde musician Bucketheads song The Bight of Benin off the album Albino Slug is named after this area. Paul to the Nun outlet of River Niger
Bight of Benin
–
Map of the Gulf of Guinea showing the Bight of Benin.
33.
Bight of Biafra
–
The Bight of Biafra is a bight off the West African coast, in the easternmost part of the Gulf of Guinea. The Bight of Biafra extends east of the Bight of Benin from the River Delta of the Niger in the north until it reaches Cape Lopez in Gabon. Besides the Niger River, other rivers reaching the bay are the Cross River, Wouri River, Calabar River, Ndian, Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong River, Ntem, Mbia, Mbini, Muni and Komo River. The main islands in the Bay are Bioko and Príncipe, other important islands are Ilhéu Bom Bom, Ilhéu Caroço, Elobey Grande, countries located at the Bight of Bonny are Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon. The area would, in different steps, merge further via the 12 May 1893 Niger Coast Protectorate,1 January 1900, on 28 February 1906 made into the Colony, from 1 January 1914, it was part of Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. The bight was renamed within independent Nigeria in 1972, when after the Biafran War, the Nigerian government wanted to remove the name of the term Biafra considered secessionist
Bight of Biafra
–
Map of the Gulf of Guinea showing the Bight of Bonny.
34.
Bombetoka Bay
–
Bombetoka Bay is a bay on the northwestern coast of Madagascar near the city of Mahajanga, where the Betsiboka River flows into the Mozambique Channel. Along the northwest coast of Madagascar, mangroves and coral reefs partner up to create dynamic, the mangrove forests capture river-borne sediment that would smother coastal reefs, while reefs buffer the mangroves from pounding surf. Near water, shrimp and rice farming are common, while coffee plantations abound in the surrounding terrain and these changes have adversely affected agriculture, fisheries, and transportation for one of Madagascar’s largest ports Bombetoka Bay, Madagascar
Bombetoka Bay
–
Betsiboka River estuary and Bombetoka Bay seen from space. (North is to the right.)
Bombetoka Bay
–
Bombetoka Bay seen by Spot satellite.
35.
Dakhlet Nouadhibou
–
Dakhlet Nouadhibou is a bay on the Atlantic shore of Mauritania. The bay is open towards the south and contains numerous shoals and it is limited by the Cap Blanc headland on its western side. In French maps the inner bay is known as Baie de lArchimède, currently the Dakhlet Nouadhibou Region, an administrative division of Mauritania, is named after it
Dakhlet Nouadhibou
–
Dakhlet Nouadhibou ولاية داخلت نواذيبو
36.
Elands Bay
–
Elands Bay is a town in South Africa, situated in the Western Cape Province, on the Atlantic Ocean, at 32°18′S 18°19′E. The town is located about 220 kilometres north from Cape Town and it is a major surfing location and is also noted for its caves, which have a number of rock paintings. In 2009, Heritage Western Cape declared the Elands Bay Cave and most of Baboon Point, on which it is located, Elands Bay along with much of this coastline is an important bird habitat. The local wetland, Verloerenvlei, is a Ramsar wetland
Elands Bay
–
Baboon Point, Elands Bay
Elands Bay
–
Cave at Eland's Bay
37.
False Bay
–
False Bay is a body of water defined by Cape Hangklip and the Cape Peninsula in the extreme south-west of South Africa. The eastern and western shores of the bay are rocky and even mountainous. The highest peak visible across False Bay is Du Toits Peak near Paarl, the northern shore, however, is defined by a very long, curving, sandy beach. This sandy, northern perimeter of the bay is the edge of the area known as the Cape Flats. The bay is 30 kilometres wide at its widest point, some 20 kilometres across the Cape Flats, to the north, there is a smaller, C-shaped bay — Table Bay — with Robben Island guarding its entrance. The central districts of Cape Town lie around Table Bay, devils Peak, Table Mountain, Lions Head and Signal Hill form an amphitheatre along the western edge of the Cape Flats. Suburbs of Greater Cape Town now stretch right across the Cape Flats from Table Bay to the shores of False Bay, bartolomeu Dias in 1488 first referred to the bay as the gulf between the mountains. The name False Bay was applied early on by sailors who confused the bay with Table Bay to the north, according to Schirmer, the confusion arose because sailors returning from the east initially confused Cape Point and Cape Hangklip, which are somewhat similar in form. Hangklip was known to the early Portuguese seafarers as Cabo Falso, or False Cape, the climate is Mediterranean, with warm, dry summers and cool, damp winters. In winter gales and storms from the northwest are common and can be ferocious, False Bay is exposed to southeasterly winds in summer and its waters are approximately 6 °C warmer than those of Table Bay, owing to the influence of the warm Agulhas Current. Fishing is good in False Bay and at times there are schools of snoek. Angling from the shores to either side of the bay is very popular. Scores of fishermen have been away and drowned over the years. Sailing is also a recreational activity in False Bay. The killer waves mentioned earlier can wreak havoc with moored sailboats, especially if the moorings are chain based, there is a small granite island in the bay called Seal Island, which is one of the main breeding sites for the Cape fur seal. The seals attract many great white sharks and some of the biggest sharks ever seen have been spotted in these waters and these sharks are famous for the manner in which they breach the surface of the water while attacking seals, sometimes jumping entirely out of the ocean. Despite this, swimming, surfing, yachting, scuba diving and so on are popular pastimes around the bay, at such as Muizenberg, Kalk Bay, Smitswinkel Bay, Strand. Shark attacks are uncommon but by no means unknown, with two deaths since 2010
False Bay
–
The Cape Peninsula seen from the West, False Bay (right) and Table Bay, with
Robben Island (left). Compilation produced by NASA from
Landsat and
SRTM data.
False Bay
–
Eastern False Bay coast aerial view looking somewhat south of east: Gordon's Bay (left) to Cape Hangklip (right)
False Bay
–
Surfers Corner; Surfspot at
Muizenberg in the False Bay
False Bay
–
A historic
9 inch gun overlooking False Bay installed at Simon's Town in the 1800s by the
British to defend the bay.
38.
Gulf of Aden
–
The Gulf of Aden is a gulf located in the Arabian Sea between Yemen, on the south coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and Somalia in the Horn of Africa. In the northwest, it connects with the Red Sea through the Bab-el-Mandeb strait and it shares its name with the port city of Aden in Yemen, which forms the northern shore of the gulf. Historically, the Gulf of Aden was known as The Gulf of Berbera, however, as the city of Aden grew during the colonial era, the name of Gulf of Aden was popularised. The waterway is part of the important Suez Canal shipping route between the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian Sea in the Indian Ocean with 21,000 ships crossing the gulf annually. The name of the Gulf was inspired by the former British Crown Colony city of Aden, the Somali names are Gacanka Cadmeed or Gacanka Saylac. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Gulf of Aden as follows, on the Northwest – The eastern limit of the Gulf of Tadjoura. On the East – The meridian of Cape Guardafui, the temperature of the Gulf of Aden varies between 15 °C and 28 °C, depending on the season and the appearance of monsoons. The Gulf of Aden is a waterway for shipping, especially for Persian Gulf oil. Approximately 11 percent of the worlds petroleum passes through the Gulf of Aden on its way to the Suez Canal or to regional refineries. The main ports along the gulf are Aden in Yemen, Djibouti City in Djibouti, in earlier history, the city of Crater, located just south of the modern city of Aden, was an important port in regional trade. In the late 2000s, the gulf evolved into a hub of pirate activity, by 2013, attacks in the waters had steadily declined due to active private security and international navy patrols. India receives USD50 billion in imports and sends USD60 billion in exports through this area annually, because of this and for the sake of protecting the trade of other countries, India keeps a warship escort in this area. Also see Piracy in Gulf of Aden, a geologically young body of water, the Gulf of Aden has a unique biodiversity that contains many varieties of fish, coral, seabirds and invertebrates. This rich ecological diversity has benefited from a lack of pollution during the history of human habitation around the gulf. However, environmental groups fear that the lack of an effort to control pollution may jeopardize the gulfs ecosphere. Whales, dolphins, and dugongs were common before being severely reduced by commercial hunts, including by mass illegal hunts by Soviet Union
Gulf of Aden
–
A
dhow in the Gulf of Aden.
Gulf of Aden
–
Gulf of Aden
39.
Gulf of Guinea
–
The Gulf of Guinea is the northeasternmost part of the tropical Atlantic Ocean between Cape Lopez in Gabon, north and west to Cape Palmas in Liberia. The intersection of the Equator and Prime Meridian is in the gulf, among the many rivers that drain into the Gulf of Guinea are the Niger and the Volta. The coastline on the gulf includes the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Bonny, the Niger River in particular deposited organic sediments out to sea over millions of years which became crude oil. The origin of the name Guinea is thought to be an area in the region, bovill gives a thorough description, The name Guinea is usually said to have been a corrupt form of the name Ghana, picked up by the Portuguese in the Maghrib. The present writer finds this unacceptable, the name Guinea has been in use both in the Maghrib and in Europe long before Prince Henrys time. A passage in Leo points to Guinea having been a form of Jenne, less famous than Ghana but nevertheless for many centuries famed in the Maghrib as a great market. The relevant passage reads, The Kingdom of Ghinea. called by the merchants of our nation Gheneoa, by the inhabitants thereof Genni and by the Portugals. But it seems probable that Guinea derives from aguinaou, the Berber for Negro. Marrakech has a gate, built in the century, called the Bab Aguinaou. The modern application of the name Guinea to the coast dates only from 1481, the name Guinea is still attached to the names of three countries in Africa, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, and Equatorial Guinea, as well as New Guinea in Melanesia. The main river shedding its waters in the gulf is the Niger River, the Gulf of Guinea contains a number of islands, the largest of which are in a southwest-northeast chain, forming part of the Cameroon line of volcanoes. Annobón, also known as Pagalu or Pigalu, is an island that is part of Equatorial Guinea, bobowasi Island is an island off the west coast of Africa in the Gulf of Guinea that is part of Western region Ghana. Bioko is an island off the west coast of Africa in the Gulf of Guinea that is part of Equatorial Guinea, corisco is an island belonging to Equatorial Guinea. Elobey Grande and Elobey Chico are two small islands belonging to Equatorial Guinea, São Tomé and Príncipe is a Portuguese-speaking island nation in the Gulf of Guinea that became independent from Portugal in 1975. It is located off the western equatorial coast of Africa and consists of two islands, São Tomé and Príncipe and they are located about 140 kilometres apart and about 250 and 225 kilometres, respectively, off the northwestern coast of Gabon. Both islands are part of a volcanic mountain range. São Tomé, the southern island, is situated just north of the Equator. Media related to Gulf of Guinea at Wikimedia Commons The Gulf of Guinea Commission - CGG - GGC
Gulf of Guinea
–
Map of the Gulf of Guinea, showing the chain of islands formed by the
Cameroon line of volcanoes.
Gulf of Guinea
–
Satellite imagery of Gulf of Guinea states.
40.
Gulf of Sirte
–
Gulf of Sirte, or Gulf of Sidra after the port of Sidra, is a body of water in the Mediterranean Sea on the northern coast of Libya. Historically it has also known as the Great Sirte or Greater Syrtis. The Gulf of Sirte has been a centre for tuna fishing in the Mediterranean for centuries. It gives its name to the city of Sirte situated on its western side, the gulf measures 439 kilometres from the promontory of Boreum on the East side to the promontory of Cephalae on the West. The greatest extension of the inland is 177 kilometres land inward. Syrtis is referred to in the New Testament of the Bible where the Apostle Paul relates being sent in chains to Rome to stand trial before Caesar Nero, in ancient literature, the Syrtes were notorious sandbanks which sailors always took pains to avoid. The local climate features frequent calms and a more than usually powerful north wind, the shoreline between Cyrene in the east and Carthage in the west featured few ports. Ancient writers frequently mention the sandbanks and their vicinity as dangerous for shipping, the Syrtes maiores are unusually tidal and feature a strong clockwise current, at the rising tide, which then switches when the tide ebbs. This feature may explain the curious corkscrew shape in the area on the Peutinger Table, the landward side was a featureless plain which contrasted with the fertility of the rest of Tripolitania, to the west. Ancient writers mention sandstorms and serpents in this area, furthermore, the ancient textual evidence is not unambiguous in its condemnation of the Syrtes. Plutarch gives a much less melodramatic account of Cato’s march than Strabo’s, saying that it took seven days. As in Cato, they do not avoid the area, and their infamous reputation is, however, found in Roman poetry, from Virgil on. The information in this section is taken from The Syrtes between East and West by Josephine Crawley Quinn. First Battle of Sirte, World War II naval battle between Regia Marina and Royal Navy in December 1941, second Battle of Sirte, World War II naval battle between Regia Marina and Royal Navy in March 1942. The gulf was generally referred to by the US military in those times as Gulf of Sidra, gaddafi declared it The Line of Death, the crossing of which would invite a military response. Gaddafi claimed it to be a sea, not just a coastal area. In response the United States authorized Naval exercises in the Gulf of Sidra to conduct Freedom of Navigation operations, on 21 March 1973, Libyan fighter planes intercepted and fired on a U. S. Air Force C-130 conducting signals intelligence off the Libyan coast. During the encounter, two Libyan Mirage fighters signaled the C-130 to follow them toward Libya and land, prompting the American plane to take evasive action, the C-130 received cannon fire from the Libyan fighters as it fled, but was able to escape by using cloud cover
Gulf of Sirte
–
Satellite image of the Gulf of Sirte (2007)
Gulf of Sirte
–
British cruisers
Cleopatra (making smoke) and
Euryalus (foreground) moving into action during the Second Battle of Sirte in 1942
41.
Gulf of Suez
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The northern end of the Red Sea bifurcates into the Sinai Peninsula, creating the Gulf of Suez in the west and the Gulf of Aqaba to the east. The gulf was formed within a young but now inactive Gulf of Suez Rift rift basin. It stretches some 300 kilometres north by northwest, terminating at the Egyptian city of Suez, along the mid-line of the gulf is the boundary between Africa and Asia. The entrance of the gulf lies atop the mature Gemsa oil, the gulf occupies the northwestern arm of the Red Sea between Africa and the Sinai Peninsula. It is the arm of the triple junction rift system. The length of the gulf, from its mouth at the Strait of Gubal to its head at the city of Suez, is 195 miles, and it varies in width from 12 to 20 miles. The gulf sedimentary basin stratigraphic section consists of prerift Paleozoic to Oligocene clastic rocks and carbonates, three large oil fields are in the gulf, the El Morgan discovered in 1964, Belayim discovered in 1955, and the October Field discovered in 1977. The October Field produces from the Cretaceous Nubia Formation, the Upper Cretaceous Nezzazat Formation, the Miocene Nukhul Formation, satellite photographs of the Gulf, and of the Suez Canal
Gulf of Suez
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Visible bodies are the Gulf of Suez (west, left in photo), the
Gulf of Aqaba (east, right in photo), and the
Red Sea (south, bottom left in photo).
Gulf of Suez
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Gulf of Suez
Gulf of Suez
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Northernmost part of Gulf of Suez with town
Suez on the map of 1856
42.
Gulf of Tadjoura
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The Gulf of Tadjoura, is a gulf or basin of the Indian Ocean in the Horn of Africa. It lies south of the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, or the entrance to the Red Sea, the gulf has many fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters. Most of its coastline is the territory of Djibouti, except for a stretch on the southern shore. The Gulf other marine habitats include sea grass beds, salt pans, the sale will however follow any occupation. The area of the gulf is 347 km2, the length is 64 km and the width varies from 26 km. The gulf is relatively shallow with the depth decreasing from the entrance to the gulf to the continent. The coast is mostly sloping, there are abundant sandy dunes, with palm trees. The southern shores are smooth. At the entrance of the Gulf is the group of islands of Moucha. At the bottom of the Gulf, separated only by a neck of land, Ghoubbet-el-Kharab. On the West – The meridian of Ghoubbet-el-Kharab, the Gulf of Tadjoura is home to many small islands. Geographically the biggest island in the Gulf of Tadjoura is Moucha Island, the wildlife of the Gulf of Tadjoura is diverse, and entirely unique due to the gulfs geographic distribution. The Gulf of Tadjoura has hosted some of the most magnificent marine fauna and flora, from corals, to dugongs, Gulf of Tadjoura is a diverse cradle for many species who depend on each other for survival. The Gulf of Tadjoura is far more densely populated on the Djiboutian shore, Tadjoura is beautifully surrounded by the green Goda Mountains. The hills of this mountain are 1700 meters, due to coral reefs, the Gulf of Tadjoura is a heaven for divers and snorkelers. It attracts 40% of foreign tourists visiting Djibouti, passenger transport on the gulf includes a number of ferry lines which connect the following ports, Djibouti City, Tadjoura and Obock. Media related to Gulf of Tadjoura at Wikimedia Commons
Gulf of Tadjoura
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Gulf of Tadjoura الخليج للدمار
43.
Gulf of Zula
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The Gulf of Zula, also known as Annesley Bay, Baia di Arafali or Zula Bahir Selat’ē, is a body of water on the Eritrean coastline on the Red Sea. The Gulf lies 15 km to the east of Massawa, near the midpoint of the Eritrean coast and it is located between the Foro Subregion and the Buri Peninsula of the Ghelaelo Subregion, both in the countrys Northern Red Sea region. On the west side of the gulf are two mountains, Jebel Gedem 3,034 ft and Mount Arbalu 7,887 ft. Between the two, the Aligede River flows, with the village of Zula on its right bank, the coast of the gulf is fringed with mangroves on either side of the mouth of the river. The egyptologist Henry Salt identified Zula as the ancient archaeological site of Adulis, near the head of the gulf is the village of Arafali, beside the extinct Dola Volcano 528 ft. From here, several roads radiate into the surrounding areas, to the east of the gulf lies the Buri Peninsula. This generally low-lying, undulating area is composed of larva flows at the southern end, fringing reefs border much of this coast. About 12 mi beyond Arafali is Dolphin Cove, with a low, flat beach,9 mi further on is the narrow Melita Bay with the village of Macanille at its head. Here there are coastal reefs and mangrove swamps, the Gulf of Zula is a deep water bay, formed as part of the complex rifting system that occurred in these parts where three tectonic plates meet. The rift continues inland to the Danakil Depression, a sandy plain lying 400 ft below sea level, the gulf also marks the territorial division between the Saho people and the Afar people
Gulf of Zula
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Photograph taken by 10th Field Company Royal Engineers during the
British Expedition to Abyssinia.
Gulf of Zula
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The Gulf of Zula and
Buri Peninsula.
44.
Henties Bay
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Henties Bay is a coastal city in the Erongo Region of western Namibia. It is located 70 km north of Swakopmund and is an important holiday settlement,70 kilometres to the north of the town is the seal colony of Cape Cross. The town has about 8,000 inhabitants and owns 121 square kilometres of land, the mayor of Henties Bay is Aila Haufiku. Bartolomeu Dias sailed along the Atlantic coast in 1488, near the area of todays Henties Bay he discovered such an abundance of fish that he named this coastline Praia das Sardinhas, Coast of Fish. The fresh water source was first discovered by Schutztruppe soldiers in 1886, in 1920, a minerals prospector stayed overnight. After tasting the water he was said to be healed from an affliction, the namesake of the town is major Hendrik Henty Stefanus van der Merwe who discovered the place in 1929 while looking for water. He had been hunting a rhinoceros in the hinterland of the Namibian coast near the Brandberg in order to collect a reward from a museum in Pennsylvania that was in search of a rhino skeleton. After shooting the rhino and scraping meat from the bones, water resources of the expedition diminished and forced the party to load the decomposing carcass and they chose to head into the direction of the Atlantic coast and reached it close to Cape Cross. From there van der Merwe and his fellows searched southwards for the mouth of Omaruru River, a few miles south of the mouth they discovered a deep sand valley with reed grass growing in it, advertising the presence of fresh water. Van der Merwe liked the place and after delivering the bones and collecting his reward, the place became known as Henty se baai and developed into a holiday hideout, mainly because of the abundance of fish at this spot. In 1951 the South–West Africa Administration mandated to South Africa, proclaimed erven in the Omaruru riverbed that were available for rent, the first shop was established during that time. A lighthouse was erected to guide ships along the dangerous Namibian coast, in the 1960s mining holes were dug after diamonds had been found in the area on a few occasions. A few years mining was abandoned due to lack of success. In 1966 it was decided that the riverbed must not be settled in, a hotel was built one year later, and the town began to develop. The town is predominantly a tourist destination for anglers and 4x4 enthusiasts and its property market has expanded significantly since the late 1990s, particularly for upmarket holiday accommodation. Henties Bay is situated in the National West Coast Recreation Area but there are few restrictions, particularly for driving off-road on the beach and this lures tourists into the area but puts a burden on the sensitive environment. Specifically in danger are the fields which take decades to recover from tracks cut through them. Henties Bay is governed by a council that currently has seven seats
Henties Bay
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Henties Bay
Afrikaans: Hentiesbaai
German: Hentiesbucht
Henties Bay
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Seal
45.
Kalawy Bay
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Kalawy Bay is a resort on the Red Sea in the Red Sea Governorate of southeastern Egypt. The Eastern Desert region of the Sahara begins behind the resort on the west, kalawy Bay is a newly built and tourist dominated holiday village located in a small bay of the same name on the Red Sea. The settlement consists of a complex, located 32 kilometers south of Safaga. A short distance in front of the beach are some of the reefs of the sea
Kalawy Bay
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Kalawy Bay
Kalawy Bay
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Eastern Desert near Kalawy Bay.
