1.
International Union for Conservation of Nature
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The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying. IUCNs mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of resources is equitable. Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to equality, poverty alleviation. Unlike other international NGOs, IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation and it tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through lobbying and partnerships. The organization is best known to the public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List. IUCN has a membership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organizations, some 11,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs approximately 1000 full-time staff in more than 60 countries and its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several conventions on nature conservation. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its relations with the business sector have caused controversy. It was previously called the International Union for Protection of Nature, establishment In 1947, the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature organised an international conference on the protection of nature in Brunnen. It is considered to be the first government-organized non-governmental organization, the initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist Julian Huxley. At the time of its founding IUPN was the international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation Early years. Its secretariat was located in Brussels and its first work program focused on saving species and habitats, increasing and applying knowledge, advancing education, promoting international agreements and promoting conservation. Providing a solid base for conservation action was the heart of all activities. IUPN and UNESCO were closely associated and they jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature. In preparation for this conference a list of endangered species was drawn up for the first time
2.
Bass Harbor Head Light
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Bass Harbor Head Lighthouse is a lighthouse located within Acadia National Park in the southwest portion of Mount Desert Island, Maine, marking the entrance to Bass Harbor and Blue Hill Bay. The history of Bass Harbor Head Light dates to 1855, when it was determined there was sufficient reason for a lighthouse at the mouth of Bass Harbor. In 1885, the U. S. Congress appropriated $5,000 for construction of the lighthouse, in 1876, construction was completed on a fog bell and tower, since removed. A much larger 4, 000-pound bell was placed inside the tower in 1898, the house of the lightkeeper remains in its original configuration with the exception of a 10-foot addition that was added in 1900. The lighthouse was added to the National Register of Historic Places as Bass Harbor Head Light Station on January 21,1988, in 1902, an oil storage house constructed of brick was built 205 feet northwest of the lighthouse. Bass Harbors fifth order Fresnel lens was replaced in 1902 with a fourth order. This lens was manufactured by the French company Henry-Lepaute and this lens remains in service today. Today, the house is a residence for a local Coast Guard member. Tourists can get close to the bell and light via a concrete path, there is a short walk which takes one to a series of wooden steps that lead down onto the many granite boulders that provide a great view of the harbor side of the lighthouse. John Thurston John Rick John Wilson Charles B, gilley James L. Wilson C. F. Chase William T. Holbrook Willis Dolliver Joseph M. Gray Elmer Reed Eugene L
3.
Hancock County, Maine
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Hancock County is a county located in the U. S. state of Maine. As of the 2010 census, the population was 54,418, the county was incorporated on June 25,1789 and named for John Hancock, the first governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The Commissioners are Antonio Blasi, Steven Joy, Percy Brown, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 2,345 square miles, of which 1,587 square miles is land and 758 square miles is water. The population density was 33 people per square mile, there were 33,945 housing units at an average density of 21 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 97. 61% White,0. 25% Black or African American,0. 37% Native American,0. 38% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 20% from other races, and 1. 15% from two or more races. 0. 65% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,27. 90% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 60% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the family size was 2.81. In the county, the population was out with 22. 30% under the age of 18,7. 40% from 18 to 24,27. 50% from 25 to 44,26. 80% from 45 to 64. The median age was 41 years, for every 100 females there were 95.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.10 males, the median income for a household in the county was $35,811, and the median income for a family was $43,216. Males had an income of $30,461 versus $22,647 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,809, about 7. 00% of families and 10. 20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11. 90% of those under age 18 and 9. 50% of those age 65 or over. The 1990 Census counted 46,948, though the 1998 population estimate is 49,932.1 The gender division was 22,996 males,23,952 females in 1989. Of the 31,475 persons over 25 years old, 83% had a school degree or higher. Twenty-one percent had a degree or higher. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 54,418 people,24,221 households, the population density was 34.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 40,184 housing units at a density of 25.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 96. 9% white,0. 8% Asian,0. 4% American Indian,0. 4% black or African American,0. 3% from other races, and 1. 2% from two or more races
4.
Knox County, Maine
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Knox County is a county located in the state of Maine, in the United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 39,736, the county is named for American Revolutionary War general and Secretary of War Henry Knox, who lived in the county from 1795 until his death in 1806. The county was established on April 1,1860, and is the most recent county to be created in Maine and it was carved from parts of Waldo and Lincoln counties. The Union Fair, started in 1868, began as the efforts of the North Knox Agricultural and Horticultural Society. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,144 square miles. It is the second-smallest county in Maine by land area and it was originally part of the Waldo Patent. The population density was 108 people per square mile, there were 21,612 housing units at an average density of 59 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 98. 28% White,0. 24% Black or African American,0. 22% Native American,0. 36% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,0. 12% from other races, and 0. 78% from two or more races. 0. 57% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,25. 4% were of English,12. 2% Irish,11. 7% United States or American,7. 5% German and 5. 7% French ancestry according to Census 2000. 97. 1% spoke English and 1. 5% French as their first language,29. 00% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the family size was 2.83. In the county, the population was out with 22. 40% under the age of 18,6. 30% from 18 to 24,27. 40% from 25 to 44,26. 70% from 45 to 64. The median age was 41 years, for every 100 females there were 95.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.00 males, the median income for a household in the county was $36,774, and the median income for a family was $43,819. Males had an income of $30,704 versus $22,382 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,981, about 6. 40% of families and 10. 10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11. 90% of those under age 18 and 8. 00% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 39,736 people,17,258 households, the population density was 108.8 inhabitants per square mile. There were 23,744 housing units at a density of 65.0 per square mile
5.
Maine
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Maine is the northernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Maine is the 39th most extensive and the 41st most populous of the U. S. states and territories and it is bordered by New Hampshire to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the north. Maine is the easternmost state in the contiguous United States, and it is known for its jagged, rocky coastline, low, rolling mountains, heavily forested interior, and picturesque waterways, and also its seafood cuisine, especially clams and lobster. There is a continental climate throughout the state, even in areas such as its most populous city of Portland. For thousands of years, indigenous peoples were the inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine. At the time of European arrival in what is now Maine, the first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 on Saint Croix Island, by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. The first English settlement was the short-lived Popham Colony, established by the Plymouth Company in 1607, as Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived. Loyalist and Patriot forces contended for Maines territory during the American Revolution, Maine was part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts until 1820, when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to become an independent state. On March 15,1820, it was admitted to the Union as the 23rd state under the Missouri Compromise, there is no definitive explanation for the origin of the name Maine, but the most likely origin is the name given by early explorers after a province in France. Whatever the origin, the name was fixed for English settlers in 1665 when the English Kings Commissioners ordered that the Province of Maine be entered from then on in official records. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland. Attempts to uncover the history of the name of Maine began with James Sullivans 1795 History of the District of Maine. He made the allegation that the Province of Maine was a compliment to the queen of Charles I, Henrietta Maria. MAINE appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 in reference to the county of Dorset, the view generally held among British place name scholars is that Mayne in Dorset is Brythonic, corresponding to modern Welsh maen, plural main or meini. Some early spellings are, MAINE1086, MEINE1200, MEINES1204, mason had served with the Royal Navy in the Orkney Islands where the chief island is called Mainland, a possible name derivation for these English sailors. Initially, several tracts along the coast of New England were referred to as Main or Maine, Maine is the only state whose name has exactly one syllable. The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and Penobscot, who had a loose confederacy. European contact with what is now called Maine started around 1200 CE when Norwegians interacted with the native Penobscot in present-day Hancock County, most likely through trade
6.
Bar Harbor, Maine
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Bar Harbor is a town on Mount Desert Island in Hancock County, Maine, United States. As of the 2010 census, its population is 5,235, Bar Harbor is a popular tourist destination in the Down East region of Maine and home to the College of the Atlantic, Jackson Laboratory, and MDI Biological Laboratory. Prior to a catastrophic 1947 fire the town was a summer colony for the super-affluent elite. Bar Harbor is home to the largest parts of Acadia National Park, including Cadillac Mountain, the highest point within twenty-five miles of the coastline of the Eastern United States. The town is served by the Hancock County-Bar Harbor Airport, which has flights on Cape Air and PenAir to Boston, as well as flights to Newark and Portland. The town of Bar Harbor was founded on the northeast shore of Mount Desert Island, the Wabanaki seasonally fished, hunted and gathered berries, clams, and other shellfish in the area. They spoke of Bar Harbor as Man-es-aydik or Ah-baysauk, leaving piles of shells as evidence of this abundance. In early September 1604, French explorer Samuel de Champlain ran aground on a rock ledge believed to be just off Otter Cliffs, Champlain named the island Isles des Monts Deserts, meaning island of barren mountains—now called Mount Desert Island, the largest in Maine. The community was first settled by Europeans in 1763 by Israel Higgins and John Thomas and incorporated on February 23,1796 as Eden, after Sir Richard Eden, early industries included fishing, lumbering and shipbuilding. With the best soil on Mount Desert Island, it also developed agriculture, in the 1840s, its rugged maritime scenery attracted the Hudson River School and Luminism artists Thomas Cole, Frederic Edwin Church, William Hart and Fitz Henry Lane. Inspired by their paintings, journalists, sportsmen and rusticators followed, agamont House, the first hotel in Eden, was established in 1855 by Tobias Roberts. Birch Point, the first summer estate, was built in 1868 by Alpheus Hardy, by 1880, there were 30 hotels, including the Mira Monte Inn, a historic landmark that would later survive a massive fire, in 1947. Tourists were arriving by train and ferry to the Gilded Age resort that would rival Newport, a glimpse of their lifestyles was available from the Shore Path, a walkway skirting waterfront lawns. Yachting, garden parties at the Pot & Kettle Club, others enjoyed horse-racing at Robin Hood Park-Morrell Park. President William Howard Taft played golf in 1910 at the Kebo Valley Golf Club. On March 3,1918, Eden was renamed Bar Harbor, after the sand and gravel bar, visible at low tide, the name would become synonymous with elite wealth. It was the birthplace of vice-president Nelson Rockefeller on July 8,1908, Bar Harbor was also used for naval practices during World War II. More specifically, Bald Porcupine Island was used to fire live torpedoes, on October 10,1944 the submarine USS Piper fired 12 live torpedoes at the island
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service
9.
National park
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A national park is a park in use for conservation purposes. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns, although individual nations designate their own national parks differently, there is a common idea, the conservation of wild nature for posterity and as a symbol of national pride. An international organization, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, although Yellowstone was not officially termed a national park in its establishing law, it was always termed such in practice and is widely held to be the first and oldest national park in the world. The first area to use national park in its legislation was the USs Mackinac Island. Australias Royal National Park, established in 1879, was the third official national park. In 1895 ownership of Mackinac Island was transferred to the State of Michigan as a state park, as a result, Australias Royal National Park is by some considerations the second oldest national park now in existence. The largest national park in the meeting the IUCN definition is the Northeast Greenland National Park. According to the IUCN,6,555 national parks worldwide met its criteria in 2006, IUCN is still discussing the parameters of defining a national park. National parks are almost always open to visitors, in 1971, these criteria were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. In 1810, the English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a sort of property, in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive. It was known as Hot Springs Reservation, but no authority was established. Federal control of the area was not clearly established until 1877, John Muir is today referred to as the Father of the National Parks due to his work in Yosemite. He published two articles in The Century Magazine, which formed the base for the subsequent legislation. President Abraham Lincoln signed an Act of Congress on July 1,1864, ceding the Yosemite Valley, according to this bill, private ownership of the land in this area was no longer possible. The state of California was designated to manage the park for use, resort. Leases were permitted for up to ten years and the proceeds were to be used for conservation, a public discussion followed this first legislation of its kind and there was a heated debate over whether the government had the right to create parks. The perceived mismanagement of Yosemite by the Californian state was the reason why Yellowstone at its establishment six years later was put under national control, in 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the United States first national park, being also the worlds first national park. In some European countries, however, national protection and nature reserves already existed, such as Drachenfels, Yellowstone was part of a federally governed territory
10.
Mount Desert Island
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Mount Desert Island, in Hancock County, Maine, is the largest island off the coast of Maine. With an area of 108 square miles it is the 6th largest island in the contiguous United States and it is the second-largest island on the Eastern seaboard, behind Long Island and ahead of Marthas Vineyard. According to the 2010 census, the island has a population of 10,615. The island is home to numerous summer colonies such as Northeast Harbor. Current notable summer residents include George Mitchell, Tim Robbins, David Rockefeller, Susan Sarandon, some natives stress the second syllable, in the French fashion, although many others pronounce it in a fashion similar to the English name of a landscape devoid of vegetation. Deep shell heaps indicate American Indian encampments dating back 6,000 years in Acadia National Park, the Wabanaki Indians knew Mount Desert Island as Pemetic, the sloping land. They built bark-covered conical shelters, and traveled in exquisitely designed birch bark canoes, historical notes record that the Wabanaki wintered in interior forests and spent their summers near the coast. Archeological evidence suggests the opposite pattern, in order to avoid harsh inland winters and to take advantage of salmon runs upstream, American Indians wintered on the coast, the first meeting between the people of Pemetic and the Europeans is a matter of conjecture. But it was a Frenchman, Samuel de Champlain, who made the first important contribution to the record of Mount Desert Island. Champlain led an expedition from the St. Croix Settlement and he was tasked with exploring the coast in a patache with twelve sailors and two American Indian guides. They were in search of a walled and wealthy American Indian city named Norumbega. On September 6,1604 the expedition crossed Frenchman Bay and sailed towards Otter Creek, during high tide the ship hit a ledge off Otter Cliff and while repairing a hole two American Indians boarded the ship as guides. Je l’ay nommée l’Isle des Monts-déserts, which translates to The mountain summits are all bare, I name it Isles des Monts Desert. In 1613, French Jesuits, welcomed by Indians, established the first French mission in America—Saint Sauveur Mission—on what is now Fernald Point, Saint Sauveur Mountain, overlooking the point, still bears the name of the mission. The French missionaries began to build a fort, plant their corn, two months later, on 2 July 1613, Captain Samuel Argall of the Colony of Virginia arrived on board the Treasurer and destroyed their mission. Three of the missionaries were killed and three were wounded, the rest of the company, some twenty in all, were taken prisoner. Argall took many of the prisoners to Jamestown and he eventually returned to Saint-Sauveur and cut down the cross the Jesuits had planted, replacing it with a Protestant version. He then set fire to the few buildings that were there and he then went on to burn the remaining French buildings on Saint Croix Island and Port Royal, Nova Scotia
11.
Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons
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Pierre Dugua de Mons was a French merchant, explorer and colonizer. A Calvinist, he was born in the Château de Mons, in Royan, Saintonge and he travelled to northeastern North America for the first time in 1599 with Pierre de Chauvin de Tonnetuit. Pierre Du Gua de Mons was born about 1558 in Saintonge, France to Guy and he fought for the cause of Henri IV during the religious wars in France. The king later awarded him a pension of 1,200 crowns. De Mons seems to have made several voyages to Canada including in 1600, in 1603, King Henry, granted Du Gua exclusive right to colonize lands in North America between 40°–60° North latitude. The King also gave Du Gua a monopoly in the fur trade for these territories and named him Lieutenant General for Acadia, in return, Du Gua promised to bring 60 new colonists each year. Entering Baie Française in June 1604, he and his settlers founded a colony on St. Croix Island, numerous settlers succumbed to the harsh winter climate and malnutrition disease as they exhausted the limited natural resources on the island. The colony moved to land on the south shore of Baie Française at Port-Royal in 1605. In 1606, Hendrick Lonck, the Dutch West India Company sea captain boarded two of Du Guas boats, and pillaged them for furs and munitions, the Port-Royal settlement survived and prospered somewhat until 1607 when other merchants protested the monopoly, which the King had to revoke. As a consequence, Du Gua and the settlers had to abandon the colony, Du Gua then turned his attention to the colony of Nouvelle-France in the St. Lawrence River valley, after ceding Port-Royal to Poutrincourt. He never came back to the New World but he sent Champlain to open a colony at Quebec in 1608, Henry IV appointed him as Governor of the Protestant city of Pons, Charente-Maritime from 1610 to 1617, when he retired. He died in 1628, in the castle of Ardenne in Fléac-sur-Seugne
12.
Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
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A close friend of George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and Thomas Jefferson, Lafayette was a key figure in the French Revolution of 1789 and the July Revolution of 1830. Born in Chavaniac, in the province of Auvergne in south central France and he followed its martial tradition, and was commissioned an officer at age 13. He became convinced that the American cause in its war was noble. There, he was made a general, however, the 19-year-old was initially not given troops to command. Wounded during the Battle of Brandywine, he managed to organize an orderly retreat. He served with distinction in the Battle of Rhode Island, in the middle of the war, he returned home to lobby for an increase in French support. He again sailed to America in 1780, and was given positions in the Continental Army. In 1781, troops in Virginia under his command blocked forces led by Cornwallis until other American, Lafayette returned to France and, in 1787, was appointed to the Assembly of Notables, which was convened in response to the fiscal crisis. He was elected a member of the Estates-General of 1789, where representatives met from the three orders of French society—the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. He helped write the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, after the storming of the Bastille, Lafayette was appointed commander-in-chief of the National Guard and tried to steer a middle course through the French Revolution. In August 1792, the radical factions ordered his arrest, fleeing through the Austrian Netherlands, he was captured by Austrian troops and spent more than five years in prison. Lafayette returned to France after Napoleon Bonaparte secured his release in 1797, after the Bourbon Restoration of 1814, he became a liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies, a position he held for most of the remainder of his life. During Frances July Revolution of 1830, Lafayette declined an offer to become the French dictator, instead, he supported Louis-Philippe as king, but turned against him when the monarch became autocratic. Lafayette died on 20 May 1834, and is buried in Picpus Cemetery in Paris, for his accomplishments in the service of both France and the United States, he is sometimes known as The Hero of the Two Worlds. Lafayettes lineage was likely one of the oldest and most distinguished in Auvergne and, perhaps, males of the Lafayette family enjoyed a reputation for courage and chivalry and were noted for their contempt for danger. One of Lafayettes early ancestors, Gilbert de Lafayette III, a Marshal of France, had been a companion-at-arms of Joan of Arcs army during the Siege of Orléans in 1429, according to legend, another ancestor acquired the crown of thorns during the Sixth Crusade. Lafayettes father likewise died on the battlefield, on 1 August 1759, Michel de Lafayette was struck by a cannonball while fighting a British-led coalition at the Battle of Minden in Westphalia. Lafayette became marquis and Lord of Chavaniac, but the estate went to his mother, in 1768, when Lafayette was 11, he was summoned to Paris to live with his mother and great-grandfather at the comtes apartments in Luxembourg Palace
13.
Mississippi River
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The Mississippi River is the chief river of the largest drainage system on the North American continent. Flowing entirely in the United States, it rises in northern Minnesota, with its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 31 U. S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge, the river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the way of life as first explorers, then settlers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. Formed from thick layers of the silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country. In recent years, the river has shown a shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta. The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe name for the river, see below in the History section for additional information. In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two measures of a rivers identity, one being the largest branch, and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the Ohio would be the branch of the Lower Mississippi. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch and its length of at least 3,745 mi is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon, and perhaps the Yangtze River among the longest rivers in the world. The source of this waterway is at Browers Spring,8,800 feet above sea level in southwestern Montana and this is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase Trans-Mississippi as used in the name of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, the New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway, the Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca,1,475 feet above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, however, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river
14.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
15.
Thousand Islands National Park
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Thousand Islands National Park is located on the 1000 Islands Parkway in the Thousand Islands Region of the Saint Lawrence River. The islands are actually the tops of ancient mountains. This region, the Frontenac Axis, connects the Canadian Shield from Algonquin Park in Ontario to the Adirondack Mountains in New York, the park consists of 21 islands plus many smaller islets,2 mainland properties and a visitor centre at Mallorytown, Ontario on the mainland. It is one of Canadas smallest national parks with an area of 9 square kilometres. Much of the park is accessible by boat. Trail systems can be found on the mainland along the 1000 Islands Parkway at Mallorytown Landing, Jones Creek, there are picnic, camping and oTENTik facilities on several islands and at Mallorytown Landing. Mallorytown Landing is a day use area offers a large parking, a boat ramp, several oTENTiks, picnic gazebos, play ground, animal exhibits, travelling exhibits. The Frontenac Arch Biosphere Reserve, in which the park is located, is known as being one of the highest areas of biodiversity in Canada. The first inhabitants of the area are thought to have been hunting and fishing peoples who arrived following the last glacial period approximately 10,000 years ago. Many artifacts have been found in the park, including a 2500-year-old pot that was found by a diver in 1979, pictographs are still visible on some shoreline cliffs despite damage due to acid rain and vandals. By the early 17th century, the Iroquois people had put up large summer encampments on the riverbanks from which they fished the rich waters. Around this time began to be visited by French explorers, fur traders. Following the American Revolution at the end of the 18th century, European settlers began moving into the area, a few Iroquois still returned to fish, but by the 1860s fish stocks were greatly depleted. During the War of 1812, the area of todays National Park was visited by both British and American warships, a British gunboat was sunk nearby and the preserved hull was raised in 1967. It now resides at the park, Martello towers were built in the area to defend the British from American invasion. Inside the park, Cedar Island, a small island visible from downtown Kingston, the park was established in 1904, the first Canadian national park east of the Rocky Mountains. It was called St. Lawrence Islands National Park until 2013, in 1997, the park was named one of the national parks with the highest levels of ecological impairment. Animals that inhabit this park are coyotes, deer, porcupines, beavers, foxes, skunks, raccoons, turkey vultures, rabbits, squirrels, chickadees
16.
Point Pelee National Park
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Point Pelee National Park is a national park in Essex County in southwestern Ontario, Canada where it extends into Lake Erie. The word pelée is French for bald, Point Pelee consists of a peninsula of land, mainly of marsh and woodland habitats, that tapers to a sharp point as it extends into Lake Erie. Middle Island, also part of Point Pelee National Park, was acquired in 2000 and is just north of the Canada–United States border in Lake Erie. Point Pelee is the southernmost point of mainland Canada, and is located on a foundation of sand, silt. This spit of land is more than seven kilometres long by 4.5 kilometres wide at its northern base. Established in 1918, Point Pelee was the first national park in Canada to be established for conservation and it was designated as a Ramsar site on 27 May 1987. Aboriginal people lived on Point Pelee for many years before European colonization, the largest archaeological site found at Point Pelee is thought to have been occupied between AD700 and 900. In 1790, Deputy Indian Agent Alexander McKee negotiated a treaty with Aboriginal communities that ceded a tract of land. The Caldwell First Nation Chippewa people, who inhabited Point Pelee, were not signatories of that treaty, however, the Crown did not realize this, and their land was ceded nonetheless. Subsequently, they were forced off their land, and Point Pelee remains unceded aboriginal land and this has been publicly acknowledged by the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Point Pelee was made a park in 1918 at the urging of birdwatchers and hunters. Commercial fishing continued in the park until 1969, Point Pelee was the only Canadian national park to allow hunting until duck hunting was ended in 1989. It forms the southernmost point in mainland Canada and is part of a bird and butterfly migration corridor over Lake Erie via Point Pelee, over 360 bird species have been recorded in the park. The peak time for bird migration is spring, especially May, many birdwatchers from North America and abroad visit the park in spring, often staying in the nearby town of Leamington. One attraction, apart from the numbers and variety of bird passing through on migration, is the opportunity to see more northerly breeding species such as blackpoll warbler before they move on. In March 2006, high winds washed away the sand point, in October 2007 the level of lake Erie dropped enough to reveal the point again extending at least half a mile out into the water and at least 25 feet wide with a winding curve shape to it. Located in the parts of the St. Lawrence Lowlands. With an area of only 1,564 hectares, it is Canadas smallest national park and this sandspit is dominated by till plains which was formed during the last ice age during the advance and retreat of the Wisconsonian ice on a submerged limestone ridge
17.
Wabanaki Confederacy
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The Wabanaki Confederacy are a First Nations and Native American confederation of five principal nations, the Mikmaq, Maliseet, Passamaquoddy, Abenaki, and Penobscot. Members of the Wabanaki Confederacy, the Wabanaki peoples, are in and named for the area which they call Wabanahkik, generally known to European settlers as Acadia. It is made up of most of present-day Maine in the United States, the Western Abenaki live on lands in New Hampshire, Vermont, and Massachusetts of the United States. In recent official statements, the Confederacy has emphasized common cause with and they gained powers under the United Nations 2010 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and related treaties which major powers have signed. The confederacy has historically united five North American Algonquian language-speaking First Nations peoples and it played a key role in supporting the colonial rebels of the American Revolution via the Treaty of Watertown, signed in 1776 by the Mikmaq and Passamaquoddy, two of its constituent tribes. Under this treaty, Wabanaki soldiers from Canada are still permitted to join the US military and they have done so in 21st-century conflicts in which the US has engaged, including the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War. Wabanaki were also allies of the Huron in the past, today the only remaining Huron First Nation resides mostly in the suburbs of Quebec City, a legacy of this protective alliance. The Wabanaki ancestral homeland stretches from Newfoundland, Canada to the Merrimack River valley in New Hampshire and Massachusetts and this became a hotly contested borderland between the English of colonial New England and French Acadia following the European settlement in the early 17th century. Wabanaki people freely intermarried with French Catholics in Acadia starting in 1610 after the conversion of Chief Henri Membertou, after 1783 and the end of the American Revolutionary War, Black Loyalists, freedmen from the British colonies, were resettled by the British in this historical territory. They had promised freedom if they left their rebel masters. Three thousand freedmen were evacuated to Nova Scotia by British ships from the colonies after the war, many intermarriages occurred between these peoples, especially in southwest Nova Scotia from Yarmouth to Halifax. Suppression of Acadian, Black, Mikmaq, and Irish people under British rule tended to force these peoples together as allies of necessity, some white and black parents abandoned their mixed-race children on reserves to be raised in Wabanaki culture, even as late as the 1970s. The British declared the Wabanaki Confederacy forcibly disbanded in 1862, however the five Wabanaki nations still exist, continued to meet, and the Confederacy was formally re-established in 1993. The Wabanaki Confederacy gathering was revived in 1993, the sacred Council Fire was lit again, and embers from the fire have been kept burning continually since then. Following the 2010 UN DRIP declaration, the tribes began to assert their rights as defined in it and they invited non-Indian people to participate in the Confederacy meetings, especially environmental activists. The Wabanaki leadership emphasized the role of the Confederacy in protecting natural capital. The Wabanaki are in a far better position to defend the land. No land was ceded, and thats acknowledged by both the province and the federal government. So on the basis of the treaties, what were suggesting is that you, – gkisedtanamoogk, the Gatherings fire keeper
18.
Samuel de Champlain
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Samuel de Champlain, The Father of New France, was a French navigator, cartographer, draftsman, soldier, explorer, geographer, ethnologist, diplomat, and chronicler. He founded New France and Quebec City on July 3,1608 and he is important to Canadian history because he made the first accurate map of the coast and he helped establish the settlements. Born into a family of mariners, Champlain, while still a man, began exploring North America in 1603 under the guidance of François Gravé Du Pont. Then, in 1608, he established the French settlement that is now Quebec City, Champlain was the first European to explore and describe the Great Lakes, and published maps of his journeys and accounts of what he learned from the natives and the French living among the Natives. He formed relationships with local Montagnais and Innu and later with others farther west, with Algonquin and with Huron Wendat, in 1620, Louis XIII of France ordered Champlain to cease exploration, return to Quebec, and devote himself to the administration of the country. In every way but formal title, Samuel de Champlain served as Governor of New France and he established trading companies that sent goods, primarily fur, to France, and oversaw the growth of New France in the St. Lawrence River valley until his death in 1635. The most notable of these is Lake Champlain, which straddles the border between northern New York and Vermont, extending slightly across the border into Canada. Champlain was born to Antoine Champlain and Marguerite Le Roy, in either Hiers-Brouage, or the city of La Rochelle. He was born on or before August 13,1574 according to a recent baptism record found by Jean-Marie Germe, although Léopold Delayant wrote as early as 1867 that Rainguets estimate was wrong, the books of Rainguet and Laverdière have had a significant influence. The 1567 date was carved on numerous monuments dedicated to Champlain and is regarded as accurate. In the first half of the 20th century, some authors disagreed, in 1978 Jean Liebel published groundbreaking research about these estimates of Champlains birth year and concluded, Samuel Champlain was born about 1580 in Brouage, France. Liebel asserts that some authors, including the Catholic priests Rainguet and Laverdière, Champlain claimed to be from Brouage in the title of his 1603 book, and to be Saintongeois in the title of his second book. The exact location of his birth is also not known with certainty. Born into a family of mariners, Samuel Champlain learned to navigate, draw, make nautical charts and his education did not include Ancient Greek or Latin, so he did not read or learn from any ancient literature. During this time he claimed to go on a secret voyage for the king. By 1597 he was a capitaine dune compagnie serving in a garrison near Quimper, in 1598, his uncle-in-law, a navigator whose ship Saint-Julien was chartered to transport Spanish troops to Cádiz pursuant to the Treaty of Vervins, gave Champlain the opportunity to accompany him. After a difficult passage, he spent some time in Cadiz before his uncle, whose ship was chartered to accompany a large Spanish fleet to the West Indies. His uncle, who gave command of the ship to Jeronimo de Valaebrera and this journey lasted two years, and gave Champlain the opportunity to see or hear about Spanish holdings from the Caribbean to Mexico City
19.
Computer-generated imagery
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The term CGI animation refers to dynamic CGI rendered as a movie. The term virtual world refers to agent-based, interactive environments, Computer graphics software is used to make computer-generated imagery for films, etc. Availability of CGI software and increased computer speeds have allowed artists and small companies to produce professional-grade films, games. This has brought about an Internet subculture with its own set of global celebrities, clichés, the evolution of CGI led to the emergence of virtual cinematography in the 1990s where runs of the simulated camera are not constrained by the laws of physics. Not only do animated images form part of computer-generated imagery, natural looking landscapes are generated via computer algorithms. A simple way to generate fractal surfaces is to use an extension of the triangular mesh method, relying on the construction of special case of a de Rham curve. The creation of a Brownian surface may be achieved not only by adding noise as new nodes are created, thus a topographical map with varying levels of height can be created using relatively straightforward fractal algorithms. Some typical, easy-to-program fractals used in CGI are the plasma fractal, modern architects use services from computer graphic firms to create 3-dimensional models for both customers and builders. These computer generated models can be accurate than traditional drawings. Architectural animation can also be used to see the relationship a building will have in relation to the environment. The rendering of architectural spaces without the use of paper and pencil tools is now an accepted practice with a number of computer-assisted architectural design systems. Architectural modeling tools allow an architect to visualize a space and perform walk-throughs in an interactive manner, Architectural modeling tools have now become increasingly internet-based. However, the quality of internet-based systems still lags behind those of sophisticated in-house modeling systems, in some applications, computer-generated images are used to reverse engineer historical buildings. Computer generated models used in animation are not always anatomically correct. However, organizations such as the Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute have developed anatomically correct computer-based models, Computer generated anatomical models can be used both for instructional and operational purposes. To date, a body of artist produced medical images continue to be used by medical students, such as images by Frank H. Netter. However, a number of anatomical models are becoming available. A single patient X-ray is not a computer generated image, even if digitized, however, in applications which involve CT scans a three-dimensional model is automatically produced from a large number of single slice x-rays, producing computer generated image
20.
Colony of Virginia
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The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
21.
French and Indian Wars
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The title French and Indian War, in the singular, is used in the United States specifically for the warfare of 1754–1763, the North American colonial counterpart to the Seven Years War in Europe. The French and Indian Wars were preceded by the Beaver Wars, in Quebec, Canada, a former French colony, the wars are generally referred to as the War of the Conquest. Canadian convention uses the name of the larger European conflict or refers to the wars as the Intercolonial Wars, as the wars proceeded, the military advantage moved toward the British side. This was chiefly the result of the population and productive capacity of the British colonies. In addition, the British had the ability to resupply their colonies. The overwhelming victory of the British played a role in loss of their thirteen American colonies. Without the threat of French invasion, the American colonies saw little need for British military protection and these pressures contributed to the American Revolutionary War. The first three of the French and Indian Wars followed the basic pattern, they all started in Europe. Once the conflict broke out in North America, it was fought by colonial militias. The final conflict broke this pattern by beginning in North America, in addition, the British used more regular troops alongside colonial militia. They returned almost none of the French territory seized during the war, France was forced to cede its extensive territory in present-day Canada and Louisiane. The British victory in the French and Indian Wars reduced Frances New World empire to St. Pierre and Miquelon and this was normally along lakes and rivers and stretching from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Many Native American Nations lived by these routes, and became involved in the wars between the powers of Europe. The belligerent built fortified positions at major hubs and requested the help of the local Native population to defend these. A common view is that European combat methods and military tactics were not adapted to the American forests and it is therefore conjectured, that the English colonists designed new combat techniques, inspired by the Indian combat methods. In reality, however, the French and Indian wars were won by Britain through the application of traditional European tactics. Although ultimately futile, the French fought according to the tactical doctrine contemporaries called la Petite guerre, the numerical inferiority of the French forces in North America made it impossible to fight a war according to standard European tactics. Hence the French to a large extent made use of indigenous allies, the Battle of the Monongahela was the largest achievement of the petty warfare tactics
22.
Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac
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Rising from a modest beginning in Acadia in 1683 as an explorer, trapper, and a trader of alcohol and furs, he achieved various positions of political importance in the colony. He was the commander of Fort de Buade, modern-day St. Ignace, Michigan, in 1701, he founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit, the future city of Detroit, which he commanded until 1710. Between 1710 and 1716 he was the governor of Louisiana, although he did not arrive in that territory until 1713. His knowledge of the coasts of New England and the Great Lakes area was appreciated by Frontenac, governor of New France and this earned him various favors, including the Order of Saint Louis from King Louis XIV. The Jesuits in Canada, however, criticized his perceived perversion of the Indigenous peoples of Turtle Island, also known as North America, La Mothe was imprisoned for a few months in Quebec in 1704, and again in the Bastille on his return to France in 1717. Upon his arrival in North America, La Mothe adopted his title after the town of Cadillac in southwestern France, the city he helped found, Detroit, became the world center of automobile production in the 20th century. William H. Murphy and Henry M. Leland, founders of the Cadillac auto company, paid homage to him by using his name for their company and his armorial bearings as its logo in 1902. Various places bear his name in North America, in particular Cadillac Mountain, Maine, and he was widely hailed as a hero in the popular mind until the 1950s and rethinking of the colonial enterprise. Since then Zoltvany finds, he most definitely was not one of the early heroes. This view is supported by Henri R. Casgrain, in his Les Sulpiciens et les Pretres des Missions-Etrangeres en Acadie, Pruneau & Kirouac, Quebec 1897. He refers to Cadillac on p 61. of this work as. a Gascon adventurer, the most wicked character in the world and this judgment is based on reflections about several individuals who contributed to the difficulties of early missionaries in Acadia. It supports the judgment of Zoltvany given above, Cadillac was born Antoine Laumet on March 5,1658, in the small town of Saint-Nicolas-de-la-Grave in the French Province of Gascony. His father, Jean Laumet, was born in the village of Caumont-sur-Garonne and he became a lawyer in the Parliament of Toulouse. In 1652 Jean was appointed lieutenant to the judge of Saint-Nicolas-de-la-Grave by Cardinal Mazarin and he was appointed as a judge in 1664. Antoines mother, Jeanne Péchagut, was the daughter of a merchant and they were Protestant – French Huguenots, and suffered some discrimination because of that. La Mothes adult correspondence reveals that his youth included rigorous study at a Jesuit institution where he learned theology, after his career in North America, he returned to France. In a record of service he filled out in 1675, he said that he had enlisted in the military as a cadet at the age of 17 in the Dampierre regiment, in Charleroi. Two years later in personal letters, however, he reported that he had been an officer in the Clérambault regiment in Thionville, at the age of 25, Antoine Laumet departed from France to the New World
23.
Louis XIV of France
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
24.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
25.
Sir Francis Bernard, 1st Baronet
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Sir Francis Bernard, 1st Baronet was a British colonial administrator who served as governor of the provinces of New Jersey and Massachusetts Bay. Appointed governor of New Jersey in 1758, he oversaw the participation in the later years of the French and Indian War. In 1760 he was given the governorship of Massachusetts, where he had a relationship with the assembly. Early actions turned the colonys populists against him, and his responses to protests against Parliaments attempts to tax the colonies deepened divisions, after protests against the Townshend Acts in 1768, Bernard sought British Army troops be stationed in Boston to oversee the colonists. He was recalled after the publication of letters in which he was critical of the colony and he suffered a stroke in 1771 and died in 1779, leaving a large family. Francis was born in Brightwell-cum-Sotwell, England to the Rev. Francis and his father died three years later. His mother remarried, but died herself of smallpox in 1718 and he was thereafter probably raised by an aunt for several years, since his stepfather was forced by a failed courtship to flee to Holland. His stepfather, Anthony Alsop, returned to Berkshire a few years later, Bernards formal education began at Westminster in 1725, and he then spent seven years at Oxford, where Christ Church granted him a master of arts in 1736. He read law at the Middle Temple and was called to the bar in 1737 and he settled in Lincoln, where he practiced law and took on a variety of municipal posts. Bernard married Amelia Offley, daughter of the sheriff of Derbyshire, in December 1741, because his prospects for further income to support this large family were unlikely in Lincoln, he apparently decided to seek a posting in the colonies. John Adams later described Bernard as avaricious to a most infamous degree, needy at the same time, Bernards wife was cousin to Lord Barrington, who became a Privy Councillor in 1755. Leaving some of his children with relatives, the sailed for North America with four of their children. The colonies were in the middle of the French and Indian War at the time of Bernards arrival and he established a good working relationship with New Jerseys assembly, and was able to convince the province to raise troops and funds for the ongoing war effort. He signed the Treaty of Easton, an agreement between New Jersey and Pennsylvania on one side, and a group of Indian tribes fixing boundaries between colonial and Indian lands. This effort was important, for it reduced raiding on the frontiers and it and other agreements negotiated by Bernard extinguished all of the remaining Indian titles to New Jersey. Negotiations with the Lenape also resulted in the establishment of the first formal Indian reservation, Brotherton and this reservation was only sparsely populated, and was abandoned in 1801 when its remaining inhabitants joined the Stockbridge Indians in upstate New York. Through the influence of his connections in the Colonial Office, Bernard was appointed governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in late 1759, delays in communications and slow travel were such that Bernard did not arrive in Boston until 2 August 1760. Although initially warmly welcomed, his tenure in Massachusetts was difficult, Bernard sought to vigorously enforce the Navigation Acts, in part because crown officials received shares of the proceeds from the seizure of ships that were caught violating the acts
26.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
27.
Green Mountain Cog Railway
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The Green Mountain Cog Railway was a mountain railway built to carry tourists to the top of Green Mountain on Mount Desert Island in Maine. Its track was built to 4 ft 8 in gauge, which is technically a narrow gauge, at the end of the 19th century, Maines tourist industry was developing rapidly. Construction of the started in 1883, and it was built to the designs in the Marsh patents developed for the Mount Washington line. The first locomotive was built by the Manchester Locomotive Works, and was meant to be for the Mount Washington line, after the first season, Frank Clergue, owner and operator, bought another coach and locomotive, both identical to their predecessors. The coaches and work cars were built by the Hinckley & Egery Iron Co, the coaches had eight benches, with open air seating that could hold six. During bad weather, canvas tarps were rolled down from the ceiling to protect the passengers from the wind, the #1 locomotive was named Mount Desert, and #2 was not named. Both locomotives were used at the time when there were large numbers of passengers. There were no switches on the railway, so the trains did not have the ability to each other. The line operated during the season and for the first few years was successful. But tourist numbers declined, and after the 1890 season the railway ceased operations, the railways two steam locomotives were sold to the Mount Washington Cog Railway in 1895 after five years of disuse. Chicago Tunnel Company Manitou and Pikes Peak Railway Mount Washington Cog Railway Quincy and Torch Lake Cog Railway Lindsell, the Rail Lines of Northern New England
28.
Charles Eliot (landscape architect)
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Charles Eliot was an American landscape architect, known for pioneering principles of regional planning and laying the groundwork for conservancies across the world. He played a role in shaping the Boston Metropolitan Park System, designed a number of public and private landscapes. Eliot was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1859 to Charles W. Eliot and his father became President of Harvard University in 1869, the same year his mother died. He was part of the Eliot family, a prominent family originating from Boston and his fathers cousin, Charles Eliot Norton, was professor of art history at Harvard, and a well-known literary figure. On graduation from Harvard in 1882, Eliot pursued horticultural courses at the Bussey Institute at Harvard to prepare himself for the profession of landscape architecture, eliots travel diaries provide one of the best visual assessments of European landscapes in the late 19th century. Returning to Boston in 1886, Eliot opened his own office and his commissions included White Park in Concord, New Hampshire, Youngstown Gorge, now called Mill Creek Park, in Youngstown, Ohio, and Salt Lake Citys plan for a new town. Within four years, Britains National Trust was created along these lines, after the death of their partner Henry Sargent Codman, Olmsteds son Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. and stepson John Charles Olmsted asked Eliot to become a full partner in their firm. In March 1893, the name was changed to Olmsted, Olmsted. Within a few months, Eliot assumed the role as the elder Olmsteds health continued to fail. Eliot died March 25,1897, at age 37 from spinal meningitis, eliots work has left a lasting mark on greater Boston. He also directed the work on the Cambridge esplanade for the citys park commission. The esplanade in Boston was later realized following designs by Guy Lowell, in 1883, he designed Longfellow Park between the Cambridge home of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and the Charles River. Up until his death he was the partner in charge of the work at Fresh Pond in Cambridge. In addition to his practice, Eliot became a contributor of professional articles to Garden. Eliots writings have been characterized as the inspiration behind the establishment of Acadia National Park on Mount Desert Island in Maine, Metropolitan Park System of Greater Boston Eliot, Charles William
29.
Charles William Eliot
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Charles William Eliot was an American academic who was selected as Harvards president in 1869. He transformed the provincial college into the preeminent American research university, Eliot served until 1909, having the longest term as president in the universitys history. He was a cousin of the Nobel Prize-winning poet T. S. Eliot, Charles Eliot was a scion of the wealthy Eliot family of Boston, and was the grandson of banker Samuel Eliot. Eliot graduated from Boston Latin School in 1849 and from Harvard University in 1853 and he was later made an honorary member of the Hasty Pudding. Although he had high expectations and obvious scientific talents, the first fifteen years of Eliots career were less than auspicious and he was appointed Tutor in Mathematics at Harvard in the fall of 1854, and studied chemistry with Josiah P. Cooke. In 1858, he was promoted to Assistant Professor of Mathematics and he taught competently, wrote some technical pieces on chemical impurities in industrial metals, and busied himself with schemes for the reform of Harvards Lawrence Scientific School. But his real goal, appointment to the Rumford Professorship of Chemistry and this was a particularly bitter blow because of a change in his familys economic circumstances—the financial failure of his father, Samuel Atkins Eliot, in the Panic of 1857. Eliot had to face in the fact that he had nothing to look to but his teachers salary, after a bitter struggle over the Rumford chair, Eliot left Harvard in 1863. His friends assumed that he would be obliged to cut chemistry, but instead, he used his grandfathers legacy and a small borrowed sum to spend the next two years studying the educational systems of the Old World in Europe. Eliots approach to investigating European education was unusual and he did not confine his attention to educational institutions, but explored the role of education in every aspect of national life. When Eliot visited schools, he took an interest in every aspect of institutional operation, from curriculum and methods of instruction through physical arrangements, such schools we need at home. I cant but think that a knowledge of what France has found useful for the development of her resources. At this moment, it is humiliating to read the figures which exhibit the increasing importations of all sorts of manufactured goods into America, especially will it be the interest of Massachusetts to foster by every mean in her power the manufactures which are her main strength. Eliot understood the interdependence of education and enterprise, in a letter to his cousin Arthur T. Lyman, he discussed the value to the German chemical industry of discoveries made in university laboratories. He also recognized that, while European universities depended on government for support, now this is not our way of managing these matters of education, and we have not yet found any equivalent, but republican, method of producing the like results. In the meantime, freedom and the American spirit of enterprise will do much for us, while Eliot was in Europe, he was again presented with the opportunity to enter the world of active business. The Merrimack Company, one of the largest textile mills in the United States, in spite of the urgings of his friends and the attractiveness of what for the time was the enormous salary of $5000, Eliot, after giving considerable thought to the offer, turned it down. One of his biographers speculated that he surely realized by this time that he had a taste for organizing
30.
Woodrow Wilson
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Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia. In 1910, he was the New Jersey Democratic Partys gubernatorial candidate and was elected the 34th Governor of New Jersey, while in office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. The Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes in the presidential election of 1916. By a narrow margin, he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms, Wilsons second term was dominated by American entry into World War I. In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, the United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, loaning billions of dollars to Britain, France, and other Allies, the United States aided their finance of the war effort. On the home front, he raised taxes, borrowing billions of dollars through the publics purchase of Liberty Bonds. In his 1915 State of the Union Address, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury, Navy and he gave department heads greater autonomy in their management. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. The treaty was met with concern by Senate Republicans, and Wilson rejected a compromise effort led by Henry Cabot Lodge. Due to his stroke, Wilson secluded himself in the White House, disability having diminished his power, forming a strategy for re-election, Wilson deadlocked the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but his bid for a third-term nomination was overlooked. Wilson was a devoted Presbyterian and Georgist, and he infused his views of morality into his domestic and he appointed several well known radically progressive single taxers to prominent positions in his administration. His ideology of internationalism is now referred to as Wilsonian, an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy and he was the third of four children of Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilsons paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland and his mother was born in Carlisle, England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow from Paisley, Scotland, and Marion Williamson from Glasgow
31.
Acadia
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Acadia was a colony of New France in northeastern North America that included parts of eastern Quebec, the Maritime provinces, and modern-day Maine to the Kennebec River. During much of the 17th and early 18th centuries, Norridgewock on the Kennebec River, the actual specification by the French government for the territory refers to lands bordering the Atlantic coast, roughly between the 40th and 46th parallels. Later, the territory was divided into the British colonies which became Canadian provinces, the population of Acadia included members of the Wabanaki Confederacy and descendants of emigrants from France. The two communities intermarried, which resulted in a significant portion of the population of Acadia being Métis, the first capital of Acadia, established in 1605, was Port-Royal. Over seventy-four years there were six colonial wars, in which English, during these wars, along with some French troops from Quebec, some Acadians, the Wabanaki Confederacy, and French priests continuously raided New England settlements along the border in Maine. While Acadia was officially conquered in 1710 during Queen Annes War, present-day New Brunswick, present-day Prince Edward Island and Cape Breton as agreed under Article XIII of the Treaty of Utrecht remained under French control. By militarily defeating the Wabanaki Confederacy and the French priests, present-day Maine fell during Father Rales War, during King Georges War, France and New France made significant attempts to regain mainland Nova Scotia. After Father Le Loutres War, present-day New Brunswick fell to the British, finally, during the French and Indian War, both Île Royale and Île Saint-Jean fell to the British in 1758. Today, the term Acadia is used to refer to regions of North America that are associated with the lands, descendants. It can also be used to refer to the Acadian diaspora in southern Louisiana, in the abstract, Acadia refers to the existence of a French culture in any of these regions. People living in Acadia, and sometimes former residents and their descendants, are called Acadians, Arcadia derives from the Arcadia district in Greece which since Classical antiquity had the extended meanings of refuge or idyllic place. In 1603 a colony south of the St. Lawrence between the 40th and 46th parallels was agreed by Henry IV, who recognised the territory as La Cadie, also in the 17th century Champlain fixed its present orthography with the r omitted. William Francis Ganong, a cartographer, has shown its gradual progress northeastwards, in a succession of maps, another interesting note is the similarity in the pronunciation of Acadie and the Míkmawísimk suffix -akadie, which means a place of abundance. The modern usage is seen in place names such as Shunacadie or Shubenacadie. It is thought that intercultural conversation between early French traders and Mikmaq hunters may have resulted in the name lArcadie being changed to lAcadie, the history of Acadia was significantly influenced by the warfare that took place on its soil during the 17th and 18th century. Prior to that period, the Mi’kmaq lived in Acadia for centuries. The French arrived in 1604, and Catholic Mi’kmaq and Acadians were the predominant populations in the colony for the next 150 years. Early European colonists, who would become known as Acadians, were French subjects primarily from the Pleumartin to Poitiers in the Vienne département of west-central France
32.
John D. Rockefeller Jr.
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John Davison Rockefeller Jr. was an American financier and philanthropist who was a prominent member of the Rockefeller family. He was the only son among the five children of Standard Oil co-founder John D. Rockefeller, in biographies, he is commonly referred to as Junior to distinguish him from his father, Senior. Rockefeller was the fifth and last child of Standard Oil co-founder John Davison Rockefeller Sr. and his four older sisters were Elizabeth, Alice, Alta, and Edith. His father John Sr. and uncle William Avery Rockefeller Jr. co-founded Standard Oil together, nicknamed Johnny Rock by his roommates, he joined both the Glee and the Mandolin Clubs, taught a Bible class and was elected junior class president. Scrupulously careful with money, he stood out as different from other rich mens sons, in 1897 he graduated with the degree of Bachelor of Arts, after taking nearly a dozen courses in the social sciences, including a study of Karl Marxs Das Kapital. He joined the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity, and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and he later also became a director at J. P. Morgans U. S. Steel company, which had been formed in 1901. In April 1914, after a period of industrial unrest. Junior owned a controlling interest in the company and sat on the board as an absentee director, at least 20 men, women, and children died in the incident, and in January 1915 Junior was called to testify before the Commission on Industrial Relations. Many critics blamed Rockefeller for ordering the massacre, Margaret Sanger wrote an attack piece in her magazine The Woman Rebel declaring, But remember Ludlow. Remember the men and women and children who were sacrificed in order that John D. Rockefeller Jr. might continue his career of charity. He was at the time being advised by William Lyon Mackenzie King, Lee warned that the Rockefellers were losing public support and developed a strategy that Junior followed to repair it. This was novel advice, and attracted media attention, which opened the way to resolve the conflict. The family office, of which he was in charge, shifted from 26 Broadway to the 56th floor of the landmark 30 Rockefeller Plaza upon its completion in 1933, the office formally became Rockefeller Family and Associates. In 1921, Junior received about 10% of the shares of the Equitable Trust Company from his father, subsequently, in 1930, Equitable merged with Chase National Bank, making Chase the largest bank in the world at the time. Although his stockholding was reduced to about 4% following this merger, as late as the 1960s, the family still retained about 1% of the banks shares, by which time his son David had become the banks president. In the late 1920s, Rockefeller founded the Dunbar National Bank in Harlem, the financial institution was located within the Paul Laurence Dunbar Apartments at 2824 Eighth Avenue near 150th Street, servicing a primarily African-American clientele. It was unique among New York City financial institutions in that it employed African Americans as tellers, clerks, however, the bank folded after only a few years of operation. This letter became an important event in pushing the nation to repeal Prohibition, Rockefeller was known for his philanthropy, giving over $537 million to myriad causes over his lifetime compared to $240 million to his own family
33.
Beatrix Farrand
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Beatrix Cadwalader Farrand was a landscape gardener and landscape architect in the United States. Her career included commissions to design about 110 gardens for private residences, estates and country homes, public parks, botanic gardens, college campuses, Farrand was one of the founding eleven members, and the only woman, of the American Society of Landscape Architects. Beatrix Cadwalader Jones was born in New York City on June 19,1872 and her mother was Mary Cadwalader Rawle, whose father was lawyer William Henry Rawle. Her father was Frederic Rhinelander Jones and she enjoyed long seasons at the familys summer home Reef Point Estate in Mount Desert Island, Maine. She was the niece of Edith Wharton and lifelong friend of Henry James, Farrand lived at Sargents home, Holm Lea in Brookline, Massachusetts in 1893 and studied landscape gardening, for which there was no specialized school at the time, botany, and land planning. She wanted to learn drafting to scale, elevation rendering, surveying, and engineering, on December 17,1913 Beatrix married Max Farrand, the accomplished historian at Stanford and Yale universities, and the first director of the Huntington Library. She began practicing architecture in 1895, working from the upper floor of her mothers brownstone house on East Eleventh Street in New York. Since women were excluded from public projects, her first designs were residential gardens, with the help of her mother and with her aunt Edith Whartons social connections, she was introduced to prominent people, which led to working on a variety of significant projects. Farrand did the site and planting planning for the National Cathedral in Washington. In 1912, she designed the residential garden, Bellefield, for Mr. and Mrs. Thomas Newbold in Hyde Park. She collaborated with the firm of McKim, Mead & White in the construction of buildings at Dumbarton Oaks. For the White House, the first Mrs. Woodrow Wilson, Ellen Loise Axson Wilson, had commissioned Beatrix Farrand to design the East Colonial Garden and the West Garden in 1913. After Mrs. Wilsons August 1914 death the project languished until the second Mrs. Wilson and she received the commission from J. Pierpont Morgan to design the Morgan Library grounds in New York City, and continued as a consultant for thirty years. Her most notable work was at the Dumbarton Oaks estate in the Georgetown district of Washington, D. C. for Mildred, in 1928 her husband accepted the position as the first Director of The Huntington Library in San Marino, California. They moved to California, but Farrand had trouble building a clientele in that state, William Hertrich had long standing dominion of the Botanical Gardens at the Huntington. The landscape designers Florence Yoch and Louise Council, and Lockwood DeForest Jr. among others, were well established there. In the Los Angeles area, she had several commissions each with astronomer George Ellery Hale, with the latter she worked on projects at Occidental College and the California Institute of Technology. Sought out and funded Farrand to design planting plans for subtle carriage roads at Acadia National Park on Mount Desert Island, Maine and their use continues at the Park
34.
Fire ecology
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Many ecosystems, particularly prairie, savanna, chaparral and coniferous forests, have evolved with fire as an essential contributor to habitat vitality and renewal. Many plant species in fire-affected environments require fire to germinate, establish, wildfire suppression not only eliminates these species, but also the animals that depend upon them. Campaigns in the United States have historically molded public opinion to believe that wildfires are always harmful to nature and this view is based on the outdated belief that ecosystems progress toward an equilibrium and that any disturbance, such as fire, disrupts the harmony of nature. The map below shows one view of how ecosystem type in the United States has a characteristic frequency of fire. Natural disturbances can be described by key factors such as frequency, intensity, land managers are faced with tough questions regarding how to restore a natural fire regime, but allowing wildfires to burn is the least expensive and likely most effective method. A fire regime describes the characteristics of fire and how it interacts with a particular ecosystem and its severity is a term that ecologists use to refer to the impact that a fire has on an ecosystem. Ecologists can define this in ways, but one way is through an estimate of plant mortality. Fire can burn at three levels, ground fires will burn through soil that is rich in organic matter. Surface fires will burn through dead plant material that is lying on the ground, crown fires will burn in the tops of shrubs and trees. Ecosystems generally experience a mix of all three, fires will often break out during a dry season, but in some areas wildfires may also commonly occur during a time of year when lightning is prevalent. The frequency over a span of years at which fire will occur at a location is a measure of how common wildfires are in a given ecosystem. It is either defined as the interval between fires at a given site, or the average interval between fires in an equivalent specified area. Fire has important effects on the components of an ecosystem. Fire can affect the soil by direct contact with it and by its effects on the plant community associated with it, fewer leaves left to intercept rain will allow more moisture to reach the soil surface. In addition, plant transpiration will be reduced following a fire, fire may cause changes in soil nutrients through a variety of mechanisms, including oxidation, volatilization, erosion, and leaching by water. Temperatures must be high, however, to cause a significant loss of nutrients. Also, the minerals which were part of slowly decaying plant matter become more soluble and available in the ash. Charcoal is able to counteract some nutrient and water loss because of its absorptive properties, overall, soils become more basic following fires because of acid combustion
35.
Propane
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Propane is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula C3H8, a gas, at standard temperature and pressure, but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is used as a fuel for engines, oxy-gas torches, portable stoves. Propane is one of a group of liquefied petroleum gases, the others include butane, propylene, butadiene, butylene, isobutylene, and mixtures thereof. Propane was first identified as a component in gasoline by Walter O. Snelling of the U. S. Bureau of Mines in 1910. The volatility of these lighter hydrocarbons caused them to be known as wild because of the vapor pressures of unrefined gasoline. On March 31, the New York Times reported on Snellings work with liquefied gas and that a steel bottle will carry enough gas to light an ordinary home for three weeks. It was during this time that Snelling, in cooperation with Frank P. Peterson, Chester Kerr, together, they established American Gasol Co. the first commercial marketer of propane. Snelling had produced relatively pure propane by 1911, and on March 25,1913, a separate method of producing LP gas through compression was created by Frank Peterson and its patent granted on July 2,1912. The 1920s saw increased production of LP gas, with the first year of recorded production totaling 223,000 US gallons in 1922. In 1927, annual marketed LP gas production reached 1 million US gallons, and by 1935, major industry developments in the 1930s included the introduction of railroad tank car transport, gas odorization, and the construction of local bottle-filling plants. The year 1945 marked the first year that annual LP gas sales reached a billion gallons, by 1947, 62% of all U. S. homes had been equipped with either natural gas or propane for cooking. In 1950,1,000 propane-fueled buses were ordered by the Chicago Transit Authority, in 2004 it was reported to be a growing $8-billion to $10-billion industry with over 15 billion US gallons of propane being used annually in the U. S. The prop- root found in propane and names of compounds with three-carbon chains was derived from propionic acid. Propane is produced as a by-product of two processes, natural gas processing and petroleum refining. The processing of natural gas involves removal of butane, propane, additionally, oil refineries produce some propane as a by-product of cracking petroleum into gasoline or heating oil. The supply of propane cannot easily be adjusted to meet increased demand, about 90% of U. S. propane is domestically produced. The United States imports about 10% of the propane consumed each year, with about 70% of that coming from Canada via pipeline, the remaining 30% of imported propane comes to the United States from other sources via ocean transport. After it is produced, North American propane is stored in salt caverns
36.
Frenchman Bay
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Frenchman Bay is a bay in Hancock County, Maine, named for Samuel de Champlain, the French explorer who visited the area in 1604. Frenchman Bay may have been the location of the Jesuit St. Sauveur mission, established in 1613. In a 1960 book titled, The Story of Mount Desert Island, Samuel Eliot Morison wrote, the bay is bounded on the east by the Schoodic Peninsula, and on the west by Mount Desert Island, parts of both are in Acadia National Park. It contains numerous islands, the largest of which is Ironbound Island, the highest elevation of the islands in the bay is found on Jordan Island. The largest town on the bay is Bar Harbor, on Mount Desert Island, the bay extends for roughly 15 miles and spans 7 miles at its widest
37.
Bar Island
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Bar Island is a tidal island across from Bar Harbor on Mount Desert Island, Maine, United States. The uninhabited island forested mostly in pine and birch is now part of Acadia National Park, there are walking trails on the island. A sand and gravel bar exposed only a couple of hours at low tide connects Bar Island to Bridge Street in Bar Harbor, at low tide visitors often walk across, or park cars on the exposed bar. However, on the side in front of a locked gate. Visitors have been known to return from a hike to find their cars submerging and themselves stranded until the tide recedes
38.
Cadillac Mountain
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Cadillac Mountain is located on Mount Desert Island, within Acadia National Park. Before being renamed in 1918, the mountain had been called Green Mountain, the new name honors the French explorer and adventurer Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac. S. From 1883 until 1893 the Green Mountain Cog Railway ran to the summit to take visitors to the Green Mountain Hotel on the summit, the hotel was burned down in 1895. Also in 1895, the cog train was sold and moved to the Mount Washington Cog Railway in New Hampshire, there are various hiking trails to the summit of Cadillac Mountain, some more challenging than others. There is also a road to the top. Driving or hiking to the summit of Cadillac Mountain to see the nations first sunrise is an activity among visitors of Acadia National Park. However, Cadillac only sees the first sunrise in the fall and winter, during most of the spring and summer, the sun rises first on Mars Hill,150 miles to the northeast. For a few weeks around the equinoxes, the sun rises first at West Quoddy Head in Lubec, Maine. On exceptionally clear days, it is possible to see Mount Katahdin, Maines highest mountain, to the north and the Canadian province of Nova Scotia to the east, both over one hundred miles away
39.
Mountain
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A mountain is a large landform that stretches above the surrounding land in a limited area, usually in the form of a peak. A mountain is steeper than a hill. Mountains are formed through tectonic forces or volcanism and these forces can locally raise the surface of the earth. Mountains erode slowly through the action of rivers, weather conditions, a few mountains are isolated summits, but most occur in huge mountain ranges. High elevations on mountains produce colder climates than at sea level and these colder climates strongly affect the ecosystems of mountains, different elevations have different plants and animals. Because of the less hospitable terrain and climate, mountains tend to be used less for agriculture and more for resource extraction and recreation, the highest mountain on Earth is Mount Everest in the Himalayas of Asia, whose summit is 8,850 m above mean sea level. The highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on Mars at 21,171 m, there is no universally accepted definition of a mountain. Elevation, volume, relief, steepness, spacing and continuity have been used as criteria for defining a mountain, whether a landform is called a mountain may depend on local usage. The highest point in San Francisco, California, is called Mount Davidson, notwithstanding its height of 300 m, similarly, Mount Scott outside Lawton, Oklahoma is only 251 m from its base to its highest point. Whittows Dictionary of Physical Geography states Some authorities regard eminences above 600 metres as mountains, in addition, some definitions also include a topographical prominence requirement, typically 100 or 500 feet. For a while, the US defined a mountain as being 1,000 feet or taller, any similar landform lower than this height was considered a hill. However, today, the United States Geological Survey concludes that these terms do not have technical definitions in the US, using these definitions, mountains cover 33% of Eurasia, 19% of South America, 24% of North America, and 14% of Africa. As a whole, 24% of the Earths land mass is mountainous, there are three main types of mountains, volcanic, fold, and block. All three types are formed from plate tectonics, when portions of the Earths crust move, crumple, compressional forces, isostatic uplift and intrusion of igneous matter forces surface rock upward, creating a landform higher than the surrounding features. The height of the feature makes it either a hill or, if higher and steeper, major mountains tend to occur in long linear arcs, indicating tectonic plate boundaries and activity. Volcanoes are formed when a plate is pushed below another plate, at a depth of around 100 km, melting occurs in rock above the slab, and forms magma that reaches the surface. When the magma reaches the surface, it builds a volcanic mountain. Examples of volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, the magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create a mountain, magma that solidifies below ground can still form dome mountains, such as Navajo Mountain in the US
40.
Shore
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A shore or a shoreline is the fringe of land at the edge of a large body of water, such as an ocean, sea, or lake. Shores are influenced by the topography of the landscape, as well as by water induced erosion. The geological composition of rock and soil dictates the type of shore which is created, Riviera is an Italian word for shoreline, ultimately derived from Latin ripa. It came to be applied as a name to the coast of the Ligurian Sea, in the form riviera ligure. Historically, the Ligurian Riviera extended from Capo Corvo south of Genoa, north and west into what is now French territory past Monoco, now it is divided into the Italian Riviera and the French Riviera. Although the French use the term Riviera to refer to the Italian Riviera, as a result of the fame of the Ligurian rivieras, the term came into English to refer to any shoreline, especially one that is sunny, topographically diverse and popular with tourists. Such places using the term include the Australian Riviera in Queensland, offshore or Intertidal zone Ballantine Scale Coastal path Shorezone Anders, F. J. and Byrnes, M. R. Accuracy of shoreline change rates as determined from maps and aerial photographs Shore and Beach, v.59, processes influencing the transport and fate of contaminated sediments in the coastal ocean—Boston Harbor and Massachusetts Bay, U. S. Geological Survey Circular 1302, pp. 1–89. Equilibrium beach profiles—characteristics and applications Journal of Coastal Research, v.7, the Budget of Littoral Sediments—Concepts and Applications Shore and Beach, v.64, pp. 18–26. Meade, R. H. Sources, sinks and storage of river sediments in the Atlantic drainage of the United States Journal of Geology, v.90, an Assessment of the Nations Shorelines, USA Shore and Beach v.71, no. Stockdon, H. F. Sallenger, A. H. List, J. H. and Holman, estimation of shoreline position and change using airborne topographic lidar data Journal of Coastal Research, v.18, no. The use of models to predict beach behavior for U. S. coastal engineering—A critical review Journal of Coastal Research, v.16. Media related to Shores at Wikimedia Commons shore, the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
41.
Woodland
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Woodland /ˈwʊdlənd/ is a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. Woodlands may support an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses, woodland may form a transition to shrubland under drier conditions or during early stages of primary or secondary succession. Higher density areas of trees with a closed canopy that provides extensive. Conservationists have worked hard to preserve woodlands, because people are destroying animals habitats when building homes, for example, the woodlands in Northwest Indiana have been preserved as part of the Indiana Dunes. The term ancient woodland is used in British nature conservation to refer to any wooded land that has existed since 1600, woodlot is a closely related American term, which refers to a stand of trees generally used for firewood. While woodlots often technically have closed canopies, they are so small that light penetration from the edge makes them ecologically closer to woodland than forest, in Australia, a woodland is defined as an area with sparse cover of trees, and an open woodland has very sparse cover. Woodlands are also subdivided into tall woodlands, or low woodlands and this contrasts with forests, which have greater than 30% cover by trees
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Lake
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A lake is an area of variable size filled with water, localized in a basin, that is surrounded by land, apart from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, and therefore are distinct from lagoons, Lakes can be contrasted with rivers or streams, which are usually flowing. Most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and streams, natural lakes are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas with ongoing glaciation. Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers, in some parts of the world there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last Ice Age. All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales, as they will fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them. The word lake comes from Middle English lake, from Old English lacu, from Proto-Germanic *lakō, cognates include Dutch laak, Middle Low German lāke as in, de, Moorlake, de, Wolfslake, de, Butterlake, German Lache, and Icelandic lækur. Also related are the English words leak and leach, none of these definitions completely excludes ponds and all are difficult to measure. For this reason, simple size-based definitions are used to separate ponds. One definition of lake is a body of water of 2 hectares or more in area, however, others have defined lakes as waterbodies of 5 hectares and above, or 8 hectares and above. Charles Elton, one of the founders of ecology, regarded lakes as waterbodies of 40 hectares or more. The term lake is used to describe a feature such as Lake Eyre. In common usage, many bear names ending with the word pond. One textbook illustrates this point with the following, In Newfoundland, for example, almost every lake is called a pond, whereas in Wisconsin, the majority of lakes on Earth are fresh water, and most lie in the Northern Hemisphere at higher latitudes. Canada, with a drainage system has an estimated 31,752 lakes larger than 3 square kilometres and an unknown total number of lakes. Finland has 187,888 lakes 500 square metres or larger, most lakes have at least one natural outflow in the form of a river or stream, which maintain a lakes average level by allowing the drainage of excess water. Some lakes do not have an outflow and lose water solely by evaporation or underground seepage or both. Many lakes are artificial and are constructed for power generation, aesthetic purposes, recreational purposes, industrial use. Globally, lakes are greatly outnumbered by ponds, of an estimated 304 million standing water bodies worldwide, 91% are 1 hectare or less in area
43.
Isle au Haut, Maine
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Isle au Haut is a town in Knox County, Maine, United States, on an island of the same name in Penobscot Bay. The population was 73 at the 2010 census, home to portions of Acadia National Park, Isle au Haut is accessible by ferry from Stonington, Maine. Native Americans left behind shell mounds on the island following their oyster feasts and it was territory of the Penobscot Abenaki Indians when, in 1604, French explorer Samuel de Champlain named it Isle au Haut, meaning High Island. John Smith, charting the coast in 1614, noted that it was the highest island in Penobscot Bay and it was included in Deer Isle Plantation, incorporated by Massachusetts on February 2,1789, as the town of Deer Isle. In 1792, Henry Barter was granted land on the island and they subsisted by raising sheep, farming and fishing. In 1808, the island was the scene of a murder when smugglers shot, in the mid-19th century, the chief occupations were fishing and boatbuilding. On February 28,1874, Isle au Haut was set off from Deer Isle, by the late 19th century, when the islands population reached about 275, a village had developed beside the Isle au Haut Thoroughfare separating Kimball Island. The 1880s brought an influx of rusticators, seasonal inhabitants, often from Boston and other big cities, in 1910, Isle au Haut had 178 year-round residents and 15 summer families. Some fishermen left when motors replaced sails to power boats, allowing them to more conveniently from the mainland. By 1935, the population had dropped to 75, today, lobster fishing remains the main industry, while the portions of Acadia National Park which cover about 60% of the island attract a few tourists. Vacation houses, although far fewer than those of the summer colonies of North Haven, Vinalhaven and Mount Desert Island. Linda Greenlaw wrote a book about it titled The Lobster Chronicles, gordon Bok wrote a song entitled The hills of Isle au Haut. Electricity came to the island in 1970, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 113.20 square miles, of which 12.52 square miles is land and 100.68 square miles is water. Isle au Haut is an island approximately 6 miles long by 2 miles wide in Penobscot Bay, part of the Gulf of Maine, Mount Champlain, elevation 540 feet, is the highest point on the island, located on a north-south ridge occupying the islands center. Rocky Mountain, elevation 511 feet, and Sawyer Mountain, at 486 feet, are neighboring summits along the ridge to the south. The terrain consists of low hills covered by coniferous forests. As of the census of 2010, there were 73 people,42 households, the population density was 5.8 inhabitants per square mile. There were 172 housing units at a density of 13.7 per square mile
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Schoodic Peninsula
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The Schoodic Peninsula is a peninsula in Down East Maine. It is located four miles east of Bar Harbor, Maine, the Schoodic Peninsula contains 2,266 acres, or approximately 5% of Acadia National Park. It includes the towns of Gouldsboro and Winter Harbor, the peninsula has a rocky granite shoreline containing many volcanic dikes. The peninsula is home to the former United States Navy base, NGSA Winter Harbor, a 3, 300-acre resort development was proposed for land abutting Schoodic Peninsulas national park holdings to the north. An anonymous donor eventually bought the entire 3,200 acre tract and built the Schoodic Woods Campground, in the summer, the Schoodic peninsula is currently served by two separate ferry services from Bar Harbor to Winter Harbor that run daily. The island is visible across Frenchman Bay, but the trip by road from Bar Harbor around the bay to the peninsula is 45 miles long. Ferry service is available seven days a week from late June through September, the park is accessible via a one-way 7-mile long loop road. The main feature is Schoodic Head, the highest point on the peninsula at 440 feet above sea level, a number of hiking trails ascend the Head. Other features include the area at Frazer Point, views of Schoodic Point, Blueberry Hill. More than 1,000 acres of the park were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007 in recognition of this contribution. The lighthouse viewable to the northwest of Schoodic Head, Mark Islands Winter Harbor Light Station, was named to the National Register of Historic Places in 1988, a United States Navy base, NSGA Winter Harbor, operated on Schoodic Point from 1935 to 2002. A replacement for Otter Cliffs Radio Station, the base operated as a radio station, the former naval base has now been transformed into the Schoodic Education and Research Center, a research and training center for the National Park Service. In March 2008, Winter Harbor Holdings Inc, up to 1,000 homes could be built as part of the development, plans for a development airstrip were considered but rejected. The project would develop 40% of the land within the borders of the town of Winter Harbor and these plans have been the subject of controversy among local residents concerned about the effects of development on the environment and on local communities. Other controversies have come up regarding the identities of the Winter Harbor ownership group, National Register of Historic Places listings in Hancock County, Maine National Register of Historic Places listings in Acadia National Park Wright, Virginia M. Schoodic, The Secret Side of Acadia. Down East, The Magazine of Maine, workman, Allen K. Schoodic Point, History on the Edge of Acadia National Park. National Park Service map of Schoodic Peninsula
