1.
Ferrocerium
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Ferrocerium is a synthetic pyrophoric alloy that produces hot sparks that can reach temperatures of 3,000 °C when rapidly oxidized by the process of striking. Due to ferroceriums ability to ignite in adverse conditions, rods of ferrocerium are commonly used as a combustion device in survival kits. Invented by 1903 by the Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach, the pyrophoric effect is dependent on the brittleness of the alloy and its low autoignition temperature. e. The sparks are tiny pieces of burning metal, the sparking is due to ceriums low ignition temperature of between 150 and 180 °C. About 700 tons were produced in 2000, modern flint bears no chemical relationship to the mineral flint, the name for two types of rock historically used to generate sparks. A flint spark lighter is a type of lighter used in applications to safely light a gaseous fuel to start a flame. It is most commonly used for bunsen burners and oxyacetylene welding torches and this manual rubbing action, done by squeezing the handle, creates a spark which then lights the gaseous fuel. As tinder-igniting campfire starter rods it is sold under trade names as Blastmatch, Fire Steel and Metal-Match for survivalists. Some manufacturers and resellers incorrectly call them magnesium rods, the sparks from the ferrocerium will ignite the magnesium, which will in turn ignite the tinder. It is also known in Europe as Auermetall after its inventor Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach, three different Auermetalls were developed, the first was iron and cerium, the second also included lanthanum to produce brighter sparks, and the third added other heavy metals. In the Baron von Welsbachs first alloy, 30% iron was added to purified cerium, iron reacts with rare earth metals to form hard intermetallic compounds similar to those in neodymium magnets, such magnets are known to generate sparks when broken. A modern ferrocerium firesteel product is composed of an alloy of rare earth metals called mischmetal, plus iron, a variety of other components are added to modify the spark and processing characteristics. Most contemporary flints are hardened with 20% iron oxide and 2% magnesium oxide, firelighting Jorgenson, John D. Corathers, Lisa A. Gambogi, Joseph, Kuck, Peter H. Magyar, Michael J. Papp, John F. Shedd, Kim B
2.
Bunsen burner
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A Bunsen burner, named after Robert Bunsen, is a common piece of laboratory equipment that produces a single open gas flame, which is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion. The gas can be gas or a liquefied petroleum gas, such as propane, butane. In 1852 the University of Heidelberg hired Bunsen and promised him a new laboratory building, the city of Heidelberg had begun to install coal-gas street lighting, and so the university laid gas lines to the new laboratory. The designers of the building intended to use the gas not just for illumination, for any burner lamp, it was desirable to maximize the temperature and minimize luminosity. However, existing laboratory burner lamps left much to be desired not just in terms of the heat of the flame, but also regarding economy and simplicity. While the building was still under construction in late 1854 Bunsen suggested certain design principles to the mechanic, Peter Desaga. The Bunsen/Desaga design succeeded in generating a hot, sootless, non-luminous flame by mixing the gas with air in a controlled fashion before combustion, Desaga created adjustable slits for air at the bottom of the cylindrical burner, with the flame igniting at the top. By the time the building opened early in 1855 Desaga had made fifty of the burners for Bunsens students, two years later Bunsen published a description, and many of his colleagues soon adopted the design. Bunsen burners are now used in all around the world. The device in use today safely burns a continuous stream of a gas such as natural gas or a liquefied petroleum gas such as propane, butane. The hose barb is connected to a gas nozzle on the bench with rubber tubing. Most laboratory benches are equipped with multiple gas nozzles connected to a gas source, as well as vacuum, nitrogen. The gas then flows up through the base through a hole at the bottom of the barrel and is directed upward. There are open slots in the side of the bottom to admit air into the stream via the venturi effect. The most common methods of lighting the burner are using a match or a spark lighter, the amount of air mixed with the gas stream affects the completeness of the combustion reaction. Less air yields an incomplete and thus cooler reaction, while a gas stream well mixed with air provides oxygen in an amount and thus a complete. The air flow can be controlled by opening or closing the openings at the base of the barrel. If the collar at the bottom of the tube is adjusted so more air can mix with the gas before combustion, the flame will burn hotter, appearing blue as a result
3.
Chemistry
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Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
4.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
5.
Chemical reaction
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A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. Nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the reactions of unstable. The substance initially involved in a reaction are called reactants or reagents. Chemical reactions are characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products. Reactions often consist of a sequence of individual sub-steps, the elementary reactions. Chemical reactions are described with chemical equations, which present the starting materials, end products. Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic reaction rate at a given temperature, typically, reaction rates increase with increasing temperature because there is more thermal energy available to reach the activation energy necessary for breaking bonds between atoms. Reactions may proceed in the forward or reverse direction until they go to completion or reach equilibrium, Reactions that proceed in the forward direction to approach equilibrium are often described as spontaneous, requiring no input of free energy to go forward. Non-spontaneous reactions require input of energy to go forward. Different chemical reactions are used in combinations during chemical synthesis in order to obtain a desired product, in biochemistry, a consecutive series of chemical reactions form metabolic pathways. These reactions are catalyzed by protein enzymes. Chemical reactions such as combustion in fire, fermentation and the reduction of ores to metals were known since antiquity, in the Middle Ages, chemical transformations were studied by Alchemists. They attempted, in particular, to lead into gold, for which purpose they used reactions of lead. The process involved heating of sulfate and nitrate minerals such as sulfate, alum. In the 17th century, Johann Rudolph Glauber produced hydrochloric acid and sodium sulfate by reacting sulfuric acid, further optimization of sulfuric acid technology resulted in the contact process in the 1880s, and the Haber process was developed in 1909–1910 for ammonia synthesis. From the 16th century, researchers including Jan Baptist van Helmont, Robert Boyle, the phlogiston theory was proposed in 1667 by Johann Joachim Becher. It postulated the existence of an element called phlogiston, which was contained within combustible bodies. This proved to be false in 1785 by Antoine Lavoisier who found the explanation of the combustion as reaction with oxygen from the air
6.
Nuclear reaction
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Thus, a nuclear reaction must cause a transformation of at least one nuclide to another. Nuclear reaction is a term implying a change in a nuclide. Natural nuclear reactions occur in the interaction between rays and matter, and nuclear reactions can be employed artificially to obtain nuclear energy, at an adjustable rate. The complete equation therefore reads, or more simply, Instead of using the equations in the style above. This style of the form AD is equivalent to A + b producing c + D, the reaction above would be written as Li-6α. In 1919, Ernest Rutherford was able to accomplish transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen at the University of Manchester and this was the first observation of an induced nuclear reaction, that is, a reaction in which particles from one decay are used to transform another atomic nucleus. Kinetic energy may be released during the course of a reaction or kinetic energy may have to be supplied for the reaction to take place, in a nuclear reaction, the total energy is conserved. The missing rest mass must therefore reappear as kinetic energy released in the reaction, using Einsteins mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc², the amount of energy released can be determined. We first need the energy equivalent of one atomic unit,1 u c² = × ² =1.49242 × 10−10 kg ² =1.49242 × 10−10 J × =931.49 MeV. Hence, the energy released is 0.0238 ×931 MeV =22.2 MeV, expressed differently, the mass is reduced by 0. 3%, corresponding to 0. 3% of 90 PJ/kg is 270 TJ/kg. Consequently, alpha particles appear frequently on the hand side of nuclear reactions. When the product nucleus is metastable, this is indicated by placing an asterisk next to its atomic number and this energy is eventually released through nuclear decay. A small amount of energy may also emerge in the form of X-rays, generally, the product nucleus has a different atomic number, and thus the configuration of its electron shells is wrong. As the electrons rearrange themselves and drop to lower energy levels, for the particular case discussed above, the reaction energy has already been calculated as Q =22.2 MeV. Hence, The reaction energy is positive for exothermal reactions and negative for endothermal reactions, on the one hand, it is the difference between the sums of kinetic energies on the final side and on the initial side. But on the hand, it is also the difference between the nuclear rest masses on the initial side and on the final side. If the reaction equation is balanced, that not mean that the reaction really occurs. The rate at which reactions occur depends on the energy, the particle flux
7.
Joules
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The joule, symbol J, is a derived unit of energy in the International System of Units. It is equal to the transferred to an object when a force of one newton acts on that object in the direction of its motion through a distance of one metre. It is also the energy dissipated as heat when a current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule, one joule can also be defined as, The work required to move an electric charge of one coulomb through an electrical potential difference of one volt, or one coulomb volt. This relationship can be used to define the volt, the work required to produce one watt of power for one second, or one watt second. This relationship can be used to define the watt and this SI unit is named after James Prescott Joule. As with every International System of Units unit named for a person, note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2. The CGPM has given the unit of energy the name Joule, the use of newton metres for torque and joules for energy is helpful to avoid misunderstandings and miscommunications. The distinction may be also in the fact that energy is a scalar – the dot product of a vector force. By contrast, torque is a vector – the cross product of a distance vector, torque and energy are related to one another by the equation E = τ θ, where E is energy, τ is torque, and θ is the angle swept. Since radians are dimensionless, it follows that torque and energy have the same dimensions, one joule in everyday life represents approximately, The energy required to lift a medium-size tomato 1 m vertically from the surface of the Earth. The energy released when that same tomato falls back down to the ground, the energy required to accelerate a 1 kg mass at 1 m·s−2 through a 1 m distance in space. The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 0.24 °C, the typical energy released as heat by a person at rest every 1/60 s. The kinetic energy of a 50 kg human moving very slowly, the kinetic energy of a 56 g tennis ball moving at 6 m/s. The kinetic energy of an object with mass 1 kg moving at √2 ≈1.4 m/s, the amount of electricity required to light a 1 W LED for 1 s. Since the joule is also a watt-second and the unit for electricity sales to homes is the kW·h. For additional examples, see, Orders of magnitude The zeptojoule is equal to one sextillionth of one joule,160 zeptojoules is equivalent to one electronvolt. The nanojoule is equal to one billionth of one joule, one nanojoule is about 1/160 of the kinetic energy of a flying mosquito
8.
Rectangular potential barrier
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In quantum mechanics, the rectangular potential barrier is a standard one-dimensional problem that demonstrates the phenomena of wave-mechanical tunneling and wave-mechanical reflection. The problem consists of solving the one-dimensional time-independent Schrödinger equation for a particle encountering a rectangular potential energy barrier and it is usually assumed, as here, that a free particle impinges on the barrier from the left. In classical wave-physics, this effect is known as evanescent wave coupling, the likelihood that the particle will pass through the barrier is given by the transmission coefficient, whereas the likelihood that it is reflected is given by the reflection coefficient. Schrödingers wave-equation allows these coefficients to be calculated, Θ =0, x <0, Θ =1, x >0 is the Heaviside step function. The barrier is positioned between x =0 and x = a, the barrier can be shifted to any x position without changing the results. The first term in the Hamiltonian, − ℏ22 m d 2 d x 2 ψ is the kinetic energy, the barrier divides the space in three parts. The index r/l on the coefficients A and B denotes the direction of the velocity vector, note that, if the energy of the particle is below the barrier height, k 1 becomes imaginary and the wave function is exponentially decaying within the barrier. Nevertheless, we keep the notation r/l even though the waves are not propagating anymore in this case, the case E = V0 is treated below. The coefficients A, B, C have to be found from the conditions of the wave function at x =0 and x = a. The wave function and its derivative have to be continuous everywhere, ψ L = ψ C d d x ψ L = d d x ψ C ψ C = ψ R d d x ψ C = d d x ψ R. The complete solution of the Schrödinger equation is found in the way as above by matching wave functions. At this point, it is instructive to compare the situation to the classical case, in both cases, the particle behaves as a free particle outside of the barrier region. A classical particle with energy E larger than the barrier height V0 would always pass the barrier, to study the quantum case, consider the following situation, a particle incident on the barrier from the left side. It may be reflected or transmitted, to find the amplitudes for reflection and transmission for incidence from the left, we put in the above equations A r =1, A l = r, C l =0, and C r = t. We then eliminate the coefficients B l, B r from the equation and solve for r and t. The result is, t =4 k 0 k 1 e − i a 2 − e 2 i a k 12 r = sin 2 i k 0 k 1 cos + sin . Due to the symmetry of the model, the amplitudes for incidence from the right are the same as those from the left. Note that these expressions hold for any energy E >0 and this effect, which differs from the classical case, is called quantum tunneling
