1.
Amharic
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Amharic is an Afro-Asiatic language of the Semitic branch. It is spoken as a mother tongue by the Amhara in Ethiopia, the language serves as the official working language of Ethiopia, and is also the official or working language of several of the states within the federal system. Amharic is the second-most widely spoken Semitic language in the world after Arabic and it is written using Amharic Fidel, ፊደል, which grew out of the Geez abugida—called, in Ethiopian Semitic languages, ፊደል fidel and አቡጊዳ abugida. There is no agreed way of transliterating Amharic into Roman characters, the Amharic examples in the sections below use one system that is common, though not universal, among linguists specializing in Ethiopian Semitic languages. Amharic is spoken by 22 million native speakers in Ethiopia and 15 million secondary speakers in Ethiopia, additionally,3 million emigrants outside of Ethiopia speak the language. Most of the Ethiopian Jewish communities in Ethiopia and Israel speak Amharic, in Washington DC, Amharic became one of the six non-English languages in the Language Access Act of 2004, which allows government services and education in Amharic. Furthermore, Amharic is considered a language by the Rastafari religion and is widely used among its followers worldwide. It is the most widely spoken language in the Horn of Africa, the Amharic ejective consonants correspond to the Proto-Semitic emphatic consonants, usually transcribed with a dot below the letter. The consonant and vowel tables give these symbols in parentheses where they differ from the standard IPA symbols, the Amharic script is an abugida, and the graphemes of the Amharic writing system are called fidel. Each character represents a sequence, but the basic shape of each character is determined by the consonant. Some consonant phonemes are written by more than one series of characters, /ʔ/, /s/, /sʼ/ and this is because these fidel originally represented distinct sounds, but phonological changes merged them. The citation form for each series is the form, i. e. the first column of the fidel. The Amharic script is included in Unicode, and glyphs are included in fonts available with major operating systems, as in most other Ethiopian Semitic languages, gemination is contrastive in Amharic. That is, consonant length can distinguish words from one another, for example, alä he said, allä there is, yǝmätall he hits, gemination is not indicated in Amharic orthography, but Amharic readers typically do not find this to be a problem. This property of the system is analogous to the vowels of Arabic and Hebrew or the tones of many Bantu languages. Punctuation includes the following, ፠ section mark ፡ word separator ። full stop ፣ comma ፤ semicolon ፥ colon ፦ Preface colon, question mark ፨ paragraph separator Simple Amharic sentences One may construct simple Amharic sentences by using a subject and a predicate. Here are a few sentences, ኢትዮጵያ አፍሪቃ ውስጥ ናት ʾItyop̣p̣ya ʾAfriqa wǝsṭ nat Ethiopia is in Africa. Lǝǧu is the boy The boy is asleep, አየሩ ደስ ይላል Ayyäru däss yǝlall
2.
Lion of Judah
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The Lion of Judah is the symbol of the Hebrew tribe of Judah. According to the Torah, the tribe consists of the descendants of Judah, the association between Judah and the lion, most likely the Asiatic lion, can first be found in the blessing given by Jacob to his son Judah in the Book of Genesis. The Lion of Judah is also mentioned in the Book of Revelation, as a term representing Jesus, the lion of Judah was also one of the titles of the Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie and was depicted on the flag of Ethiopia from 1897-1974. Due to its association with Selassie, it continues to be an important symbol among members of the Rastafari movement, the biblical Judah is the original name of the Tribe of Judah, which is traditionally symbolized by a lion. In Genesis, the patriarch Jacob gave that symbol to his tribe when he refers to his son Judah as a Gur Aryeh גּוּר אַרְיֵה יְהוּדָה, in Jewish naming tradition the Hebrew name and the substitute name are often combined as a pair, as in this case. The Lion of Judah was used as a Jewish symbol for many years and it is unknown whether John of Patmos was directly aware of this hereditary title when he penned it into the text of the prophecy. The Lion of Judah motif figured prominently on the old flag, currency, stamps, etc. After the collapse of the Communist Derg in 1990 and the increase of Western-style political freedoms, the Lion of Judah is a prominent symbol in the Rastafari movement. It represents Emperor Haile Selassie I as well as being a symbol of strength, kingship, pride, Rastafari consider the mention of The Lion of Judah in Genesis 49,9 and Revelation 5,5 of The Bible to refer to Emperor Haile Selassie I. Rastafari hail Halie Selassie I with the titles KING of Kings, LORD of lords, Conquering Lion of Judah, Elect of God and this is widely regarded as a reference to Jesus among Christians. Many Christian organizations and ministries use the lion of Judah as their emblem or even as their name, inspired by the Lion of Judah, C. S. Lewis used a lion named Aslan to represent Jesus in The Chronicles of Narnia. Lions in Jewish art Jewish Heraldry Lion of Judah small movie
3.
Tiglachin Monument
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The Tiglachin monument is a memorial to Ethiopian and Cuban soldiers involved in the Ogaden War. It was built under Mengistu Haile Mariam on Churchill Avenue in Addis Ababa, the monument is composed of various elements, a central statue, a 50 m tall pillar, two wall reliefs on the sides and two squares where the portraits of Cuban soldiers are visible. The monument sits in front of the Black Lion Hospital, the monument was inaugurated on 12 September 1984, the tenth anniversary of the overthrow of Haile Selassie. The statuary was donated by North Korea, and was manufactured by the Mansudae Art Studio, currently, the monument grounds are overgrown and the monument has suffered from neglect under the EPRDF government, which overthrew the Derg. Some have suggested that it be demolished, the central statue depicts three armed people and the hammer and sickle flag of Marxism. The inscription would read, The actions of the heroes who fell in the struggle for life and respect for our homeland. The main pillar in the back is decorated with a depiction of the Heroes Medal, the highest honour of Communist Ethiopia, to the left and to the right of this pillar are wall reliefs. The left wall relief, deeply affected by the Marxist style, finally, on the left, the people seem to be liberated and ready to support his army
4.
St. George's Cathedral, Addis Ababa
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St Georges Cathedral is an Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo cathedral in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. It is noted for its distinctive octagonal form and it is located at the northern end of Churchill Road in the city. The building was described in 1938 in an Italian tourist publication as a example of the European interpretation of Ethiopian church design. The Italian Fascist authorities set the building on fire during the war in 1937, the cathedral was later restored by the Emperor following the liberation in 1941. Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia was crowned at this Cathedral in 1917, and Emperor Haile Selassie was crowned there in 1930, the Cathedral has a museum, and an Imperial throne is on display as is the stained glass works of artist Afewerk Tekle. Given the reason why the cathedral was named, it displays weaponry used in the wars against the Italians including curved swords and tridents and giant helmets made from the manes of lions
5.
Ethio-Djibouti Railways
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Ethio-Djibouti Railways, also known as the Ethio-Djibouti Railway Enterprise, is a railway company based in the Horn of Africa. It was established in 1981 as the successor to the Franco-Ethiopian Railway, the railway links Addis Ababa, the capital of landlocked Ethiopia, to the Port of Djibouti in Djibouti City. Maintenance shops along the line are located in Dire Dawa, which grew up as the depot for nearby Harar. The railroad is abandoned between Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa. Through trains have not run since 2008, service is available between Dire Dawa and Djibouti. The parallel Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway, a standard gauge railway. It was built and is operated by Chinese state-owned companies, the single track 781 km railway has a 1,000 mm gauge, most of it on Ethiopian territory, and about 100 km in Djibouti. There are 187 bridges along the route, but only one tunnel at Gol du Harr, the Imperial Railway Company of Ethiopia was a firm founded in 1894 to build and operate a railway across eastern Ethiopia from the port of Djibouti to the capital of Addis Ababa. It was founded by Alfred Ilg and Léon Chefneux and headquartered in Paris, the firm failed in 1906 when political discord halted construction, and it failed to obtain any new capital. The portion it had completed ran from Djibouti to just short of Harar, during the era of Emperor Menelik II the Somali clans Issa and Gadabursi were among the railway workers when the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway was under construction and greatly benefited from it. Also Its terminus evolved into the city of Dire Dawa, today a city than Harar itself. Discussion of an Ethiopian railway was initiated by Alfred Ilg, an advisor to Emperor Menelek II, when Menelek acceded to the throne in 1889, negotiations began anew and a decree was granted on February 11,1893, to study the construction of rail line. Ilg, a Swiss citizen, and a number of French associates put together a firm and received a charter on March 9,1894. Furthermore, the firm was obliged to construct a line along the route. It took until 1897 before the permission from French authorities was received. The emperor himself was irate at the involvement of the French government, which had offered to fund the line, there was also opposition from the British legation in Addis Ababa, which feared a reduction in traffic to the port of Zeila in British Somaliland. The firm also had difficulty selling its shares in Europe. All in all, the stock offering only earned 8,738,000 francs of the 14 million projected
6.
Mount Entoto
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Mount Entoto is the highest peak overlooking the city of Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, and has views of the city. It reaches 3,200 meters above sea level and is part of the Entoto mountain chain and it is a historical place where Emperor Menelik II resided and built his palace, when he came from Ankober and founded Addis Ababa. It is considered a mountain and has many monasteries. Mount Entoto is also the location of a number of celebrated churches, including Saint Raguel, the mountain is densely covered by eucalyptus trees that were imported from Australia during the reign of Menelik II, and mostly planted during Emperor Haile Selassies reign. Thus, it is referred to as the lung of Addis Ababa. The forest on the mountain is an important source of firewood for the city and it was also a source of building material in earlier times. The Ethiopian Heritage Trust, a non-profit, non-governmental organization, is working actively to change part of the mountain to its old state, a natural park. Entoto Natural Park is the rim of Addis Abeba, on the southeastern slopes of Mt. Entoto. It is situated at an altitude of between 2,600 and 3,100 meters and its annual average rainfall and temperature are 1200 mm and 14°C, respectively. The northern rim of the park serves as a watershed between the Abay and Awash rivers, the Ethiopian Space Science Society has an observatory on the 3,200 m summit
7.
Meskel Square
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Meskel Square is a square in the city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. It is often a site for gathering or for demonstrations and festivals, notably. The Meskel Festival has been celebrated for over 1,600 years, the word Meskel means cross and the festival commemorates the moment when the crucifix was revealed to Empress Helena of Constantinople, mother of Constantine the Great. The festival is seen as a moment to welcome in the spring season by displaying the distinctive yellow Meskel daisies. A burning pyramid is located in the center and is circled by priests in brightly colored cloaks, students, brass bands, and they set the pyramid alight with their torches, and the burning pyramid is kept ablaze until dawn until the celebrations through the night have ended. Following the fall of the monarchy in 1974, Meskel Square was renamed Abiot or Revolution Square and it was greatly expanded so that it could accommodate the annual Revolution Day and May Day parades on September 12 and May 1. Three gigantic portraits of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels and Vladimir Lenin were erected in the square, the population of Addis Ababa would joke that these were the new trinity. Meskel bonfires continued to be lit there however for a number of years, between 1988 and 1991, the officially atheist government ordered the Meskel celebration to be moved back to the small square outside the southern gates of St. George Cathedral. The square is used for other secular purposes. Concerts, parades, car races, and various other government, political parties often hold rallies in the square. Part of the ceremonies surrounding the re-burial of Emperor Haile Selassie took place in the square as well. The annual Great Ethiopian Run passes through Meskel Square, on 6 August 2016 hundreds of protesters marched on Meskel Square during the 2016 Ethiopian protests and shouted we want our freedom and free our political prisoners
8.
Ethiopia
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Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north and northeast, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. With nearly 100 million inhabitants, Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world and it occupies a total area of 1,100,000 square kilometres, and its capital and largest city is Addis Ababa. Some of the oldest evidence for modern humans has been found in Ethiopia. It is widely considered as the region from modern humans first set out for the Middle East. According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations settled in the Horn region during the ensuing Neolithic era, tracing its roots to the 2nd millennium BC, Ethiopia was a monarchy for most of its history. During the first centuries AD, the Kingdom of Aksum maintained a unified civilization in the region, subsequently, many African nations adopted the colors of Ethiopias flag following their independence. It was the first independent African member of the 20th-century League of Nations, Ethiopias ancient Geez script, also known as Ethiopic, is one of the oldest alphabets still in use in the world. The Ethiopian calendar, which is seven years and three months behind the Gregorian calendar, co-exists alongside the Borana calendar. A slight majority of the population adheres to Christianity, while around a third follows Islam, the country is the site of the Migration to Abyssinia and the oldest Muslim settlement in Africa at Negash. A substantial population of Ethiopian Jews, known as Bete Israel, resided in Ethiopia until the 1980s, Ethiopia is a multilingual nation with around 80 ethnolinguistic groups, the four largest of which are the Oromiffa, Amhara, Somali, and Tigrayans. Most people in the country speak Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches, additionally, Omotic languages are spoken by ethnic minority groups inhabiting the southern regions. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by the nations Nilotic ethnic minorities. Ethiopia is the place of origin for the coffee bean which originated from the place called Kefa and it is a land of natural contrasts, with its vast fertile West, jungles, and numerous rivers, and the worlds hottest settlement of Dallol in its north. The Ethiopian Highlands are Africas largest continuous mountain ranges, and Sof Omar Caves contain Africas largest cave, Ethiopia has the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa. Ethiopia is one of the members of the UN, the Group of 24, the Non-Aligned Movement, G-77. In the 1970s and 1980s, Ethiopia suffered from civil wars, the country has begun to recover recently however, and now has the largest economy in East Africa and Central Africa. According to Global Fire Power, Ethiopia has the 42nd most powerful military in the world, the origin of the word Ethiopia is uncertain
9.
Metropolitan area
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As social, economic and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions. The Greater São Paulo is a term for one of the multiple definitions the large metropolitan area located in the São Paulo state in Brazil. A metropolitan area combines an urban agglomeration with zones not necessarily urban in character and these outlying zones are sometimes known as a commuter belt, and may extend well beyond the urban zone, to other political entities. For example, El Monte, California is considered part of the Los Angeles metro area in the United States, in practice, the parameters of metropolitan areas, in both official and unofficial usage, are not consistent. Population figures given for one area can vary by millions. A polycentric metropolitan area is one not connected by continuous development or conurbation, in defining a metropolitan area, it is sufficient that a city or cities form a nucleus that other areas have a high degree of integration with. The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines statistical divisions as areas under the influence of one or more major towns or a major city. However, this definition has become obsolete with the conurbation of several statistical divisions into a larger metropolitan areas. In Brazil, metropolitan areas are called metropolitan regions, each State defines its own legislation for the creation, definition and organization of a metropolitan region. The creation of a region is not intended for any statistical purpose, although the Brazilian Institute of Geography. Their main purpose is to allow for a management of public policies of common interest to all cities involved. They dont have political, electoral or jurisdictional power whatsoever, so living in a metropolitan region do not elect representatives for them. Statistics Canada defines a metropolitan area as an area consisting of one or more adjacent municipalities situated around a major urban core. To form a CMA, the area must have a population of at least 100,000. To be included in the CMA, adjacent municipalities must have a degree of integration with the core. As of the Canada 2011 Census, there were 33 CMAs in Canada, including six with a population over one million—Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary and Edmonton. In Denmark the only area is Greater Copenhagen, consisting of the Capital Region of Denmark along with the neighboring regions Region Zealand. Greater Copenhagen has an population of 1.25 million people
10.
Ethiopian Mapping Authority
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Today the EMA has expanded its operation to include a comprehensive map revision programme in addition to various phases of digital mapping and information technology. The organization was established in 1954 under the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I as a department in the Imperial Ethiopian Ministry of Education and it was initially established to produce graphic materials and geography textbooks for educational purposes. The Institute was transferred to the Ministry of Interior in 1960 and expanded its operations to some basic cartographic activities. Army Map Service, later known as Topographic Command, to base maps of the country. The topographic surveying was provided by soldiers from the 64th Engineer Battalion, 29th Engineer Company, using the survey data from the Mapping Mission, The Army Map Service/Topocom completed the photogrammetric map compilation and cartographic map finishing operations. The organisation was placed under a Director General with two Directors and seventy employees, and was reorganized into three subdivisions, Photogrammetry, Cartography and Photo Laboratory, the Institute was reorganized again in 1980 and was renamed the Ethiopian Mapping Authority
11.
Regions of Ethiopia
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Ethiopia is a federal state subdivided into ethno-linguistically based regional states and chartered cities. The regions are governed by a regional council whose members are directly elected to represent districts. Each council has a president, who is elected by the council, the regions also have an executive committee, whose members are selected by the president from among the councilors and approved by the council. Each region has a bureau, which implements the council mandate. There are currently nine regional states and two chartered cities, the latter being the countrys capital Addis Ababa, and Dire Dawa, the word kilil more specifically means reservation or protected area. Flags of the regions of Ethiopia ISO 3166-2, ET Subdivisions of Ethiopia Regional maps of Ethiopia at UN-OCHA States of Ethiopia at Statoids
12.
African Union
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The African Union is a continental union consisting of all 55 countries on the African continent. It was established on 26 May 2001 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, the most important decisions of the AU are made by the Assembly of the African Union, a semi-annual meeting of the heads of state and government of its member states. The AUs secretariat, the African Union Commission, is based in Addis Ababa, the objectives of the AU are, To achieve greater unity and solidarity between the African countries and Africans. To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of its Member States, to accelerate the political and social-economic integration of the continent. To promote and defend African common positions on issues of interest to the continent, to encourage international cooperation, taking due account of the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. To promote peace, security, and stability on the continent, to promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation and good governance. To promote and protect human and peoples rights in accordance with the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, to establish the necessary conditions which enable the continent to play its rightful role in the global economy and in international negotiations. To promote sustainable development at the economic, social and cultural levels as well as the integration of African economies, to promote co-operation in all fields of human activity to raise the living standards of African peoples. To coordinate and harmonize the policies between the existing and future Regional Economic Communities for the attainment of the objectives of the Union. To advance the development of the continent by promoting research in all fields, in particular in science, to work with relevant international partners in the eradication of preventable diseases and the promotion of good health on the continent. The African Union is made up of political and administrative bodies. The highest decision-making organ is the Assembly of the African Union, the Assembly is chaired by Idriss Déby, President of Chad. The AU also has a body, the Pan African Parliament. Its president is Bethel Nnaemeka Amadi, the AU Commission, the secretariat to the political structures, is chaired by Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma of South Africa. On 15 July 2012, Ms. Dlamini-Zuma won a contested vote to become the first female head of the African Union Commission. The main administrative capital of the African Union is in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, a new headquarters complex, the AU Conference Center and Office Complex, was inaugurated on 28 January 2012, during the 18th AU summit. The tower is 99.9 meters high to signify the date 9 September 1999, the AU covers the entire continent except for several territories held by Spain, France, Portugal and the United Kingdom. AU troops were deployed in Sudan for peacekeeping during Darfur conflict
13.
Organisation of African Unity
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The Organisation of African Unity was established on 25 May 1963 in Addis Ababa, with 32 signatory governments. It was disbanded on 9 July 2002 by its last chairperson, South African President Thabo Mbeki, the OAU had the following primary aims, To co-ordinate and intensify the co-operation of African states in order to achieve a better life for the people of Africa. To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African states, South Africa and Angola were two such countries. The OAU proposed two ways of ridding the continent of colonialism and white minority rule, firstly, it would defend the interests of independent countries and help to pursue the independence those of still-colonised ones. Secondly, it would remain neutral in terms of world affairs, a Liberation Committee was established to aid independence movements and look after the interests of already-independent states. The OAU also aimed to stay neutral in terms of global politics, the OAU had other aims, too, Ensure that all Africans enjoyed human rights. Raise the living standards of all Africans, settle arguments and disputes between members – not through fighting but rather peaceful and diplomatic negotiation. Soon after achieving independence, a number of African states expressed a desire for more unity within the continent. Aside from Ghana, it comprised also Algeria, Guinea, Morocco, Egypt, Mali, founded in 1961, its members were described as progressive states. The Monrovian bloc, led by Senghor of Senegal, felt that unity should be achieved gradually and it did not support the notion of a political federation. Its other members were Nigeria, Liberia, Ethiopia and most of the former French colonies, some of the initial discussions took place at Sanniquellie, Liberia. The dispute was resolved when Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie I invited the two groups to Addis Ababa, where the OAU and its headquarters were subsequently established. The Charter of the Organisation was signed by 32 independent African states, the organisation was widely derided as a bureaucratic talking shop with little power. It struggled to enforce its decisions, and its lack of armed force made intervention exceedingly difficult, civil wars in Nigeria and Angola continued unabated for years, and the OAU could do nothing to stop them. The policy of non-interference in the affairs of member states also limited the effectiveness of the OAU, thus, when human rights were violated, as in Uganda under Idi Amin in the 1970s, the OAU was powerless to stop them. The Organisation was praised by Ghanaian former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan for bringing Africans together, the OAU was, however, successful in some respects. Many of its members were members of the UN, too and its pursuit of African unity, therefore, was in some ways successful. Total unity was difficult to achieve, however, as the OAU was largely divided, the pro-Socialist faction was led by Kwame Nkrumah, while Félix Houphouët-Boigny of the Ivory Coast led the pro-capitalists
14.
Addis Ababa University
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Addis Ababa University is a state university in Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia. Originally called the University College of Addis Ababa at its establishment in 1950, the institution received its current name in 1975. Addis Ababa University was founded as a college in 1950 by a Canadian Jesuit, Dr Lucien Matte. It began operations the following year, over the following two years an affiliation with the University of London was developed. The writer and theorist Richard Cummings served as a member of the Faculty of Law in the 1960s, the university offered its first Masters programs in 1979 and its first PhD programs in 1987. Three top university administrators resigned their posts in December 2002 in protest against increasing government interference in internal university matters, government officials wanted the University to change its system of student evaluations to conform to a gemgema system favored by the ruling party. In 2013/2014, there were 33,940 enrolled undergraduate students,13,000 graduate students and 1733 PhD students, Addis Ababa University has thirteen campuses. Twelve of these are situated in Addis Ababa, and one is located in Bishoftu and it also maintains branches in many cities throughout Ethiopia. The government assigns qualified students to these universities upon completion of secondary school, associated institutions include the Institute of Ethiopian Studies, founded by Richard Pankhurst. The Development of Higher Education and Social Change, an Ethiopian Experience
15.
Fra Mauro
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Cam. was an Italian cartographer who lived in the Republic of Venice. He created the most detailed and accurate map of the world up until that time, Mauro was a monk of the Camaldolese Monastery of St. Michael, located on the island of Murano in the Venetian Lagoon. It was there that he maintained a cartography workshop and he also was employed by some very powerful men like Prince Henry the Navigator. Fra Mauro was born before or around the year 1400, in his youth, Mauro had traveled extensively as a merchant and a soldier. He was familiar with the Middle East and he is recorded in the records of the Monastery of St. Michael from 1409. As a lay member of the monastery, Mauro was employed as mapmaker, in the records of the monastery his main job was recorded as collecting the monasterys rents, but from the 1450s he is also mentioned as the creator of a series of world maps. Although he was no longer free to travel, due to his religious status, by 1450 he composed a great mappa mundi - a world map - with surprising accuracy, including extensive written comments reflecting the geographic knowledge of his time. The map is today as the Fra Mauro map. The Fra Mauro world map, or mappa mundi, was a major work that compiled much of the geographical knowledge of the time. The map covers over five square meters, the map is extremely detailed and contains many thousands of texts and illustrations. The world map took several years to complete and was the most detailed, Fra Mauro created the map under a commission by King Afonso V of Portugal. Andrea Bianco, a sailor-cartographer, is recorded as having collaborated with Fra Mauro in creating the map, the map was completed on 24 April 1459, and sent to Portugal, but that copy didnt survive. Along with the map was a letter from the Doge of Venice and it was intended for Prince Henry the Navigator, Afonso Vs uncle. It encouraged the prince to continue funding exploratory journeys, Fra Mauro died the following year, while he was making a copy of the map for the Signoria of Venice. The copy was completed by Andrea Bianco, a commemorative medal of the period struck in honor of his cartographic work describes Fra Mauro as chosmographus incomparabilis. Two copies of maps by Fra Mauro are known to survive, one is a portolan chart in the Vatican Library, published by Roberto Almagià in 1944. The crater Fra Mauro and associated Fra Mauro formation of the Moon are named after him. The Apollo 13 lunar mission was intended to explore the Fra Mauro formation, the formation was instead explored by astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell of the Apollo 14 mission in February 1971
16.
Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi
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Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi the Conqueror was a Imam and General of the Adal Sultanate who invaded Abyssinia and defeated several Abyssinian emperors. Imam Ahmad is regarded by scholars as an ethnic Somali. Imam Ahmad was born in 1506 just 30 miles away from Harar, Ahmad spent most of his childhood in the city of Harar. Due to the rule during the reign of Sultan Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad, Ahmad would leave Harar for Hubat. He married Bati del Wambara, the daughter of Mahfuz, the Governor of Zeila, in 1531, Bati would give birth to their first child named Muhammad. Ethiopian historians such as Azazh Tino and Bahrey have written that during the period of his rise to power, Imam Ahmad maintained the discipline of most of his men, defeating Emperor Lebna Dengel at Shimbra Kure that March. The chronicle of Imam Ahmads invasion of Abyssinia is depicted in various Somali, Abyssinian, Imam Ahmad campaigned in Abyssinia in 1531, breaking Emperor Lebna Dengels ability to resist in the Battle of Amba Sel on October 28. The Muslim army of Imam Ahmad then marched northward to loot the island monastery of Lake Hayq, when the Imam entered the province of Tigray, he defeated an Abyssinian army that confronted him there. On reaching Axum, he destroyed the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion, the Abyssinians were forced to ask for help from the Portuguese, who landed at the port of Massawa on February 10,1541, during the reign of the emperor Gelawdewos. The force was led by Cristóvão da Gama and included 400 musketeers as well as a number of artisans, da Gama and Imam Ahmad met on April 1,1542 at Jarte, which Trimingham has identified with Anasa, between Amba Alagi and Lake Ashenge. Over the next days, Imam Ahmads forces were reinforced by arrivals of fresh troops. Understanding the need to act swiftly, da Gama on April 16 again formed a square which he led against Imam Ahmads camp, reinforced by the arrival of the Bahr negus Yeshaq, da Gama marched southward after Imam Ahmads force, coming within sight of him ten days later. However, the onset of the season prevented da Gama from engaging Ahmad a third time. On the advice of Queen Sabla Wengel, da Gama made winter camp at Wofla near Lake Ashenge, still within sight of his opponent, knowing that victory lay in the number of firearms an army had, the Imam sent to his fellow Muslims for help. According to Abbé João Bermudes, Imam Ahmad received 2000 musketeers from Arabia, meanwhile, due to casualties and other duties, da Gamas force was reduced to 300 musketeers. After the rains ended, Imam Ahmad attacked the Portuguese camp, da Gama himself, badly wounded, was captured with ten of his men and, after refusing an offer to spare his life if he would convert to Islam, was executed. Gragn was killed by a Portuguese musketeer, who was wounded in avenging da Gamas death. His wife Bati del Wambara managed to escape the battlefield with a remnant of the Turkish soldiers, and they made their way back to Harar, intent on avenging her husbands death, she married his nephew Nur ibn Mujahid on condition that Nur would avenge Imam Ahmads defeat
17.
Awash River
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The Awash, Somali, Webiga Dir, is a major river of Ethiopia. It is the stream of an endorheic drainage basin covering parts of the Amhara, Oromia and Somali Regions. According to Huntingford, in the 16th century the Awash river was called the great Dir river, the Awash rises south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa in the woreda of Dandi, close to the town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. Then, the Awash flows south to loop around Mount Zuqualla in an easterly then northeasterly direction, according to materials published by the Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency, the Awash River is 1200 kilometers long. Other tributaries of the Awash include, the Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna, towns and cities along its course include Metehara, Awash, Gewane and Asaita. Humans have lived in the valley of the Awash almost since the beginning of the species, the Middle Awash has been where numerous pre-human hominid remains have been found. The valley of the Awash from about 9° N downstream is the home of the Afar people. The valley of the Awash have been included as part of the territories of the provinces or kingdoms of Dawaro, Fatagar, Ifat. Except for Shewa, these provinces disappeared with the arrival of groups of the Oromo in the 16th century, in 1960, the Koka Dam was completed across the Awash River at a point around 75 kilometers from Addis Ababa. With its opening, it became a source of hydroelectric power in the area. The resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila, has an area of about 180 square kilometers, both lake and dam are threatened by increasing sedimentation. The Awash International Bank is named for the Awash River, the lower Awash valley is one of the last wildlife preserves for the African wild ass. The mammal is now extinct in Yangudi Rassa National Park, other large animals native to the area include Beisa Oryx, Soemmerings gazelle, Dorcas gazelle, gerenuk and Grevys zebra. Abstract This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
18.
Menelik II
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Emperor Menelik II GCB, GCMG, baptized as Sahle Maryam, was Negus of Shewa, then Emperor of Ethiopia from 1889 to his death. Ethiopia was transformed under Emperor Menelik, the major signposts of modernization were put in place, Menelik expanded his kingdom to the south and east, expanding into Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms. He is widely called Emiye Menelik in Ethiopia for his forgiving nature, Abeto Menelik was born in Angolalla, near Debre Birhan, in the Amhara Region. He was the son of Negus Haile Melekot of Shewa and Woizero Ijigayehu, Woizero Ijigayehu was a lady in the household of Haile Melekots grandmother, the formidable Woizero Zenebework, widow of Merid Azmatch Wossen Seged, and mother of King Sahle Selassie of Showa. Most sources indicate that no marriage took place between Haile Melekot and Woizero Ijigayehu, Sahle Selassie ordered his grandson legitimized. Menelik II had been born at Angolala in the Amhara region, prior to his death in 1855, Negus Haile Melekot named Menelik as successor to the throne of Shewa. Shortly after Haile Melekot died, Menelik was taken prisoner by Emperor Tewodros II, following Emperor Tewodros IIs conquest of Shewa, he had young Sahle Maryam transferred to his mountain stronghold of Magdala. Still, Tewodros treated the young prince well and he even offered him the hand of his daughter Altash Tewodros in marriage, which Menelik accepted. Upon Meneliks imprisonment, his uncle, Haile Mikael, was appointed as Shum of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros II with the title of Meridazmach, however, Meridazmach Haile Mikael rebelled against Tewodros, resulting in his being replaced by the non-royal Ato Bezabeh as Shum. However, Ato Bezabeh in turn then rebelled against the Emperor, although the Shewan royals imprisoned at Magdala had been largely complacent as long as a member of their family ruled over Shewa, this usurpation by a commoner was not palatable to them. Enraged, Emperor Tewodros slaughtered 29 Oromo hostages then had 12 Amhara notables beaten to death with bamboo rods, Abeto Menelik entered Ankober and proclaimed himself Negus. While Negus Menelik reclaimed his ancestral Shewan crown, he laid claim to the Imperial throne. Not wishing to take part in the 1868 Expedition to Abyssinia, he allowed his rival Kassai to benefit with gifts of modern weapons, when Tewodros committed suicide, Menelik II arranged for an official rejoicing and celebration of his death even though he was personally saddened by the loss. When the British asked him why he did this, he replied to satisfy the passions of the people, as for me, I should have gone into a forest to weep over. I have now lost the one who educated me, and toward whom I had always cherished filial, Menelik II was cunning and strategic in building his power base. Another Italian writes of Menelik II, had the curiosity of a boy, great intelligence and great mechanical ability. Menelik II spoke with great economy and rapidity and he never became upset, Chiarini adds, listening calmly, judiciously with good sense. He is fatalistic and a soldier, he loves weapons above all else
19.
Taytu Betul
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Taytu Betul was an Empress Consort of the Ethiopian Empire and the third wife of Emperor Menelek II of Ethiopia. She founded Addis Ababa, Ethiopias capital city, Taytu Betul was born in or around 1851, the third of four children in an aristocratic Ethiopian family that was related to the Solomonic dynasty. Her father, Ras Betul Haile Maryam was less known than her uncle Dejazmach Wube Haile Maryam, who was the ruler of much of Northern Ethiopia in the 1840s. Her fathers family were the family of Semien province, claiming descent from Emperor Susenyos I. Taytu had the reputation of being proud of her lineage in Yejju, Semien. After four failed marriages, Taytu Betul married King Menelek of Shewa, Taytu is acknowledged to have wielded considerable political power as the wife of Menelik, both before and after they were crowned Emperor and Empress in 1889. She led the faction at court that resisted the modernists and progressives who wanted to develop Ethiopia along western lines. This victory was the most significant of any African army battling European colonialism, as a result, Empress Taytu was increasingly unpopular while Menelik remained very loved by one and all at court and beyond. In 1910, she was forced from power, and a regency under Ras Tessema Nadew took over, instructed to limit herself to the care of her stricken husband, Taytu faded from the political scene. Taytu and Menelik did not have any children, Menelik died in 1913 and was succeeded by his grandson from a daughter of a previous liaison, Lij Iyasu. Taytu was banished to the old Palace at Entoto, next to the St. Marys church she had founded years before, zauditu, Menelik IIs daughter by yet another previous marriage, had always been close to Empress Taytu and invited Taytu to live with her. Although Taytu declined she resumed advising rulers in a modest way, Taytu lived out the next few years at the old palace next to the Entoto Maryam Church overlooking Addis Ababa. She requested permission to go to Gondar in November 1917 to end her days and she is buried next to her husband at the Taeka Negest Baeta Le Mariam Monastery in Addis Ababa. Empress Taytu and Menilek II, Ethiopia 1883-1910, trenton, The Red Sea Press,1986. ISBN 0-932415-11-3 Women Leaders in Africa
20.
Shewa
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Shewa, formerly romanized as Shoa, is a historical region of Ethiopia, formerly an autonomous kingdom within the Ethiopian Empire. The modern Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa is located at its center, Shewa was as defensible as any highland, and its government traced an administrative continuity with this earlier period despite the loss of neighboring lands to the Ethiopian Empire. At times, it was a haven, at other times, the towns of Debre Berhan, Antsokia, Ankober, Entoto and, after Shewa became a province of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa have all served as the capital of Shewa at various times. The monastery of Debre Libanos, founded by Saint Tekle Haymanot, is located in the district of Selale, Shewa first appears in the historical record as a Muslim state, which G. W. B. Huntingford believed was founded in 896, and had its capital at Walalah and it is believed to have been part of the Ethiopian Aksum kingdom for over a millennium before falling to Muslim neighbors. This state was absorbed by the Sultanate of Ifat around 1285, recently, three urban centers thought to be part of the Islamic kingdom of Shewa were discovered by a group of French archaeologists. Yekuno Amlak based his uprising against the Zagwe dynasty from an enclave in Shewa that was settled by Amhara Christians. He claimed Solomonic forebears, direct descendants of the pre-Zagwe Axumite emperors and this claim is supported by the Kebra Nagast, a book written under one of the descendants of Yekuno Amlak, which mentions Shewa as part of the realm of Menelik I. Aksum and its predecessor Dmt were mostly limited to Northern Ethiopia, however, Shewa eventually became a part of the Amhara-Abyssinian empire upon the rise of the Amhara Solomonic dynasty as well as the Adal empire. In the 16th century, Shewa, which was still an Islamic moiety, and the rest of Christian Abyssinia were conquered by the forces of Ahmed Al-Ghazi of Adal, and Shewa came under Muslim Adal rule. The region then came under pressure from the Oromo expansion, who succeeded during the first decades of the century in settling the areas around Shewa. Presently, the Oromos of Wollo and Arsi in particular are predominantly Muslim, little is known about the details of the history of Shewa until almost 1800, however, Emperor Lebna Dengel and some of his sons used Shewa as their safe haven when threatened by invaders. The Amhara Shewan ruling family was founded in the late 17th century by Negassie, thus the ruling family of Shewa were considered the junior branch of the Solomonic dynasty after the senior Gondar branch. Negassies son, Sebestyanos assumed the title of Meridazmach, which was unique to Shewa and his descendants continued to bear this title until Sahle Selassie of Shewa was declared king of Shewa in the 1830s. His grandson, Sahle Maryam, eventually would succeed as Emperor of all Ethiopia at the end of the century under name Menelik II, the title of King of Shewa was subsumed into the imperial title of Emperor of Ethiopia when Menelik became Emperor. Shewan kings spread their control towards the south and east, through lowland and desert, the kingdom of Shewa that Menelik II brought into the Ethiopian realm had been somewhat expanded, and thus added significantly to the total area of the empire. The northern migration of Oromos into Shewa since the 1500s changed its demography, having already influenced Gondar in the 1700s, Oromos in Shewa gained power in the 1800s, particularly the Tulama. Ras Gobana was notable for forming alliances and militarily extending Shoan domain to the south, Ethiopia reached further frontiers through expansion to the east and south, resulting in the Shewan region as the physical center of the modern country
21.
Firewood
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Firewood is any wooden material that is gathered and used for fuel. Generally, firewood is not highly processed and is in some sort of recognizable log or branch form, Firewood can be seasoned or unseasoned. It can be classed as hardwood or softwood, however, demand for this fuel can outpace its ability to regenerate on a local or regional level. Good forestry practices and improvements in devices that use firewood can improve local wood supplies, harvesting or collecting firewood varies by the region and culture. Some places have specific areas for firewood collection, other places may integrate the collection of firewood in the cycle of preparing a plot of land to grow food as part of a field rotation process. Collection can be a group, family or an individual activity, the tools and methods for harvesting firewood are diverse. Some firewood is harvested in woodlots managed for that purpose, deadfall that has not started to rot is preferred, since it is already partly seasoned. Standing dead timber is considered better still, for it has less dirt on the trunk, allowing tools to stay sharper longer, harvesting this form of timber reduces the speed and intensity of bushfires, but it also reduces habitat for snag-nesting animals such as owls and some rodents. Harvesting timber for firewood is normally carried out by hand with chainsaws, thus, longer pieces - requiring less manual labour, and less chainsaw fuel - are less expensive and only limited by the size of the firebox. In most of the United States, the measure of firewood is a cord or 128 cubic feet, however. The BTU value can affect the price, prices also vary considerably with the distance from wood lots, and quality of the wood. Buying and burning firewood that was cut only a distance from its final destination prevents the accidental spread of invasive tree-killing insects. In most parts of the world, firewood is only prepared for transport at the time it is harvested, then it is moved closer to the place it will be used as fuel and prepared there. The process of making charcoal from firewood can take place at the place the firewood is harvested, most firewood also requires splitting, which also allows for faster seasoning by exposing more surface area. Today most splitting is done with a hydraulic splitting machine, another method is to use a kinetic log splitter, which uses a rack and pinion system powered by a small motor and a large flywheel used for energy storage. There are many ways to store firewood and these range from simple piles to free-standing stacks, to specialized structures. Usually the goal of storing wood is to keep away from it. Stacks, The simplest stack is where logs are placed next to and on top of each other, the height of the stack can vary, generally depending upon how the ends are constructed
22.
Mineral springs
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Mineral springs are naturally occurring springs that produce water containing minerals, or other dissolved substances, that alter its taste or give it a purported therapeutic value. Salts, sulfur compounds, and gases are among the substances that can be dissolved in the water during its passage underground. Mineral water obtained from mineral springs has long been an important commercial proposition, mineral spas are resorts that have developed around mineral springs, where patrons would repair to “take the waters” — meaning that they would drink or bathe in the mineral water. Others were entirely enclosed within spring houses, chalybeate springs contained salts of iron. Sulfur springs contained hydrogen sulfide gas, salt springs contained salts of calcium, magnesium or sodium. Thermal springs could contain a concentration of various minerals. Soda springs contained carbon dioxide gas, radioactive springs contain traces of radioactive substances such as radium or uranium. Types of sedimentary rock - usually limestone - are sometimes formed by the evaporation, or rapid precipitation, of spring water. Spectacular formations, including terraces, stalactites, stalagmites and “frozen waterfalls” can result, one light-colored porous calcite of this type is known as travertine and has been used extensively in Italy and elsewhere as building material. Travertine can have a white, tan, or cream-colored appearance, another type of spring water deposit, containing siliceous as well as calcareous minerals, is known as tufa. Tufa is similar to travertine but is softer and more porous. Sweet springs, those with no detectable sulfur or salt content Cohen, Stan, Springs of the Virginias, A Pictorial History, Charleston, West Virginia, laMoreaux, Philip E. Tanner, Judy T, eds. Springs and bottled water of the world, Ancient history, source, occurrence, quality and use, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 3-540-61841-4, retrieved 13 July 2010
23.
Eucalyptus
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Eucalyptus /ˌjuːkəˈlɪptəs/ LHeritier 1789 is a diverse genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Members of the genus dominate the flora of Australia. There are more than 700 species of eucalyptus and most are native to Australia, one species, Eucalyptus deglupta, ranges as far north as the Philippines. Of the 15 species found outside Australia, just nine are exclusively non-Australian, species of eucalyptus are cultivated widely in the tropical and temperate world, including the Americas, Europe, Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East, China, and the Indian subcontinent. However, the range over which many eucalypts can be planted in the zone is constrained by their limited cold tolerance. Australia is covered by 92,000,000 hectares of eucalypt forest, Eucalyptus is one of three similar genera that are commonly referred to as eucalypts, the others being Corymbia and Angophora. Many species, though by no means all, are known as gum trees because they exude copious kino from any break in the bark. The generic name is derived from the Greek words ευ well and καλύπτω to cover, Eucalyptus oil finds many uses like in aromatherapy, as a cure for joint pains. Eucalyptus trees show allelopathic effects, they release compounds which inhibit other plant species from growing nearby, on warm days, eucalyptus forests are sometimes shrouded in a smog-like mist of vaporised volatile organic compounds, the Australian Blue Mountains take their name from the haze. A mature eucalyptus may take the form of a low shrub or a large tree. The species can be divided into three main habits and four size categories, as a generalisation forest trees are single-stemmed and have a crown forming a minor proportion of the whole tree height. Woodland trees are single-stemmed, although they may branch at a distance above ground level. Many mallee trees may be so low-growing as to be considered a shrub, two other tree forms are notable in Western Australia and described using the native names mallet and marlock. The mallet is a small to medium-sized tree that does not produce lignotubers and has a long trunk. This is the habit of mature healthy specimens of Eucalyptus occidentalis, E. astringens, E. spathulata, E. gardneri, E. dielsii, E. forrestiana, E. salubris, E. clivicola. The smooth bark of mallets often has a satiny sheen and may be white, cream, grey, green, or copper. The term marlock has been used, in Forest Trees of Australia, it is defined as a small tree without lignotubers. They usually grow in more or less pure stands, clearly recognisable examples are stands of E. platypus, E. vesiculosa, and the unrelated E. stoatei
24.
Haile Selassie
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Haile Selassie I,23 July 1892 –27 August 1975), born Tafari Makonnen Woldemikael, was Ethiopias regent from 1916 to 1930 and emperor from 1930 to 1974. He also served as Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity from 25 May 1963 to 17 July 1964 and 5 November 1966 to 11 September 1967 and he was a member of the Solomonic Dynasty. At the League of Nations in 1936, the emperor condemned the use of weapons by Italy against his people during the Second Italo–Ethiopian War. His regime was also criticized by rights groups, such as Human Rights Watch, as autocratic. Among the Rastafari movement, whose followers are estimated at two and four million, Haile Selassie is revered as the returned messiah of the Bible. Beginning in Jamaica in the 1930s, the Rastafari movement perceives Haile Selassie as a figure who will lead a future golden age of eternal peace, righteousness. Haile Selassie was an Ethiopian Orthodox Christian throughout his life and he is a defining figure in Ethiopian history. Haile Selassie died on 27 August 1975 at the age of 83, Haile Selassie was known as a child as Lij Tafari Makonnen. Lij is translated as child, and serves to indicate that a youth is of noble blood and his given name, Tafari, means one who is respected or feared. Like most Ethiopians, his personal name Tafari is followed by that of his father Makonnen and his Geez name Haile Selassie was given to him at his infant baptism and adopted again as part of his regnal name in 1930. As Governor of Harer, he known as Ras Teferi Makonnen listen. Ras is translated as head and is a rank of nobility equivalent to Duke, in 1916, Empress Zewditu I appointed him to the position of Balemulu Siltan Enderase. In 1928, she granted him the throne of Shoa, elevating his title to Negus or King, on 2 November 1930, after the death of Empress Zewditu, Ras Tafari was crowned Negusa Nagast, literally King of Kings, rendered in English as Emperor. Upon his ascension, he took as his regnal name Haile Selassie I, Haile means in Geez Power of and Selassie means trinity—therefore Haile Selassie roughly translates to Power of the Trinity. Haile Selassies full title in office was By the Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah, His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I, King of Kings of Ethiopia, Elect of God. This title reflects Ethiopian dynastic traditions, which hold that all monarchs must trace their lineage to Menelik I, who was the offspring of King Solomon, to Ethiopians, Haile Selassie has been known by many names, including Janhoy, Talaqu Meri, and Abba Tekel. The Rastafari movement employs many of these appellations, also referring to him as Jah, Jah Jah, Jah Rastafari, Haile Selassies royal line originated from the Amhara people, but he also had Oromo, and Gurage roots. He was born on 23 July 1892, in the village of Ejersa Goro and his mother was Woizero Yeshimebet Ali Abba Jifar, daughter of the renowned Oromo ruler of Wollo province Dejazmach Ali Abba Jifar
25.
Gamal Abdel Nasser
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Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein was the second President of Egypt, serving from 1956 until his death. Nasser led the 1952 overthrow of the monarchy and introduced far-reaching land reforms the following year, Nassers popularity in Egypt and the Arab world skyrocketed after his nationalization of the Suez Canal and his political victory in the subsequent Suez Crisis. Calls for pan-Arab unity under his leadership increased, culminating with the formation of the United Arab Republic with Syria, in 1962, Nasser began a series of major socialist measures and modernization reforms in Egypt. Despite setbacks to his pan-Arabist cause, by 1963 Nassers supporters gained power in several Arab countries and he began his second presidential term in March 1965 after his political opponents were banned from running. Following Egypts defeat by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War, Nasser resigned, after the conclusion of the 1970 Arab League summit, Nasser suffered a heart attack and died. His funeral in Cairo drew five million mourners and an outpouring of grief across the Arab world, Nasser remains an iconic figure in the Arab world, particularly for his strides towards social justice and Arab unity, modernization policies, and anti-imperialist efforts. His presidency also encouraged and coincided with an Egyptian cultural boom, Gamal Abdel Nasser was born on 15 January 1918 in Bakos, Alexandria, the first son of Fahima and Abdel Nasser Hussein. Nassers father was a postal worker born in Beni Mur in Upper Egypt and raised in Alexandria and his parents married in 1917, and later had two more boys, Izz al-Arab and al-Leithi. Nassers family traveled frequently due to his fathers work, in 1921, they moved to Asyut and, in 1923, to Khatatba, where Nassers father ran a post office. Nasser attended a school for the children of railway employees until 1924, when he was sent to live with his paternal uncle in Cairo. Nasser exchanged letters with his mother and visited her on holidays and he stopped receiving messages at the end of April 1926. Upon returning to Khatatba, he learned that his mother had died giving birth to his third brother, Shawki. Nasser later stated that losing her this way was a shock so deep that time failed to remedy and he adored his mother and the injury of her death deepened when his father remarried before the years end. In 1928, Nasser went to Alexandria to live with his maternal grandfather and it was in Alexandria that Nasser became involved in political activism. After witnessing clashes between protesters and police in Manshia Square, he joined the demonstration without being aware of its purpose. The protest, organized by the ultranationalist Young Egypt Society, called for the end of colonialism in Egypt in the wake of the 1923 Egyptian constitutions annulment by Prime Minister Ismail Sidqi, Nasser was arrested and detained for a night before his father bailed him out. When his father was transferred to Cairo in 1933, Nasser joined him and he took up acting in school plays for a brief period and wrote articles for the schools paper, including a piece on French philosopher Voltaire titled Voltaire, the Man of Freedom. Two protesters were killed and Nasser received a graze to the head from a policemans bullet, the incident garnered his first mention in the press, the nationalist newspaper Al Gihad reported that Nasser led the protest and was among the wounded
26.
Second Italo-Ethiopian War
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The Second Italo-Ethiopian War, also referred to as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, was a colonial war that started in October 1935, after a battle on 5 December 1934, and ended in May 1936. The war was fought between the forces of the Kingdom of Italy and the armed forces of the Ethiopian Empire. The war resulted in the occupation of Ethiopia. Politically, like the Mukden Incident in 1931, the Abyssinia Crisis in 1935 is often seen as a demonstration of the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations. Italy and Ethiopia were member nations and yet the League was unable to control Italy or to protect Ethiopia when Italy clearly violated Article X of the Covenant of the League of Nations, the victory also brought Mussolini unprecedented popularity within Italy. Shortly after the war, Ethiopia was consolidated with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland into Italian East Africa, the Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1928 stated that the border between Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia was twenty-one leagues parallel to the Benadir coast. In 1930, Italy built a fort at the Welwel oasis in the Ogaden, the fort at Welwel was well beyond the twenty-one league limit and the Italians were encroaching on Ethiopian territory. In November 1934, Ethiopian territorial troops, escorting the Anglo-Ethiopian boundary commission, the British members of the commission soon withdrew to avoid embarrassing Italy. Italian and Ethiopian troops remained encamped in close proximity, in early December 1934, the tensions on both sides erupted into what was known as the Wal Wal incident. The resultant clash left approximately 110 Ethiopians and between 30 and 50 Italians and Somalis dead and led to the Abyssinia Crisis at the League of Nations, on 4 September 1935, the League of Nations exonerated both parties for the Wal Wal incident. The United Kingdom and France, keen to keep Italy as an ally against Germany, Italy soon began to build its forces on the borders of Ethiopia in Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. To this end, on 7 January 1935, France signed an agreement with Italy giving them essentially a hand in Africa to secure Italian co-operation. Next, in April, Italy was further emboldened by being a member of the Stresa Front, in June, non-interference was further assured by a political rift that had developed between the United Kingdom and France following the Anglo-German Naval Agreement. His comments stirred up a furor inside Japan, where there had been popular affinity for the African Empire, with an attack appearing inevitable, Emperor Haile Selassie ordered a general mobilization of the Army of the Ethiopian Empire. His new recruits consisted of around 500,000 men, some of whom were armed with nothing more than spears, many soldiers carried more modern weapons, including rifles, but many of these were from before 1900 and were outdated. Haile Selassies Mobilization Order stated, All men and boys able to carry a spear go to Addis Ababa, every married man will bring his wife to cook and wash for him. Every unmarried man will bring any unmarried woman he can find to cook, women with babies, the blind, and those too aged and infirm to carry a spear are excused. Anyone found at home after receiving this order will be hanged, according to Italian estimates, on the eve of hostilities the Ethiopians had an army of 350, 000–760,000 men
27.
Kingdom of Italy
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The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state. Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866, Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations. Fascist Italy is the era of National Fascist Party rule from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government, according to Payne, Fascist regime passed through several relatively distinct phases. The first phase was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, then came the second phase, the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper from 1925 to 1929. The third phase, with activism, was 1929–34. The war itself was the phase with its disasters and defeats. Italy was allied with Nazi Germany in World War II until 1943 and it switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist party in areas controlled by the Allied invaders. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic, the Kingdom of Italy claimed all of the territory which is modern-day Italy. The development of the Kingdoms territory progressed under Italian re-unification until 1870, the state for a long period of time did not include Trieste or Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, which are in Italy today, and only annexed them in 1919. After the Second World War, the borders of present-day Italy were founded, the Kingdom of Italy was theoretically a constitutional monarchy. Executive power belonged to the monarch, as executed through appointed ministers, two chambers of parliament restricted the monarchs power—an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies. The kingdoms constitution was the Statuto Albertino, the governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were responsible to the king. However, in practice, it was impossible for an Italian government to stay in office without the support of Parliament, members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected by plurality voting system elections in uninominal districts. A candidate needed the support of 50% of those voting, and of 25% of all enrolled voters, if not all seats were filled on the first ballot, a runoff was held shortly afterwards for the remaining vacancies. After a brief multinominal experimentation in 1882, proportional representation into large, regional, Socialists became the major party, but they were unable to form a government in a parliament split into three different factions, with Christian Populists and classical liberals
28.
Italian Eritrea
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Italian Eritrea was a colony of the Kingdom of Italy in the territory of present-day Eritrea. Although it was created in 1890, the first Italian settlements in the area were established in 1882 around Assab. The colony officially lasted until 1947, ignoring their treaty with Ethiopia, they openly encouraged Italy to expand north into Massawa, which was taken without a shot from its Egyptian garrison. Located on an island surrounded by lucrative pearl-fishing grounds, the superior port was fortified. Assab, meanwhile, continued to service as a coaling station. As they were not a party to the Hewett Treaty, the Italians began restricting access to arms shipments and imposing customs duties on Ethiopian goods immediately. In the disorder that followed the 1889 death of Emperor Yohannes IV, Gen. Oreste Baratieri occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and his subsequent victory over his rival kings and enthronement as Emperor Menelek II made the treaty formally binding upon the entire country. Secure both domestically and militarily, Menelik denounced the treaty in whole and the war, culminating in Italys disastrous defeat at Adwa. Massawa remained the primary port for most of northern Ethiopia, but its relatively high customs dues, dependence on caravans, seeking to develop their own lands, the Italian government launched the first development projects in the new colony in the late 1880s. The Eritrean Railway was completed to Saati in 1888 and reached Asmara in the highlands in 1911, the Asmara–Massawa Cableway was the longest line in the world during its time. Italian administration of Eritrea also brought improvements in the medical and agricultural sectors of Eritrean society, despite an imposition of racial laws, all urban Eritreans had access to modern sanitation and hospital services. The Italians also employed local Eritreans in public service, particularly the police, in a region marked by cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity, a succession of Italian governors maintained a notable degree of unity and public order. Nicknamed Colonia Primogenita in contrast to the newer and less-developed territories of Italian Somaliland and Libya, the first few dozen families were sponsored by the Italian government around the start of the 20th century and settled around Asmara and Massawa. The Italian-Eritrean community then grew from around 4,000 during World War I to nearly 100,000 at the beginning of World War II, by the early 1940s, Catholicism was the declared religion of around 28% of the colonys population. Benito Mussolinis rise to power in Italy in 1922 brought profound changes to the government in Eritrea. This Fascist period was characterized by expansion in the name of a new Roman Empire. Historian Gian Luca Podesta wrote that practically Asmara has become an Italian city, the newly opened factories produced buttons, cooking oil, and pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide and other household commodities. The Italian government continued to implement agricultural reforms but primarily on farms owned by Italian colonists, consequently, the standard of living in Eritrea in 1939 was considered among the best on the continent for both the local Eritreans and the Italian settlers
29.
Dire Dawa
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Dire Dawa is one of two chartered cities in Ethiopia. It is divided administratively into two woredas, the city proper and the woreda of Gurgura. According to the Futuh Al Habasha, Conquest of Abyssinia, the area or settlement was only called Dir after the major Somali clan around 5 centuries ago. Dire Dawa lies in the part of the nation, on the Dechatu River. At a latitude and longitude of 9°36′N 41°52′E, it is the second largest city in Ethiopia, the city is an industrial centre, home to several markets and the Aba Tenna Dejazmach Yilma International Airport. Haramaya University is 40 kilometres away, the company was already having financial difficulty and Ilg received permission from Emperor Menelik II not to complete the expensive climb to nearby Harar at its higher elevation. Instead, Addis Harar served as the terminus for the line linking the area with the French port at Djibouti, harars governor Ras Makonnen then linked the two cities with a new road. Dire Dawas first governor was Ato Mersha Nahusenay, who was instrumental in the construction of the first railway. The imperial railway company played a key role in the development of the city, particularly Gezira. The Dire Dawa-Harar road was improved in 1928, shortening the time to only a few hours. The Italian army entered the country from the colonies of Eritrea in the north, following all major engagements of the war, Dire Dawa was the location of the meeting of the two Italian forces. They were met by two French armed cars, the railway remained under French administration and they had remained to protect the French interests. The next day, the first train under Italian control left Addis Ababa, it brought Italys 46th Infantry Regiment, the occupation of the town was more or less a formality, although resistance fighters known as Arbegnoch continued to operate throughout the conflict. It was officially known by its Italian spelling Dire Daua during the occupation, following the restoration of the empire in 1941, Dire Dawa was among the early provincial towns to have its own soccer league. Around 1947, their team—the Taffari—participated in the Ethiopian Championship series and that same year, the Railroad Workers Syndicate of Dire Dawa, a labor union, was formed for welfare purposes. In 1955, a public system was installed in the central square to receive. The Ethiopian revolution affected the city in many ways, starting March 1974, there was some worker unrest, six people were wounded when police opened fire on demonstrating railwaymen and students on 17 April. Many Europeans, Yemeni Arabs, and Indians left Dire Dawa, on 3 February 1975, the Derg announced that the Cotton Company of Ethiopia was among 14 textile enterprises to be fully nationalized
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Chemical weapon
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A chemical weapon is a specialized munition that uses chemicals formulated to inflict death or harm on humans. Munitions or other devices designed to deliver chemical weapons, whether filled or unfilled, are also considered weapons themselves. Chemical weapons are classified as weapons of destruction, though they are distinct from nuclear weapons, biological weapons. All may be used in warfare and are known by the military acronym NBC, Weapons of mass destruction are distinct from conventional weapons, which are primarily effective due to their explosive, kinetic, or incendiary potential. Chemical weapons can be dispersed in gas, liquid and solid forms. Nerve gas, tear gas and pepper spray are three examples of CW. Lethal, unitary, chemical agents and munitions are extremely volatile, unitary agents are effective on their own and do not require mixing with other agents. The most dangerous of these are agents, GA, GB, GD, and VX as well as vesicant agents, which are formulations of sulfur mustard such as H, HT. They all are liquids at room temperature, but become gaseous when released. Widely used during the First World War, the effects of so-called mustard gas, phosgene gas and others caused lung searing, blindness, death and maiming. As of 2016, CS gas and pepper spray remain in use for policing and riot control, while CS is considered a non-lethal weapon. Under the Chemical Weapons Convention, there is a binding, worldwide ban on the production, stockpiling. Notwithstanding, large stockpiles of CW continue to exist, usually justified as a precaution against putative use by an aggressor. A separate declaration stated that in any war between signatory powers, the parties would abstain from using projectiles the object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases. The Washington Naval Treaty, signed February 6,1922, also known as the Five-Power Treaty, aimed at banning CW, the subsequent failure to include CW has contributed to the resultant increase in stockpiles. It was signed at Geneva June 17,1925, and entered force on February 8,1928. 133 nations are listed as state parties to the treaty, ukraine is the newest signatory, acceding August 7,2003. This treaty states that chemical and biological weapons are justly condemned by the opinion of the civilised world
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Sulfur mustard
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Sulfur mustard, commonly known as mustard gas, is a cytotoxic and vesicant chemical warfare agent with the ability to form large blisters on exposed skin and in the lungs. Related chemical compounds with chemical structure and similar properties form a class of compounds known collectively as sulfur mustards or mustard agents. Pure sulfur mustards are colorless, viscous liquids at room temperature, when used in impure form, such as warfare agents, they are usually yellow-brown in color and have an odor resembling mustard plants, garlic, or horseradish, hence the name. Sulfur mustard was originally assigned the name LOST, after the scientists Wilhelm Lommel and Wilhelm Steinkopf, Mustard agents are regulated under the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention. Three classes of chemicals are monitored under this Convention, with sulfur and nitrogen mustard grouped in Schedule 1, Mustard agents could be deployed on the battlefield by means of artillery shells, aerial bombs, rockets, or by spraying from warplanes. Sulfur mustard is the compound with formula 2S. Sulfur mustard is a liquid at normal temperatures. The pure compound has a point of 14 °C and decomposes before boiling at 218 °C. The compound readily eliminates a chloride ion by intramolecular nucleophilic substitution to form a cyclic sulfonium ion, oxidative stress would be another pathology involved in sulfur mustard toxicity. Sulfur mustard is not very soluble in water but is soluble in fat. In the wider sense, compounds with the structural element BCH2CH2X, where X is any leaving group, such compounds can form cyclic onium ions that are good alkylating agents. Examples are bisether, the amines, and sulfur sesquimustard, which has two α-chloroethyl thioether groups connected by an ethylene group and these compounds have a similar ability to alkylate DNA, but their physical properties, e. g. melting points, may vary. Mustard agent has extremely powerful vesicant effects on its victims, in addition, it is strongly mutagenic and carcinogenic, due to its alkylating properties. Because people exposed to mustard agent rarely suffer immediate symptoms, and mustard-contaminated areas may appear completely normal and these are chemical burns and are very debilitating. Mustard agent vapor easily penetrates clothing fabrics such as wool or cotton, if the victims eyes were exposed then they become sore, starting with conjunctivitis, after which the eyelids swell, resulting in temporary blindness. In rare cases of extreme exposure to sulfur mustard vapors, corneal ulceration, anterior chamber scarring. In these severe and infrequent cases, corneal transplantation has been used as a treatment option, miosis may also occur, which is probably the result from the cholinomimetic activity of mustard. At very high concentrations, if inhaled, mustard agent causes bleeding and blistering within the system, damaging mucous membranes
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Djibouti
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Djibouti, officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, the remainder of the border is formed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden at the east. Djibouti occupies an area of just 23,200 km2. In antiquity, the territory was part of the Land of Punt and then the Sabean, nearby Zeila was the seat of the medieval Adal and Ifat Sultanates. It was subsequently renamed to the French Territory of the Afars, a decade later, the Djiboutian people voted for independence. This officially marked the establishment of the Republic of Djibouti, named after its capital city, Djibouti joined the United Nations the same year, on 20 September 1977. In the early 1990s, tensions over government representation led to armed conflict, Djibouti is a multi-ethnic nation with a population of over 846,687 inhabitants. Arabic and French are the two official languages. About 94% of residents adhere to Islam, a religion that has been predominant in the region for more than 1,000 years, the Somali Issa and Afar make up the two largest ethnic groups. Both speak Afroasiatic languages, which serve as recognized national languages, Djibouti is strategically located near some of the worlds busiest shipping lanes, controlling access to the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. It serves as a key refueling and transshipment center, and is the principal port for imports from. A burgeoning commercial hub, the nation is the site of various military bases. The Intergovernmental Authority on Development regional body also has its headquarters in Djibouti City, the Djibouti area has been inhabited since at least the Neolithic. According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during this period from the familys proposed urheimat in the Nile Valley, other scholars propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there. Pottery predating the mid-2nd millennium has been found at Asa Koma, the sites ware is characterized by punctate and incision geometric designs, which bear a similarity to the Sabir culture phase 1 ceramics from Malayba in Southern Arabia. Long-horned humpless cattle bones have likewise been discovered at Asa Koma, rock art of what appear to be antelopes and a giraffe are also found at Dorra and Balho. Handoga, dated to the fourth millennium BP, has in turn yielded obsidian microliths, additionally, between Djibouti City and Loyada are a number of anthropomorphic and phallic stelae. The structures are associated with graves of rectangular shape that are flanked by vertical slabs, the Djibouti-Loyada stelae are of uncertain age, and some of them are adorned with a T-shaped symbol
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Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta
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Prince Amedeo, 3rd Duke of Aosta was the third Duke of Aosta and a first cousin, once removed of the King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III. During World War II, he was the Italian Viceroy of Italian East Africa, Amedeo was born in Turin, Piedmont, to Prince Emanuele Filiberto, 2nd Duke of Aosta and Princess Hélène. His great-grandfather was King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, making him a member of the House of Savoy and he was known from birth by the courtesy title of Duke of Apulia. Amedeo was a tall man. According to Amedeo Guillet, he was referred to by a journalist as your highness. The Duke replied in jest,198 centimetres, Amedeo was educated at St Andrews School in England. He cultivated British mannerisms, spoke Oxford English, and even enjoyed the pastimes of fox hunting, Amedeo entered the Italian Royal Army and fought with distinction in the artillery during World War I. He left the army in 1921 and traveled widely in Africa, Amedeo subsequently rejoined the Italian armed forces and became a pilot. In 1932, he joined the Italian Royal Air Force, Amedeo served under Marshall Rodolfo Graziani and Libyan Governor Pietro Badoglio during later stages of the pacification of Libya. Amedeo and his fellow airmen harried the Senussi forces of Omar Mukhtar from the sky, on 4 July 1931, upon the death of his father, Amedeo became the Duke of Aosta. In 1937, after the Italian conquest of Ethiopia during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War and it was generally conceded that he was a vast improvement over Graziani. As Viceroy and Governor-General, the Duke of Aosta was also the Commander-in-Chief of all Italian military forces in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Italian Somaliland. When Italy declared war on the United Kingdom and France on 10 June 1940 and he oversaw the initial Italian advances into the Sudan and Kenya and, in August, he oversaw the Italian invasion of British Somaliland. In January 1941, the British launched a counter-invasion and the Italians went on the defensive in East Africa, but, after fierce resistance, the Battle of Keren ended in Italian defeat, the rest of Eritrea, including the port of Massawa, fell quickly. On 31 January, the Duke of Aosta reported that the Italian military forces in East Africa were down to 67 operational aircraft with limited fuel stocks. With supplies running low and with no chance of re-supply, the Duke of Aosta opted to concentrate the remaining Italian forces into several strongholds, Gondar, Amba Alagi, Dessie and he himself commanded the 7,000 Italians at the mountain fortress of Amba Alagi. Due to the gallant resistance of the Italian garrison, the British allowed them to surrender with honours of war, shortly after his surrender, the Duke of Aosta was interned in a prisoner-of-war camp in Nairobi, Kenya. He was placed in command of his prisoners, but never saw the end of World War II
Ethiopia
listen), "new flower"; or Addis Abeba (the spelling used by the official Ethiopian Mapping Authority); Oromo: Finfinne "natural spring") is the capital and largest city of Ethiopia. Also the capital city of Oromia Region. It is the seat of the Ethiopian federal government. According to the 2007 population census, the city has a total population of 2,739,551 inhabitants.[2]
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