1.
APS-C
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Advanced Photo System type-C is an image sensor format approximately equivalent in size to the Advanced Photo System classic negatives of 25. 1×16.7 mm, an aspect ratio of 3,2. Sensors approximating these dimensions are used in many digital single-lens reflex cameras, Mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras, APS-C size sensors are also used in a few digital rangefinders. Such sensors exist in different variants depending on the manufacturer. All APS-C variants are considerably smaller than 35 mm standard film which measures 36×24 mm, sensor sizes range from 20. 7×13.8 mm to 28. 7×19.1 mm, but are typically about 22. 5×15 mm for Canon and 24×16 mm for other manufacturers. Each variant results in a different angle of view from lenses at the same focal length. This is why each manufacturer offers a range of lenses designed for its format, the quality of the image from an APS-C sensor is higher when compared to a smaller sensor due to its larger size which allows it to collect more light. However, compared to a camera, image quality is lower. Most DSLR and third party lens manufacturers now make lenses designed for APS-C cameras. Actual multiplier factor is 1. 255× for the 1D Digital,1. 28× for the Canon EOS-1D Mark III and 1. 29× for the Canon EOS-1D Mark IV. Leica M8 is 1. 33× Canon, Nikon, Pentax, whilst Canon uses a factor of 1. 6×, the other three brands all use 1. 5×. APS-C cameras use an area to form the image than traditional 35 mm cameras. For example, a 28 mm lens is a wide angle lens on a traditional 35 mm camera. But the same lens on an APS-C camera, with a factor of 1. 6×, has the same angle of view as a 45 mm lens on a 35 mm camera—i. e. Several third-party lens manufacturers, such as Tamron, Tokina, and Sigma, Canon introduced the Canon EF-S line of lenses in 2003 alongside the 300D. These lenses place the rear of the closer to the cameras sensor. This has several benefits, including lighter lenses and a field of view. EF-S lenses are compatible with Canons APS-C digital SLRs, with the exception of the early Canon EOS D30, Canon EOS D60, and Canon EOS 10D, EF-S lenses will not physically mount on Canons full-frame digital or 35mm film SLRs. More recently, the introduced the EF-M line for its EOS M series of mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras
2.
Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
3.
Kodak
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Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak, is an American technology company that produces imaging products with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York and is incorporated in New Jersey, Kodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions and it is best known for photographic film products. Kodak was founded by George Eastman and Henry A, during most of the 20th century, Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The companys ubiquity was such that its Kodak moment tagline entered the lexicon to describe a personal event that was demanded to be recorded for posterity. Kodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s, as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film, as a part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak began to focus on digital photography and digital printing, and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would stop making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames, in January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid 2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies under the names Intellectual Ventures, on September 3,2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, on March 12,2014, it announced that the board of directors elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as chief executive officer and a member of its board of directors. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales, Japanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U. S. market with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Fuji won these sponsorship rights. Fuji opened a plant in the U. S. and its aggressive marketing. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997, fujis films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization, on January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the film market in Japan. Although Kodak developed a camera in 1975, the first of its kind. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft, Apples pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak
4.
Fujifilm
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Fujifilm Holdings Corporation, better known as Fujifilm or simply Fuji, stylized as FUJiFILM, is a Japanese multinational photography and imaging company headquartered in Tokyo. Fuji Photo Film Co. Ltd. was established in 1934 with the aim of being the first Japanese producer of photographic films, over the following 10 years, the company produced photographic films, motion-picture films and X-ray films. In the 1940s, Fuji Photo entered the optical glasses, lenses, after the Second World War, Fuji Photo diversified, penetrating the medical, printing, electronic imaging and magnetic materials fields. In 1962, Fuji Photo and U. K. -based Rank Xerox Limited launched Fuji Xerox Co. Ltd. through a joint venture, from the mid-1950s, Fuji Photo accelerated the establishment of overseas sales bases. In the 1980s, Fuji Photo expanded its production and other bases overseas, meanwhile, Fuji Photo developed digital technologies for its photo-related, medical and printing businesses. Like its rival Eastman Kodak which dominated in the US, Fuji Photo enjoyed a longtime near-monopoly on camera film in Japan, the complaint was lodged by the US with the World Trade Organization. On January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the market in Japan. The new millennium witnessed the spread of digital technology in cameras. Demand for photographic films plunged in line with the popularity of digital cameras. In response, Fuji Photo implemented management reforms aimed at effecting drastic transformation of its business structures, while both film manufacturers recognized this fundamental change, Fuji Photo adapted to this shift much more successfully than Eastman Kodak. In September 19,2006, Fujifilm announced plans to establish a holding company, Fujifilm and Fuji Xerox would become subsidiaries of the holding company. A representative of the company reconfirmed its commitment to film, which accounts for 3% of sales, Fuji Xerox is a joint venture between Fujifilm and Xerox Corporation of North America. Fujifilm bought Sericol Ltd. a UK-based printing ink company specializing in screen, narrow web, velvia, one of the most saturated and fine-grained slide films, valued by nature and landscape photographers. Fortia, consumer slide film, featuring extremely vivid color rendering suitable for flower photography, Fuji Neopan Professional black & white negative film. As a side note, Neopan 400 and 1600 were designed to use the same developing times, ACROS and SS do not share this feature. This uses the Fuji G-mount lenses, to be released in 2017 The Clear Shot series of 35mm compact cameras Instax series of instant camera, wiki collection of bibliographic works on Fujifilm
5.
Agfa-Gevaert
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Agfa-Gevaert N. V. is a Belgian-German multinational corporation that develops, manufactures, and distributes analogue and digital imaging products and systems, as well as IT solutions. Agfa Graphics offers integrated prepress and industrial inkjet systems to the printing, Agfa HealthCare supplies hospitals and other care organisations with imaging products and systems, as well as information systems. Agfa Specialty Products supplies products to industrial markets. It is part of the Agfa Materials organization, in addition to the Agfa Specialty Products activities, Agfa Materials also supplies film and related products to Agfa Graphics and Agfa HealthCare. Agfa film and cameras were once prominent consumer products, however, in 2004, the consumer imaging division was sold to a company founded via management buyout. AgfaPhoto GmbH, as the new company was called, filed for bankruptcy after just one year, the brands are now licensed to other companies by AgfaPhoto Holding GmbH, a holding firm. Following this sale, Agfa-Gevaerts commerce today is 100% business-to-business, headquartered in Mortsel, Belgium, Agfa has sales organisations in 40 countries. In countries where Agfa does not have its own sales organisation, at the end of 2011, the company had 11,728 employees worldwide. Agfa has manufacturing plants around the world, the largest production and research centres are based in Belgium, the United States, Canada, Germany, France, Italy and China. Net sales for 2011 totalled 3,023 million euros, Agfa is organised into three business groups as follows, Digital and analogue prepress systems, software, and consumables. Consumables, graphic film, analogue and digital printing plates, anapurna and Jeti printer families, typically used to produce posters, banners and displays. M-Press family high-end flatbed presses, designed to replace traditional equipment for all possible screen printing jobs, developer of medical imaging information systems. Agfa Healthcares main offices are in Mortsel, Ghent, Waterloo, Vienna, PACS for cardiology IT and CardioVascular Information Systems. Agfa Specialty Products supplies products to a variety of industries, traditional film products Sound recording film and print film for the movie industry. Films, chemicals, photo paper and software for aerial photography, microfilm Photo-tooling films for the production of Printed Circuit Boards. Nondestructive testing film (as the exclusive manufacturer of General Electrics NDT X-ray films, Materials and consumables for the production of ID-documents. Conductive polymer materials for the production of transparent electrodes used in electronic devices. Membranes for the electrolysis of water,1867 The company Aktiengesellschaft für Anilinfabrikation was founded in Rummelsburg as a manufacturer of dyes and stains
6.
Konica
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Konica was a Japanese manufacturer of, among other products, film, film cameras, camera accessories, photographic and photo-processing equipment, photocopiers, fax machines and laser printers. The company merged with Japanese peer Minolta in 2003, with the new company named Konica Minolta, in 1878, Rokusaburō succeeded to his family and renamed Rokuemon VI. He gave the shop to his younger brother and launched a new shop. In 1882, Konishi launched a project to produce photography related materials in Japan, in 1902, Konishi began to sell the Cherry Portable Camera, the first Japanese produced end-user oriented camera. New products were released respectively, and Konishi Main Shop became the camera company in Japan. In 1921, old Konishi had his son succeed to the family and thus company head with the name. The name Konishiroku was taken from the abbreviation of their names, Konishiroku released their Konica I type camera in 1948, after which they would name their own company in 1987. Konicas single lens reflex cameras pioneered auto-exposure in cameras with focal-plane shutters, the Konica Autoreflex of 1965 used an external light meter cell to set the lens diaphragm automatically after the user selected a shutter speed. With the Autoreflex T of 1968, Konica improved this design into a through-the-lens meter, other camera makers eventually adopted auto-exposure as well, but Konica was the first. In 1990s Konica signed its first major contract with Los Angeles County providing leasing of copiers to the Los Angeles Superior Court and this resulted in a major shift in the industry that had sold only copiers before. The County initial order of 250 copiers required Konica to redirect all of it inventory throughout North America to the County, on August 5,2003, Konica merged with Minolta to form Konica Minolta. In 2006, Konica Minolta Holdings exited the photography business, in March 2006, the merged company closed down its photo imaging division, which produced color film, color paper, photo chemicals and digital minilab machines. Its digital SLR camera section was transferred to Sony, dai Nippon purchased Konicas Odawara factory site and continues to produce paper under its own brand, while Seapac acquired the Konica chemical factory. Konica was a producer of 35mm film and related products, including film development processors. While never equal to giants like Kodak or Fuji, recognized quality of Konica film ensured general presence on market, originally Konica film and paper was sold under the brand name of Sakura meaning Cherry Blossom in English. In the mid 1980s, Konica launched its SR range of film, then SR-V, SR-G, Super SR, Super XG, VX, Konica II Konica IIB Konica IIB-m Konica IIA First model to use the superb 48mm f2 Hexanon lens. Built-in meter, 1st Konica w/hot shoe Konilette 35 Inexpensive 35mm with scale focus, lens variants, 45/2.8 Hexar, Hexanon 48/2, 48/1.8 Konica L Hexar 45/2.8 lens, Seikosha L shutter, interesting fold down film door. Konica S II only offered with Hexanon 48/2 Konica S III new chassis, similar to Auto S, also uses 47/1.9 Hexanon same as Auto S Konica EE-Matic AE only, Konica Auto S First CdS-metered, auto exposure camera
7.
Aspect ratio (image)
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The aspect ratio of an image describes the proportional relationship between its width and its height. It is commonly expressed as two separated by a colon, as in 16,9.5 yards high. The most common ratios used today in the presentation of films in cinemas are 1.85,1 and 2.39,1. Two common videographic aspect ratios are 4,3, the video format of the 20th century. Other cinema and video aspect ratios exist, but are used infrequently, in still camera photography, the most common aspect ratios are 4,3,3,2, and more recently being found in consumer cameras 16,9. Other aspect ratios, such as 5,3,5,4, in motion picture formats, the physical size of the film area between the sprocket perforations determines the images size. The universal standard is a frame that is four perforations high, the film itself is 35 mm wide, but the area between the perforations is 24.89 mm×18.67 mm, leaving the de facto ratio of 4,3, or 1.33,1. A4,3 ratio mimics human eyesight visual angle of 155°h x 120°v, the motion picture industry convention assigns a value of 1.0 to the image’s height, an anamorphic frame is often incorrectly described as 2.40,1 or 2.40. After 1952, a number of aspect ratios were experimented with for anamorphic productions, a SMPTE specification for anamorphic projection from 1957 finally standardized the aperture to 2.35,1. An update in 1970 changed the ratio to 2.39,1 in order to make splices less noticeable. This aspect ratio of 2.39,1 was confirmed by the most recent revision from August 1993, in American cinemas, the common projection ratios are 1.85,1 and 2.39,1. Some European countries have 1.66,1 as the wide screen standard, the Academy ratio of 1.375,1 was used for all cinema films in the sound era until 1953. During that time, television, which had a aspect ratio of 1.33,1. Hollywood responded by creating a number of wide-screen formats, CinemaScope, Todd-AO. The flat 1.85,1 aspect ratio was introduced in May 1953, and became one of the most common cinema projection standards in the U. S. and elsewhere. The goal of these lenses and aspect ratios was to capture as much of the frame as possible, onto as large an area of the film as possible. In either case the image was squeezed horizontally to fit the frame size. Development of various film camera systems must ultimately cater to the placement of the frame in relation to the constraints of the perforations
8.
Panorama
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A panorama is any wide-angle view or representation of a physical space, whether in painting, drawing, photography, film, seismic images or a three-dimensional model. The word was coined in the 18th century by the English painter Robert Barker to describe his panoramic paintings of Edinburgh. The motion-picture term panning is derived from panorama, a panoramic view is also purposed for multi-media, cross-scale applications to an outline overview along and across repositories. This so-called cognitive panorama is a view over, and a combination of. The device of the panorama existed in painting, particularly in murals, as early as 20 A. D. in those found in Pompeii, cartographic experiments during the Enlightenment era preceded European panorama painting and contributed to a formative impulse toward panoramic vision and depiction. In the mid-19th century, panoramic paintings and models became a popular way to represent landscapes, topographic views. Audiences of Europe in this period were thrilled by the aspect of illusion, immersed in a winding 360 degree panorama, the panorama was a 360-degree visual medium patented under the title Apparatus for Exhibiting Pictures by the artist Robert Barker in 1787. The earliest that the word appeared in print was on June 11,1791 in the British newspaper The Morning Chronicle. The inaugural exhibition, a View of Edinburgh, was first shown in that city in 1788, by 1793, Barker had built The Panorama rotunda at the center of Londons entertainment district in Leicester Square, where it remained until closed in 1863. Large scale installations enhance the illusion for an audience of being surrounded with a real landscape, the Bourbaki Panorama in Lucerne, Switzerland was created by Edouard Castres in 1881. The painting measures about 10 metres in height with a circumference of 112 meters, in the United States of America is the Atlanta Cyclorama, depicting the Civil War Battle of Atlanta. It was first displayed in 1887, and is 42 feet high by 358 feet circumference, also on a gigantic scale, and still extant, is the Racławice Panorama located in Wrocław, Poland, which measures 15 x 120 metres. In addition to historical examples, there have been panoramas painted and installed in modern times, prominent among these is the Velaslavasay Panorama in Los Angeles. Panoramic photography soon came to painting as the most common method for creating wide views. Not long after the introduction of the Daguerreotype in 1839, photographers began assembling multiple images of a view into a wide image. Pinhole cameras of a variety of constructions can be used to make panoramic images and this generates an egg-shaped image with more than 180° view. They could run autonomously with silent synchronization pulses to control projector advance and fades, precisely overlapping slides placed in slide mounts with soft-edge density masks would merge seamlessly on the screen to create the panorama. Cutting and dissolving between sequential images generated animation effects in the panorama format, digital photography of the late twentieth century greatly simplified this assembly process, which is now known as image stitching
9.
135 film
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135 is photographic film in a film format used for still photography. It is a film with a film gauge of 35 mm. Its engineering standard for the film is controlled by ISO1007, the term 135 was introduced by Kodak in 1934 as a designation for the cassette for 35 mm film, specifically for still photography. It quickly grew in popularity, surpassing 120 film by the late 1960s to become the most popular photographic film size, despite competition from formats such as 828,126,110, and APS, it remains so today. 135 camera film always comes perforated with Kodak Standard perforations, the size of the 135 film frame has been adopted by many high-end digital single-lens reflex and digital mirrorless cameras, commonly referred to as full frame. Even though the format is smaller than historical medium format and large format film, it is much larger than image sensors in most compact cameras. Individual rolls of 135 film are enclosed in single-spool, light-tight, the film is clipped or taped to a spool and exits via a slot lined with flocking. The end of the film is cut on one side to form a leader and it has the same dimensions and perforation pitch as 35 mm movie print film. Most cameras require the film to be rewound before the camera is opened, disposable cameras use the same technique so that the user does not have to rewind. Since the 1980s film cassettes have been marked with a DX encoding pattern, conforming cameras detect this, different films are sensitive to light at different degrees, this film speed is standardised by ISO.135 film has been made in several emulsion types and sensitivities. Since the introduction of digital cameras the most usual films have colour emulsions of ISO 100/21° to ISO 800/30°, films of lower sensitivity and higher sensitivity are for more specialist purposes. There are colour and monochrome films, negative and positive, monochrome film is usually panchromatic, orthochromatic has fallen out of use. Film designed to be sensitive to infrared radiation can be obtained, more exotic emulsions have been available in 135 than other roll-film sizes. The term 135 format usually refers to a 36×24 mm film format, the 36×24 mm format is common to digital image sensors, where it is typically referred to as full frame format. On 135 film, the dimension of the 36×24 mm frame runs parallel to the length of the film. The perforation size and pitch are according to the standard specification KS-1870, for each frame, the film advances 8 perforations. This is specified as 38.00 mm and this allows for 2 mm gaps between frames. Each camera model has a different location for the sprocket which advances the film, therefore, each camera model’s frame will vary in position relative to the perforations
10.
Disposable camera
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Disposable or single-use camera is a simple box camera meant to be used once. Some are equipped with a flash unit, and there are even waterproof versions for underwater photography. Internally, the use a 135 film or an APS cartridge. While some disposables contain an actual cartridge as used for loading normal, reusable cameras, the whole camera is handed in for processing. Some of the cameras are recycled, i. e. refilled with film, the cameras are returned for processing in the same fashion as film cameras. A company called Photo-Pac produced a cardboard camera beginning in 1949 which shot 8 exposures, cameras were expensive, and would often have been left safely at home when lovely scenes presented themselves. Frustrated with missing photo opportunities, H. M. Stiles had invented a way to enclose 35mm film in an enclosure without the expensive precision film transport mechanism. Though incredibly similar to the familiar single-use cameras today, Photo-Pac failed to make a permanent impression on the market, in 1966, a French company called FEX introduced a disposable bakelite camera called Photo Pack Matic, featuring 12 photos. The currently familiar disposable camera was developed by Fujifilm in 1986 and their Utsurun-Desu or QuickSnap line used 35 mm film, while Eastman Kodaks 1987 Fling was based on 110 film. Kodak released a 35 mm version in 1988, and in 1989 renamed the 35 mm version the FunSaver, in Japan, the Utsurun was released in 1986 for 1380 yen and became widely accepted. Because of the appeal, companies like Konica, Canon and Nikon soon produced their own models. To stay competitive, Fuji introduced advanced features to its original model such as photography, waterproofing. Some cameras even have a manual zoom feature which works by shifting two lenses in front of the shutter, by 2005 disposable cameras were a staple of the consumer film camera market and flash-equipped disposables were the norm. Disposable cameras are popular with tourists and people traveling around the world to save pictures of their adventures, since the late 1990s, disposable cameras have become increasingly popular as wedding favors. Usually they are placed on tables at wedding receptions to be used by guests to capture their unique perspective of the event, more commonly they are available in colors to match the wedding theme such as ivory, blue, white, gold, etc. So-called accident camera kits containing film-based disposable cameras are increasingly being carried in vehicles to take images as evidence after an accident, film photography is potentially a more credible form of photography in the event of a dispute due to the ease with which digital photography can be edited. The low cost of the makes them a perfect tool for these sorts of projects. Digital one-time-use cameras are available in markets, for example the US saw the introduction of a digital camera in 2004
11.
Magnetism
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Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields. Electric currents and the moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field. The most familiar effects occur in materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be magnetized to become permanent magnets. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic, the most common ones are iron, nickel and cobalt, the prefix ferro- refers to iron, because permanent magnetism was first observed in lodestone, a form of natural iron ore called magnetite, Fe3O4. The magnetic state of a material depends on temperature and other such as pressure. A material may exhibit more than one form of magnetism as these variables change, magnetism was first discovered in the ancient world, when people noticed that lodestones, naturally magnetized pieces of the mineral magnetite, could attract iron. The word magnet comes from the Greek term for lodestone, magnítis líthos, in ancient Greece, Aristotle attributed the first of what could be called a scientific discussion of magnetism to the philosopher Thales of Miletus, who lived from about 625 BC to about 545 BC. Around the same time, in ancient India, the Indian surgeon Sushruta was the first to use of the magnet for surgical purposes. In ancient China, the earliest literary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th-century BC book named after its author, the 2nd-century BC annals, Lüshi Chunqiu, also notes, The lodestone makes iron approach, or it attracts it. The earliest mention of the attraction of a needle is in a 1st-century work Lunheng, by the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass for navigation. They sculpted a directional spoon from lodestone in such a way that the handle of the spoon always pointed south, alexander Neckam, by 1187, was the first in Europe to describe the compass and its use for navigation. In 1269, Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt wrote the Epistola de magnete, in 1282, the properties of magnets and the dry compass were discussed by Al-Ashraf, a Yemeni physicist, astronomer, and geographer. In 1600, William Gilbert published his De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, in this work he describes many of his experiments with his model earth called the terrella. From his experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and this landmark experiment is known as Ørsteds Experiment. James Clerk Maxwell synthesized and expanded these insights into Maxwells equations, unifying electricity, magnetism, in 1905, Einstein used these laws in motivating his theory of special relativity, requiring that the laws held true in all inertial reference frames. Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources, Electric current, Spin magnetic moments of elementary particles. The magnetic moments of the nuclei of atoms are thousands of times smaller than the electrons magnetic moments. Nuclear magnetic moments are very important in other contexts, particularly in nuclear magnetic resonance
12.
Polyethylene naphthalate
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Polyethylene naphthalate (poly is a polyester with good barrier properties. Because it provides a very good oxygen barrier, it is particularly well-suited for bottling beverages that are susceptible to oxidation and it is also used in making high performance sailcloth. It also has found to show supreme scintillation properties and is expected to replace classic plastic scintillators. PEN is a polymer of naphthalene-2, 6-dicarboxylic acid and ethylene glycol. There are two major manufacturing routes for PEN, i. e. an ester or a process, named according to whether the starting monomer is a diester or a diacid derivative of naphthalene. In both cases for PEN, the monomer is ethylene glycol. Solid-state polymerization of the resin pellets is the preferred process to increase the average molecular weight of PEN. It is also a material for modern electronic devices. PEN was the medium for Advanced Photo System film, PEN is used for manufacturing high performance fibers that have very high modulus and better dimensional stability than PET or Nylon fibers. PEN is used as the substrate for some Linear Tape-Open cartridges, PEN is intended as a PET replacement, especially when used as a substrate for flexible integrated circuits. DuPont Teijin Films TEONEX Q83 Data sheet
13.
Plastic
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Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging, other uses include automobiles, furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be different - for example, the worlds first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland who coined the term plastics. Toward the end of the century, one approach to this problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling, the word plastic is derived from the Greek πλαστικός meaning capable of being shaped or molded, from πλαστός meaning molded. The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products, thermally insulation foams. Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors, One of the most expensive commercial polymers. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of other agents, polytetrafluoroethylene – Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumbers tape and water slides. It is more known as Teflon. Urea-formaldehyde – One of the aminoplasts and used as an alternative to phenolics. Used as an adhesive and electrical switch housings. Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, in 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages, materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk-proteins with lye. In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, the development of plastics also accelerated with Charles Goodyears discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber. Parkesine is considered the first man-made plastic, the plastic material was patented by Alexander Parkes, In Birmingham, UK in 1856. It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London, parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862 Worlds fair in London
14.
Exposure (photography)
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In photography, exposure is the amount of light per unit area reaching a photographic film or electronic image sensor, as determined by shutter speed, lens aperture and scene luminance. Exposure is measured in lux seconds, and can be computed from exposure value, in photographic jargon, an exposure generally refers to a single shutter cycle. For the same speed, the accumulated photometric exposure should be similar in both cases. A photograph may be described as underexposed when it has a loss of detail, that is. As the adjacent image shows, these terms are technical ones, there are three types of settings, manual, automatic and exposure compensation. Radiant exposure of a surface, denoted He and measured in J/m2, is given by H e = E e t, where Ee is the irradiance of the surface, measured in W/m2, t is the exposure duration, measured in s. Luminous exposure of a surface, denoted Hv and measured in lx⋅s, is given by H v = E v t, many photographic materials are also sensitive to invisible light, which can be a nuisance, or a benefit. The use of units is appropriate to characterize such sensitivity to invisible light. In sensitometric data, such as curves, the log exposure is conventionally expressed as log10. Photographers more familiar with base-2 logarithmic scales can convert using log2 ≈3.32 log10, correct exposure may be defined as an exposure that achieves the effect the photographer intended. A more technical approach recognises that a film has a physically limited useful exposure range. If, for any part of the photograph, the exposure is outside this range. In a very simple model, for example, out-of-range values would be recorded as black or white rather than the precisely graduated shades of colour and this ensures that no significant information is lost during capture. However, it is much easier to discard recorded information during post processing than to try to re-create unrecorded information. In a scene with strong or harsh lighting, the ratio between highlight and shadow luminance values may well be larger than the ratio between the maximum and minimum useful exposure values. A photograph may be described as underexposed when it has a loss of detail, that is. In manual mode, the photographer adjusts the lens aperture and/or shutter speed to achieve the desired exposure, manual exposure calculations may be based on some method of light metering with a working knowledge of exposure values, the APEX system and/or the Zone System. A camera in automatic exposure mode automatically calculates and adjusts exposure settings to match the subjects mid-tone to the mid-tone of the photograph, for most cameras this means using an on-board TTL exposure meter
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Shutter speed
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The amount of light that reaches the film or image sensor is proportional to the exposure time. 1/500th of a second will let half as much light in as 1/250th, the cameras shutter speed, the lenss aperture, and the scenes luminance together determine the amount of light that reaches the film or sensor. Exposure value is a quantity that accounts for the shutter speed and this will achieve a good exposure when all the details of the scene are legible on the photograph. Too much light let into the results in an overly pale image while too little light will result in an overly dark image. Multiple combinations of speed and f-number can give the same exposure value. According to exposure value formula, doubling the exposure time doubles the amount of light, for example, f/8 lets 4 times more light into the camera as f/16 does. In addition to its effect on exposure, the speed changes the way movement appears in photographs. Very short shutter speeds can be used to freeze fast-moving subjects, very long shutter speeds are used to intentionally blur a moving subject for effect. Short exposure times are called fast, and long exposure times slow. Adjustments to the aperture need to be compensated by changes of the speed to keep the same exposure. The agreed standards for shutter speeds are, With this scale, camera shutters often include one or two other settings for making very long exposures, B keeps the shutter open as long as the shutter release is held. T keeps the open until the shutter release is pressed again. The ability of the photographer to take images without noticeable blurring by camera movement is an important parameter in the choice of the slowest possible speed for a handheld camera. Through practice and special techniques such as bracing the camera, arms, or body to minimize movement, using a monopod or a tripod. If a shutter speed is too slow for hand holding, a support, usually a tripod. Image stabilization on digital cameras or lenses can often permit the use of shutter speeds 3–4 stops slower, Shutter priority refers to a shooting mode used in cameras. It allows the photographer to choose a shutter speed setting and allow the camera to decide the correct aperture and this is sometimes referred to as Shutter Speed Priority Auto Exposure, or TV mode, S mode on Nikons and most other brands. Shutter speed is one of methods used to control the amount of light recorded by the cameras digital sensor or film
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Aperture
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In optics, an aperture is a hole or an opening through which light travels. More specifically, the aperture and focal length of a system determine the cone angle of a bundle of rays that come to a focus in the image plane. The aperture determines how collimated the admitted rays are, which is of importance for the appearance at the image plane. If an aperture is narrow, then highly collimated rays are admitted, a wide aperture admits uncollimated rays, resulting in a sharp focus only for rays coming from a certain distance. This means that a wide aperture results in an image that is sharp for things at the correct distance, the aperture also determines how many of the incoming rays are actually admitted and thus how much light reaches the image plane. In the human eye, the pupil is the aperture, an optical system typically has many openings or structures that limit the ray bundles. In general, these structures are called stops, and the stop is the stop that primarily determines the ray cone angle. In some contexts, especially in photography and astronomy, aperture refers to the diameter of the aperture stop rather than the stop or the opening itself. For example, in a telescope, the stop is typically the edges of the objective lens or mirror. One then speaks of a telescope as having, for example, note that the aperture stop is not necessarily the smallest stop in the system. Magnification and demagnification by lenses and other elements can cause a large stop to be the aperture stop for the system. In astrophotography, the aperture may be given as a measure or as the dimensionless ratio between that measure and the focal length. In other photography, it is given as a ratio. Sometimes stops and diaphragms are called apertures, even when they are not the stop of the system. The word aperture is used in other contexts to indicate a system which blocks off light outside a certain region. In astronomy, for example, a photometric aperture around a star usually corresponds to a window around the image of a star within which the light intensity is assumed. The aperture stop is an important element in most optical designs and its most obvious feature is that it limits the amount of light that can reach the image/film plane. This can be unavoidable, as in a telescope where one wants to collect as much light as possible, or deliberate
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Photographic processing
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Photographic processing or development is the chemical means by which photographic film or paper is treated after photographic exposure to produce a negative or positive image. Photographic processing transforms the latent image into an image, makes this permanent. All processes based upon the process are similar, regardless of the film or papers manufacturer. Exceptional variations include instant films such as made by Polaroid. Kodachrome required Kodaks proprietary K-14 process, Kodachrome film production ceased in 2009, and K-14 processing is no longer available as of December 30,2010. Ilfochrome materials use the dye destruction process, all photographic processing use a series of chemical baths. Processing, especially the development stages, requires very close control of temperature, agitation, the film may be soaked in water to swell the gelatin layer, facilitating the action of the subsequent chemical treatments. The developer converts the latent image to macroscopic particles of metallic silver, a stop bath, † typically a dilute solution of acetic acid or citric acid, halts the action of the developer. A rinse with water may be substituted. The fixer makes the image permanent and light-resistant by dissolving remaining silver halide, a common fixer is hypo, specifically ammonium thiosulfate. Washing in clean water removes any remaining fixer, residual fixer can corrode the silver image, leading to discolouration, staining and fading. The washing time can be reduced and the more completely removed if a hypo clearing agent is used after the fixer. Film may be rinsed in a solution of a non-ionic wetting agent to assist uniform drying. Film is then dried in an environment, cut and placed into protective sleeves. Once the film is processed, it is referred to as a negative. The negative may now be printed, the negative is placed in an enlarger, many different techniques can be used during the enlargement process. Two examples of enlargement techniques are dodging and burning, alternatively, the negative may be scanned for digital printing or web viewing after adjustment, retouching, and/or manipulation. † In modern automatic processing machines, the bath is replaced by mechanical squeegee or pinching rollers
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DX number
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The DX number was assigned by the International Imaging Industry Association. It uniquely identifies the type and manufacturer of a film emulsion, a proprietary list of DX numbers for APS and 135 film was prepared yearly or as needed. The list was available for sale from the I3A, a DX number has two parts separated by a dash, the combination code also known as DX Number Part 1 followed by a specifier number, or DX Number Part 2. For example, Agfa Perutz 3-color 200 ISO film is assigned 115-4, for 135 film cartridges the DX number is hashed to produce a four digit code. A suffix digit for the number of exposures and a manufacturers proprietary prefix digit are concatenated to form a 6 digit decimal code, the code is printed in human-readable text and also represented as an Interleaved 2 of 5 barcode. Size and position conform to the ANSI/NAPM IT1.14,1994 standard, to generate digits 2 through 5, the combination code is multiplied by 16 and added to the specifier number. The result is prefixed with zeroes to make 4 digits, for the Agfa film 115-4 above, the digits would be 1844. Digit 1 is any digit from 0 to 9 and is assigned by the manufacturer, the barcode is located between the electrically-read silver and black DX Camera Auto-Sensing Code and the film cartridge exit lip. The barcode is scanned by many film-processing machines when the cartridge is inserted for developing
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Minolta
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Minolta Co. Ltd. was a Japanese worldwide manufacturer of cameras, camera accessories, photocopiers, fax machines, and laser printers. Minolta was founded in Osaka, Japan, in 1928 as Nichi-Doku Shashinki Shōten and it is perhaps best known for making the first integrated autofocus 35mm SLR camera system. In 1931, the company adopted its current name, an acronym for Mechanism, Instruments, Optics, in 1933, the brand name first appeared on a camera, a copy of the Plaubel Makina simply called Minolta. In 2003, Minolta merged with Konica Corporation to form Konica Minolta,1928, Kazuo Tashima establishes Nichi-Doku Shashinki Shōten. 1929, Marketed the companys first camera, the Nifcarette,1937, The Minolta Flex is Japans second twin-lens reflex camera. 1947, Introduction of the long lived 35mm rangefinder camera Minolta-351958,1962, John Glenn takes a specially modified Ansco-logoed Minolta Hi-Matic camera into space aboard Friendship 7. The company changes its name to Minolta Camera Co. Ltd,1966, The Minolta SR-T101 SLR camera is one of the first with TTL full aperture light metering. The first is Topcon RE Super from 1963,1972, Minolta signs an agreement to cooperate with Leica in SLR development,1973, The Minolta CL is the first fruit of this agreement. 1976, The Leica R3 is introduced, Minolta produces the R3, R4, and R5 models in the Leica R series. Subsequent cameras are built in Germany by Leica themselves,1977, The Minolta XD-11 is introduced, the worlds first multi mode SLR offering M, A, S modes, with a Program override in S mode effected by a computer chip, the worlds first Program mode. 1981, Implementation of Minoltas invention and patent of TTL OTF exposure metering, the Minolta X-700 manual-focus SLR is introduced, this model is sold until 1999 and is enormously successful. The Minolta XD-11 is the first Minolta product branded with an updated logo,1985, The Minolta Maxxum 7000 Alpha Mount Camera becomes the worlds first autofocus 35mm SLR with in-camera autofocus motor. 1987, Honeywell files lawsuit against Minolta for patent infringement over autofocus technologies,1991, Minoltas autofocus design was found to infringe on the patents of Honeywell, a U. S. corporation. 1994, The company changes its name to Minolta Co. Ltd. because it no longer is primarily a camera company,1995, Introduction of the Minolta RD-175, a 1. 75-megapixel digital SLR camera. 1996, The Minolta Vectis camera is a completely new SLR system designed around the Advanced Photo System film format,1998, The Minolta Maxxum 9 autofocus SLR is introduced. This system is targeted toward the photographer and has many features not duplicated by the competition. 2003, DiMAGE A1 introduced worlds first sensor-based anti-shake, and was the final Minolta product branded prior to the Konica Minolta merger,2004, Minolta and Konica officially merge to become Konica Minolta Holdings, Inc. 2005, The company announces joint venture with Sony on CCD,2006, Konica Minolta announces it is discontinuing all film and digital camera production, ending a 78-year history as a camera manufacturer
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Nikon
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Nikon Corporation, also known just as Nikon, is a Japanese multinational corporation headquartered in Tokyo, Japan, specializing in optics and imaging products. The companies held by Nikon form the Nikon Group, Nikons main competitors in camera and lens manufacturing include Canon, Sony, Fujifilm, Panasonic, Pentax, and Olympus. Founded on July 25,1917 as Nippon Kōgaku Kōgyō Kabushikigaisha, Nikon is a member of the Mitsubishi group of companies. Nikon Corporation was established on 25 July 1917 when three leading optical manufacturers merged to form a comprehensive, fully integrated optical company known as Nippon Kōgaku Tōkyō K. K. Over the next sixty years, this company became a manufacturer of optical lenses and equipment used in cameras, binoculars, microscopes. During World War II the company operated thirty factories with 2,000 employees, manufacturing binoculars, lenses, bomb sights, after the war Nippon Kōgaku reverted to producing its civilian product range in a single factory. In 1948, the first Nikon-branded camera was released, the Nikon I, Nikon lenses were popularised by the American photojournalist David Douglas Duncan. Duncan was working in Tokyo when the Korean War began, Duncan had met a young Japanese photographer, Jun Miki, who introduced Duncan to Nikon lenses. From July 1950 to January 1951, Duncan covered the Korean War, fitting Nikon optics to his Leica rangefinder cameras produced high contrast negatives with very sharp resolution at the centre field. Founded in 1917 as Nippon Kōgaku Kōgyō Kabushikigaisha, the company was renamed Nikon Corporation, after its cameras, the name Nikon, which dates from 1946, is a merging of Nippon Kōgaku and Zeisss brand Ikon. This would cause some problems in Germany as Zeiss complained that Nikon violated its trademarked camera. From 1963 to 1968 the Nikon F in particular was therefore labeled Nikkor, the Nikkor brand was introduced in 1932, a westernised rendering of an earlier version Nikkō, an abbreviation of the companys original full name. Nikkor is the Nikon brand name for its lenses, another early brand used on microscopes was Joico, an abbreviation of Japan Optical Industries Co. Expeed is the brand Nikon uses for its processors since 2007. The Nikon SP and other 1950s and 1960s rangefinder cameras competed directly with models from Leica, however, the company quickly ceased developing its rangefinder line to focus its efforts on the Nikon F single-lens reflex line of cameras, which was successful upon its introduction in 1959. For nearly 30 years, Nikons F-series SLRs were the most widely used small-format cameras among professional photographers, however, as autofocus SLRs became available from Minolta and others in the mid-1980s, Nikons line of manual-focus cameras began to seem out of date. Canon introduced a new type of lens-camera interface with its entirely electronic Canon EOS cameras, the much faster lens performance permitted by Canons electronic focusing and aperture control prompted many professional photographers to switch to the Canon system through the 1990s. Nikon created some of the first digital SLRs for NASA, used in the Space Shuttle since 1991, after a 1990s partnership with Kodak to produce digital SLR cameras based on existing Nikon film bodies, Nikon released the Nikon D1 SLR under its own name in 1999
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Canon Inc.
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It is headquartered in Ōta, Tokyo, Japan. Canon has a listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the TOPIX index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange. At the beginning of 2015, Canon was the tenth largest public company in Japan when measured by market capitalization, the company was originally named Seikikōgaku kenkyūsho. In 1934 it produced the Kwanon, a prototype for Japan’s first-ever 35 mm camera with a plane based shutter. In 1947 the company name was changed to Canon Camera Co. Inc. shortened to Canon Inc. in 1969, the name Canon comes from Buddhist bodhisattva Guan Yin, previously transliterated as Kuanyin, Kwannon, or Kwanon in English. The origins of Canon date back to the founding of Precision Optical Instruments Laboratory in Japan in 1937 by Takeshi Mitarai, Goro Yoshida, Saburo Uchida and Takeo Maeda. During its early years the company did not have any facilities to produce its own optical glass, between 1933 and 1936 ‘The Kwanon’, a copy of the Leica design, Japan’s first 35 mm focal plane-shutter camera, was developed in prototype form. In 1940 Canon developed Japans first indirect X-ray camera, Canon introduced a field zoom lens for television broadcasting in 1958 and in 1959 introduced the Reflex Zoom 8, the world’s first movie camera with a zoom lens, and the Canonflex. In 1961 Canon introduced the Rangefinder camera, Canon 7, in 1965 Canon introduced the Canon Pellix, a single lens reflex camera with a semi-transparent stationary mirror which enabled the taking of pictures through the mirror. In 1971 Canon introduced the F-1, a high-end SLR camera, in 1976 Canon launched the AE-1, the world’s first camera with an embedded micro-computer. In 1982 Wildlife as Canon Sees It print ads first appeared in National Geographic magazine, Canon introduced the world’s first Inkjet printer using bubble jet technology in 1985. Canon introduced Canon Electro-Optical System in 1987, named after the goddess of the dawn, EOS650 autofocus SLR camera is introduced. Also in 1987 the Canon Foundation was established, in 1988 Canon introduced Kyosei philosophy. The EOS1 Flagship Professional SLR line was launched in 1989, in the same year the EOS RT, the worlds first AF SLR with a fixed, semi-transparent pellicle mirror, was unveiled. In 1992 Canon launched the EOS5, the camera with eye-controlled AF. In 1995 Canon introduced the first commercially available SLR lens with image stabilization. EOS-1N RS, the worlds fastest AF SLR camera with a shooting speed of 10 frame/s at the time
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Point-and-shoot camera
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A point-and-shoot camera, also called a compact camera, is a still camera designed primarily for simple operation. Most use focus free lenses or autofocus for focusing, automatic systems for setting the exposure options, point-and-shoots are by far the best selling type of separate camera, as distinct from camera phones. They are popular with people who do not consider themselves photographers but want easy-to-use cameras for snapshots of vacations, parties, reunions, point-and-shoot camera sales declined after about 2010 as smartphones overtook them in such uses. Many superzoom compact cameras have optical zoom up to 30x and weigh less than 300 grams, much less than bridge cameras and DSLRs. Most of these cameras use small 1/2.3 sensors. They prioritize intelligent Auto, but some high end P&S cameras have PSAM mode dial, Raw image format, point-and-shoot cameras are distinguished from single-lens reflex cameras in several respects, point-and-shoot film cameras, and many digital ones, use a viewfinder. The image that the photographer sees is not the image that passes through the primary lens of the camera. Rather, the image in the passes through a separate lens. With this mechanism, pictures cannot be previewed on the LCD screens of most digital SLRs, digital cameras eliminate one advantage of the SLR design, as the cameras display image comes through the lens, not a separate viewfinder. Many smaller digital point-and-shoots of the 2010s omit the optical viewfinder, point-and-shoot cameras generally dont have such add-on devices, hence there is no such need. The lowest-end point-and-shoot film cameras are similar to cameras. These cameras have focus-free lenses, with fixed apertures and they may or may not have a light meter. Most have a wheel or lever for advancing the film and cocking the shutter, because of the fixed apertures, models with flash have no way of controlling the exposure from the flash. Therefore, flash pictures have to be taken within a range of distance from the subject. Advanced models use automatic focus and have variable apertures and they use electric motors to advance and rewind the film. They are much more versatile than the low-end models and they are also likely to have zoom lenses, more advanced auto-focus systems, exposure systems with manual controls, larger apertures and sharper lenses. They may have special lamps or pre-flash systems designed to reduce red eye in flash pictures of people, unit total sales of all types of point-and-shoot cameras declined by 17 percent year on year, but increased by 16 percent for cameras having optical zoom greater than 10x. Most film-based point-and-shoots made after the late 1980s use 35mm film, in the 1980s, 35mm was seen as a professional format due to the relative difficulty of loading and rewinding the film versus cartridge based formats such as 110 or disc film
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Single-lens reflex camera
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A single-lens reflex camera is a camera that typically uses a mirror and prism system that permits the photographer to view through the lens and see exactly what will be captured. With twin lens reflex and rangefinder cameras, the image could be significantly different from the final image. When the shutter button is pressed on a mechanical SLR, the mirror out of the light path, allowing light to pass through to the light receptor. Prior to the development of SLR, all cameras with viewfinders had two light paths, one path through the lens to the film, and another path positioned above or to the side. Because the viewfinder and the lens cannot share the same optical path. This is not problematic for pictures taken at a middle or longer distance, moreover, focusing the lens of a fast reflex camera when it is opened to wider apertures is not easy. Most SLR cameras permit upright and laterally correct viewing through use of a roof pentaprism situated in the path between the reflex mirror and viewfinder. When the shutter is released, the mirror out of the light path. The Canon Pellix film camera was an exception to the mirror system. Focus can be adjusted manually by the photographer or automatically by an autofocus system, the viewfinder can include a matte focusing screen located just above the mirror system to diffuse the light. This permits accurate viewing, composing and focusing, especially useful with interchangeable lenses, nearly all inexpensive compact digital cameras now include an LCD preview screen allowing the photographer to see what the CCD is capturing. However, SLR is still popular in high-end and professional cameras because they are system cameras with interchangeable parts and they also have far less shutter lag, allowing photographs to be timed more precisely. Also the pixel resolution, contrast ratio, refresh rate, and color gamut of an LCD preview screen cannot compete with the clarity, large format SLR cameras were probably first marketed with the introduction of C. R. Smiths Monocular Duplex. SLRs for smaller exposure formats were launched in the 1920s by several camera makers, the first 35mm SLR available to the mass market, Leicas PLOOT reflex housing along with a 200mm f4.5 lens paired to a 35mm rangefinder camera body, debuted in 1935. The Soviet Спорт, also a 24mm by 36mm image size, was prototyped in 1934, K. Nüchterleins Kine Exakta was the first integrated 35mm SLR to enter the market. Additional Exakta models, all with waist-level finders, were produced up to, another ancestor of the modern SLR camera was the Swiss-made Alpa, which was innovative, and influenced the later Japanese cameras. The Duflex, which went into production in 1948, was also the worlds first SLR with an instant-return mirror. The first commercially produced SLR that employed a roof pentaprism was the Italian Rectaflex A, the Japanese adopted and further developed the SLR
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Canon EOS IX
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The EOS IX or EOS IX E is an APS-format single-lens reflex camera that was introduced by Canon Inc. of Japan in October 1996 as part of their EOS series SLR cameras. The other APS camera in this series is the Canon EOS IX Lite, the EOS IX features Canons Multi-BASIS TTL phase detection autofocus system with three focusing points. The Japanese EOS IX E model added Canons Eye Control focus point selection system, the selected focus point lights in the viewfinder. Other superimposed viewfinder features include masks for the three APS formats, while an LCD outside the area displays other shooting information. The viewfinder incorporates a roof pentamirror of 0. 6× magnification, the shutter, a vertically traveling, electronically controlled metal blade unit, can be set for speeds between 30 and 1/4000 seconds, with an X-sync speed of 1/200 second. A Bulb mode is available, for exposure as long as the shutter button is depressed. The speed is variable in Program and aperture-priority modes, and can be set in half-stop increments in shutter-priority. Metering is via a silicon photocell giving 6-zone evaluative metering, center-weighted metering, the metering range, at ISO100 with a f/1.4 lens, is EV 1–20. Exposure compensation of ±2 EV can be applied in half-stop increments, the film speed range supported is ISO25 to 8000, using DX coding if available. Review by Philip Greenspun Introduction to Canon EOS cameras by Toomas Tamm
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Minolta Vectis S series
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The Minolta Vectis S-series comprises two APS system models of film SLR cameras made by Minolta, the flagship model Vectis S-1 and the Vectis S-100. The cameras feature a design, owing to the use of mirrors instead of prisms in the viewfinder.00 mm. Only an early DSLR camera body, the Minolta Dimâge RD3000, the Vectis brand was also shared with a number of small APS rangefinder cameras with fixed lenses, including the waterproof Vectis Weathermatic and Vectis GX series. The model numbers of these cameras dont include the S prefix used for the SLR series, the 400 mm reflex lens as well as the 25-150 mm and 56-170 mm zooms may not perform to their full potential on the RD3000, however. Information about the Vectis S-1 and S-100 Models and manuals for Minolta Vectis series cameras
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Nikon DX format
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The Nikon DX format is an alternative name used by Nikon corporation for APS-C image sensor format being approximately 24x16 mm. Its dimensions are about 2⁄3 those of the 35mm format, the format was created by Nikon for its digital SLR cameras, many of which are equipped with DX-sized sensors. DX format is similar in size to sensors from Pentax, Sony. All referred to as APS-C including the slightly smaller Canon cameras, Nikon has produced 23 lenses for the DX format, from macro to telephoto lenses. 35mm format lenses can also be used with DX format cameras, with advantages, less vignetting, less distortion. Disadvantages of 35mm lenses include generally higher weight and incompatible features such as autofocus with some lower-end DX cameras, Nikon has also produced digital SLRs that feature the larger Nikon FX format sensor that is the size of the 135 film format. In 2013, Nikon introduced a compact camera with a DX-sized sensor. The 1⁄3 smaller diagonal size of the DX format amounts to a narrower angle of view than would be achieved with the 135 film format. Strictly in angle-of-view terms, the effect is equivalent to increasing focal length by 50% on a 135 film camera and this effect can be advantageous for telephoto and macro photography as it produces a tighter crop without the need to increase actual focal length. However it becomes disadvantageous for wide angle photography as a wide lens for 135 film effectively becomes a normal lens for the DX format. This has led to the development of the DX format-specific lenses for the Nikon F-mount. Since these lenses do not need to cover the 135 film area, the production of DX-specific lenses has also enabled the production of affordable wide angle lenses for the format, whereas costly ultra-wide angle lenses from the 135 format were formerly required. When DX format lenses are used on 135 format cameras, vignetting often occurs, Nikon uses DX format sensors of slightly different sizes, although all of them are classified as APS-C, Coolpix A is a fixed-lens, point-and-shoot camera
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Image circle
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The image circle is the cross section of the cone of light transmitted by a lens or series of lenses. When this light strikes a target such as film or a digital camera sensor, it forms a circle of light. Various sensor aspect ratios may be used which all fit inside the image circle,3,2,4,3,16,9. A lens to be used on a camera that provides movements must have an image circle larger than the size of the image format, the New Ansel Adams Basic Photography Series/Book 1. ISBN 0-8212-1092-0 Ray, Sidney F.2000, in The Manual of Photography, Photographic and Digital Imaging, 9th ed. Ed. Ralph E. Jacobson, Sidney F. Ray, Geoffrey G. Atteridge, ISBN 0-240-51574-9 Ray, Sidney F.2002. Applied Photographic Optics, 3rd ed. Oxford, Focal Press ISBN 0-240-51540-4 Langford, view Camera Technique, 3rd ed, 62–67
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Crop factor
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In the case of digital cameras, the imaging device would be a digital sensor. The most commonly used definition of crop factor is the ratio of a 35 mm frames diagonal to the diagonal of the sensor in question. Given the same 3,2 aspect ratio as 35mms 36 mm ×24 mm area, this is equivalent to the ratio of heights or ratio of widths, the ratio of sensor areas is the square of the crop factor. If it is desired to capture an image with the field of view and image quality but different cameras. The term format factor is also used, and is a more neutral term that corresponds to the German word for this concept. Of course, the focal length of a photographic lens is fixed by its optical construction. Most DSLRs on the market have nominally APS-C-sized image sensors, smaller than the standard 36 ×24 mm film frame, for example, many Canon DSLRs use an APS-C sensor that measures 22.2 mm ×14.8 mm. Because of this crop, the field of view is reduced by a factor proportional to the ratio between the smaller sensor size and the 35 mm film format size. For most DSLR cameras, this factor is 1. 3–2. 0× and this narrowing of the FOV is a disadvantage to photographers when a wide FOV is desired. Ultra-wide lens designs become merely wide, wide-angle lenses become normal, however, the crop factor can be an advantage to photographers when a narrow FOV is desired. It allows photographers with long-focal-length lenses to fill the frame more easily when the subject is far away. A300 mm lens on a camera with a 1.6 crop factor delivers images with the same FOV that a 35 mm film camera would require a 480 mm long focus lens to capture. Due to the statistics of photon shot noise, the properties of signal-to-noise ratio. Since crop factor is proportional to the square root of sensor area. The larger sensor has the smaller crop factor and the higher signal-to-noise ratio, most SLR camera and lens manufacturers have addressed the concerns of wide-angle lens users by designing lenses with shorter focal lengths, optimized for the DSLR formats. In most cases, these lenses are designed to cast an image circle that would not cover a 24×36 mm frame. Because they cast an image circle, the lenses can be optimized to use less glass and are sometimes physically smaller and lighter than those designed for full-frame cameras. Such lenses usually project an image circle than lenses that were designed for the full-frame 35 mm format
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Active pixel sensor
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An active-pixel sensor is an image sensor consisting of an integrated circuit containing an array of pixel sensors, each pixel containing a photodetector and an active amplifier. Such an image sensor is produced using CMOS technology, and has emerged as an alternative to charge-coupled device image sensors. The term active pixel sensor was coined in 1985 by Tsutomu Nakamura who worked on the Charge Modulation Device active pixel sensor at Olympus, the MOS passive-pixel sensor used just a simple switch in the pixel to read out the photodiode integrated charge. Pixels were arrayed in a structure, with an access enable wire shared by pixels in the same row. At the end of each column was an amplifier, passive-pixel sensors suffered from many limitations, such as high noise, slow readout, and lack of scalability. The addition of an amplifier to each pixel addressed these problems, Noble in 1968 and Chamberlain in 1969 created sensor arrays with active MOS readout amplifiers per pixel, in essentially the modern three-transistor configuration. The CCD was invented in October 1969 at Bell Labs, a low-resolution mostly digital N-channel MOSFET imager with intra-pixel amplification, for an optical mouse application, was demonstrated in 1981. Another type of active pixel sensor is the infrared focal plane array designed to operate at cryogenic temperatures in the infrared spectrum. The exact date of origin of these devices is classified, by the late 1980s and early 1990s, the CMOS process was well established as a well controlled stable process and was the baseline process for almost all logic and microprocessors. Between 1993 and 1995, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory developed a number of prototype devices, though primitive, these devices demonstrated good image performance with high readout speed and low power consumption. In 1995, personnel from JPL founded Photobit Corp, many other small image sensor companies also sprang to life shortly thereafter due to the accessibility of the CMOS process and all quickly adopted the active pixel sensor approach. Most recent, the CMOS sensor technology has spread to medium-format photography with Phase One being the first to launch a medium format digital back with a Sony-built CMOS sensor, APS pixels solve the speed and scalability issues of the passive-pixel sensor. They generally consume less power than CCDs, have less image lag, unlike CCDs, APS sensors can combine the image sensor function and image processing functions within the same integrated circuit. APS sensors have found markets in many applications, especially camera phones. They have also used in other fields including digital radiography, military ultra high speed image acquisition, security cameras. Manufacturers include Aptina Imaging, Canon, Samsung, STMicroelectronics, Toshiba, OmniVision Technologies, Sony, cMOS-type APS sensors are typically suited to applications in which packaging, power management, and on-chip processing are important. CMOS type sensors are used, from high-end digital photography down to mobile-phone cameras. A big advantage of a CMOS sensor is that it is less expensive than a CCD sensor
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CMOS
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Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor, abbreviated as CMOS /ˈsiːmɒs/, is a technology for constructing integrated circuits. CMOS technology is used in microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM, CMOS technology is also used for several analog circuits such as image sensors, data converters, and highly integrated transceivers for many types of communication. In 1963, while working for Fairchild Semiconductor, Frank Wanlass patented CMOS, CMOS is also sometimes referred to as complementary-symmetry metal–oxide–semiconductor. Two important characteristics of CMOS devices are high noise immunity and low power consumption. Since one transistor of the pair is always off, the series combination draws significant power only momentarily during switching between on and off states, CMOS also allows a high density of logic functions on a chip. It was primarily for this reason that CMOS became the most used technology to be implemented in VLSI chips, aluminium was once used but now the material is polysilicon. Other metal gates have made a comeback with the advent of high-k dielectric materials in the CMOS process, as announced by IBM and Intel for the 45 nanometer node and beyond. CMOS refers to both a style of digital circuitry design and the family of processes used to implement that circuitry on integrated circuits. CMOS circuitry dissipates less power than logic families with resistive loads, since this advantage has increased and grown more important, CMOS processes and variants have come to dominate, thus the vast majority of modern integrated circuit manufacturing is on CMOS processes. As of 2010, CPUs with the best performance per watt each year have been CMOS static logic since 1976, CMOS circuits use a combination of p-type and n-type metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor to implement logic gates and other digital circuits. CMOS always uses all enhancement-mode MOSFETs, CMOS circuits are constructed in such a way that all PMOS transistors must have either an input from the voltage source or from another PMOS transistor. Similarly, all NMOS transistors must have either an input from ground or from another NMOS transistor, the composition of a PMOS transistor creates low resistance between its source and drain contacts when a low gate voltage is applied and high resistance when a high gate voltage is applied. On the other hand, the composition of an NMOS transistor creates high resistance between source and drain when a low voltage is applied and low resistance when a high gate voltage is applied. CMOS accomplishes current reduction by complementing every nMOSFET with a pMOSFET, a high voltage on the gates will cause the nMOSFET to conduct and the pMOSFET to not conduct, while a low voltage on the gates causes the reverse. This arrangement greatly reduces power consumption and heat generation, however, during the switching time, both MOSFETs conduct briefly as the gate voltage goes from one state to another. This induces a brief spike in consumption and becomes a serious issue at high frequencies. The image on the right shows what happens when an input is connected to both a PMOS transistor and an NMOS transistor, when the voltage of input A is low, the NMOS transistors channel is in a high resistance state. This limits the current that can flow from Q to ground, the PMOS transistors channel is in a low resistance state and much more current can flow from the supply to the output
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Image sensor
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An image sensor or imaging sensor is a sensor that detects and conveys the information that constitutes an image. It does so by converting the variable attenuation of light waves into signals, the waves can be light or other electromagnetic radiation. As technology changes, digital imaging tends to replace analog imaging, early analog sensors for visible light were video camera tubes. Currently, used types are semiconductor charge-coupled devices or active pixel sensors in complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor or N-type metal-oxide-semiconductor technologies, analog sensors for invisible radiation tend to involve vacuum tubes of various kinds. Digital sensors include flat panel detectors, today, most digital cameras use a CMOS sensor, because CMOS sensors perform better than CCDs. An example is the fact that they incorporate an integrated circuit, CCD is still in use for cheap low entry cameras, but weak in burst mode. Both types of sensor accomplish the task of capturing light. Each cell of a CCD image sensor is an analog device, when light strikes the chip it is held as a small electrical charge in each photo sensor. This process is repeated until all the lines of pixels have had their charge amplified. A CMOS image sensor has an amplifier for each compared to the few amplifiers of a CCD. Some CMOS imaging sensors also use Back-side illumination to increase the number of photons that hit the photodiode, CMOS sensors can potentially be implemented with fewer components, use less power, and/or provide faster readout than CCD sensors. They are also vulnerable to static electricity discharges. Another approach is to utilize the very fine dimensions available in modern CMOS technology to implement a CCD like structure entirely in CMOS technology and this can be achieved by separating individual poly-silicon gates by a very small gap. These hybrid sensors are still in the phase and can potentially harness the benefits of both CCD and CMOS imagers. There are many parameters that can be used to evaluate the performance of a sensor, including dynamic range, signal-to-noise ratio. For sensors of comparable types, the ratio and dynamic range improve as the size increases. In order to avoid interpolated color information, techniques like color co-site sampling use a mechanism to shift the color sensor in pixel steps. 3CCD, using three discrete image sensors, with the color separation done by a dichroic prism, while in general digital cameras use a flat sensor, Sony prototyped a curved sensor in 2014 to reduce/eliminate Petzval field curvature that occurs with a flat sensor
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Digital photography
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Digital photography is a form of photography that uses cameras containing arrays of electronic photodetectors to capture images focused by a lens, as opposed to an exposure on photographic film. The captured images are digitized and stored as a computer file ready for digital processing, viewing. Digital photographs are created solely by computer-based photoelectric and mechanical techniques. Digital photography is one of forms of digital imaging. Digital images are created by non-photographic equipment such as computer tomography scanners. Digital images can also be made by scanning other printed photographic images or negatives, the first consumer digital cameras were marketed in the late 1990s. Many mirrorless cameras accept interchangeable lenses and have advanced features through an electronic viewfinder, the first flyby spacecraft image of Mars was taken from Mariner 4 on July 15,1965 with a camera system designed by NASA/JPL. The first recorded attempt at building a digital camera was in 1975 by Steven Sasson and it used the then-new solid-state CCD image sensor chips developed by Fairchild Semiconductor in 1973. The camera weighed 8 pounds, recorded black and white images to a tape, had a resolution of 0.01 megapixels. The prototype camera was an exercise, not intended for production. This camera was never marketed internationally, and has not been confirmed to have shipped even in Japan, the first commercially available digital camera was the 1990 Dycam Model 1, it also sold as the Logitech Fotoman. It used a CCD image sensor, stored pictures digitally, image sensors read the intensity of light, and digital memory devices store the digital image information as RGB color space or as raw data. The two main types of sensors are charge-coupled devices, in which the photocharge is shifted to a central charge-to-voltage converter, Digital cameras can take pictures, and may also record sound and video. Some can be used as webcams, some can use the PictBridge standard to connect to a printer without using a computer, similarly, many camcorders can take still photographs, and store them on videotape or on flash memorycards with the same functionality as digital cameras. Digital photography is one of the most exceptional instances of the shift from converting conventional analog information to digital information and this shift is so tremendous because it was a chemical and mechanical process and became an all digital process with a built in computer in all digital cameras. The quality of an image is a composite of various factors. Pixel count is one of the major factors, though it is the most heavily marketed figure of merit. Digital camera manufacturers advertise this figure because consumers can use it to easily compare camera capabilities and it is not, however, the major factor in evaluating a digital camera for most applications
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Reversal film
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In photography, reversal film is a type of photographic film that produces a positive image on a transparent base. The film is processed to produce transparencies or diapositives instead of negatives, Reversal film is produced in various sizes, from 35 mm roll film to 8×10 inch sheet film. A slide is a specially mounted individual transparency intended for projection onto a screen using a slide projector and this allows the photograph to be viewed by a large audience at once. The most common form is the 35 mm slide, with the image framed in a 2×2 inch cardboard or plastic mount. Reversal film is used as motion picture film, mostly in the 16 mm, Super 8 and 8 mm cine formats. This avoids the expense of using film, which requires additional film. The earliest practical and commercially successful color photography reversal process was the Lumière Autochrome and this was an additive method, using a panchromatic emulsion coated on a thin glass plate previously coated with a layer of dyed potato starch grains. Autochrome plates were discontinued in the 1930s after the introduction of Lumière Filmcolor in sheet film, also using the additive principle and reversal processing were the Agfa color screen plates and films and Dufaycolor film, all of which were discontinued by 1961. Leopold Godowsky, Jr. and Leopold Mannes, working with the Eastman Kodak Company, developed Kodachrome, Kodachrome was introduced in 1935 as 16mm motion picture film, and in 1936 as 35mm film for still cameras. The Kodachrome films contained no color dye couplers, these were added during processing, in late 1936, Agfacolor Neu was launched, Agfa having overcome earlier difficulties with color sensitivity problems. This film had the dye couplers incorporated into the emulsion, making processing simpler than for Kodachrome, amateurs who owned projection equipment used reversal films extensively because the cost of projection equipment and slide film was offset by not having to pay for prints. Eventually, print quality improved and prices decreased, and, by the 1970s, color negative film, digital media gradually replaced transparency film. All color reversal film sold today is developed with the E-6 process, the non-substantive Kodachrome films, the last of which was discontinued in 2009, were processed with the K-14 process. Polaroid produced an instant slide film called Polachrome and it was packaged in cassettes like normal 35mm film. A separate processing unit was used to develop it after exposure, black-and-white transparencies can be made directly with some modern black-and-white films, which normally yield negatives. The negative image is developed but not fixed, the remaining silver halide salts are re-exposed to light, developed and fixed, and the film is washed and dried. Black-and-white transparencies were once popular for presentation of materials using 3 1⁄4 by 4 glass-mounted slides. Such positive black-and-white projection is now rarely done, except in motion pictures, even where black-and-white positives are currently used, the process to create them typically uses an internegative with standard processing instead of a chemical reversal process
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Panoramic photography
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Panoramic photography is a technique of photography, using specialized equipment or software, that captures images with horizontally elongated fields of view. It is sometimes known as wide format photography, the term has also been applied to a photograph that is cropped to a relatively wide aspect ratio, like the familiar letterbox format in wide-screen video. While there is no division between wide-angle and panoramic photography, wide-angle normally refers to a type of lens, but using this lens type does not necessarily make an image a panorama. An image made with an ultra wide-angle fisheye lens covering the film frame of 1,1.33 is not automatically considered to be a panorama. An image showing a field of view approximating, or greater than and this generally means it has an aspect ratio of 2,1 or larger, the image being at least twice as wide as it is high. The resulting images take the form of a wide strip, some panoramic images have aspect ratios of 4,1 and sometimes 10,1, covering fields of view of up to 360 degrees. Both the aspect ratio and coverage of field are important factors in defining a true panoramic image, indeed, the careers of one of the inventors of photography, Daguerre, began in the production of popular panoramas and dioramas. The camera could capture a broad view on a daguerreotype plate. In complete and vivid detail, a cityscape is laid out before the viewer, the development of panoramic cameras was a logical extension of the nineteenth-century fad for the panorama. A more successful and technically superior panoramic camera was assembled the next year by Friedrich von Martens in Germany in 1844 and his camera, the Megaskop, used curved plates and added the crucial feature of set gears which offered a relatively steady panning speed. As a result, the camera properly exposed the plate, avoiding unsteady speeds that can create an unevenness in exposure. Martens was employed by Lerebours, a photographer/publisher and it is also possible that Martens camera was perfected before Puchberger patented his camera. Because of the high cost of materials and the difficulty of properly exposing the plates, Daguerreotype panoramas. After the advent of wet-plate collodion process, photographers would take anywhere from two to a dozen of the ensuing albumen prints and piece together to form a panoramic image. This photographic process was easier and far less expensive than Daguerreotypes. Some of the most famous early panoramas were assembled this way by George N. Barnard and his work provided vast overviews of fortifications and terrain, much valued by engineers, generals, and artists alike. Following the invention of film in 1888, panoramic photography was revolutionised. Dozens of cameras were marketed, many with brand names indicative of their era, such as the Cylindrograph survey camera, Wonder Panoramic, Pantascopic, a camera with combined two-fixed focus panoramic camera in one mahogany-wooded box
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Digital Photography Review
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Digital Photography Review, also known as DPReview, is a website about digital cameras and digital photography, established in November 1998. The website provides comprehensive reviews of digital cameras, lenses and accessories, buying guides, user reviews, the website also has a large database with information about individual digital cameras, lenses, printers and imaging applications. Originally based in London, England, Digital Photography Review and most of its team relocated to Seattle, Washington and it is currently owned by Amazon. DPReview is one of the top 2,000 most visited websites on the Internet, Camera reviews DPReview has regularly published thorough, technically orientated camera reviews since the website launched in 1998. The content and scope of the reviews have changed over time, in 2004, a shorter concise review format was introduced for compact cameras, and group tests were added in 2008. The websites camera reviews have always offered side-by-side comparison images and test results from competing cameras, in 2010, an interactive comparison widget was introduced that allowed visitors to compare studio results from any camera in the sites database. Later widgets added the ability to other test results between cameras. Extensive real-world sample galleries are available for all reviewed cameras and lenses, until February 2010, DPReview did not score cameras numerically, but used an often controversial six-level rating system. The site now scores all cameras and lenses using up to 11 categories, two new discretionary awards were introduced at the same time as the scoring system. Lens reviews DPReview introduced lens reviews in 2008, product database DPReview features a comprehensive database of digital cameras, lenses, printers and desktop imaging software packages. Camera product pages contain full specifications, product and sample images, user reviews, the product database offers browse, search and compare features. Forums and Community features DPReviews active discussion forums contain over 33 million messages, the website also features commenting, user-created articles and product reviews, photographic challenges and free personal galleries. A simple personal messaging system is available to registered users, in 2012, DPReview. com added a Link Directory that allows registered users to view and subscribe to RSS and Twitter updates from external resources without leaving the site. Digital Photography Review was founded in December 1998 in the United Kingdom by Philip, on May 14,2007, it was acquired by Amazon. com. The original founder, Phil Askey, is no longer involved in the running of the site. The company directly employs 14 full-time staff, the current editor is Simon Joinson, who has held the role since 2010. Joinson joined the company in 2004, having founded and edited several UK digital photography magazines. Digital Photography Review Camera & Photography
