1.
Youth rights
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Youth rights are rights that young people have due to having reached a specific age or sufficient maturity. Youth rights have increased over the last century in many countries, the youth rights movement seeks to further increase youth rights, with some advocating intergenerational equity. Youth rights are one aspect of how youth are treated in society, other aspects include how adults see and treat youth, and how open society is to youth participation. Several of these made by society include the assumption that young people are incapable of making crucial decisions. There are specific sets of issues addressing the rights of youth in schools, including zero tolerance, gulag schools, In loco parentis, homeschooling, unschooling, and alternative schools are popular youth rights issues. A long-standing effort within the rights movements has focused on civic engagement. There have been a number of campaigns to increase youth voting rights by lowering the voting age. There are also efforts to get young people elected to prominent positions in local communities, including as members of city councils, for example, in the 2011 Raleigh mayoral election 17-year-old Seth Keel launched a campaign for Mayor despite the age requirement of 21. First emerging as a movement in the 1930s, youth rights have long been concerned with civil rights. Tracing its roots to youth activists during the Great Depression, youth rights has influenced the civil movement, opposition to the Vietnam War. Since the advent of the Internet youth rights is gaining predominance again, generally, the importance of judging each individual by observable relevant behaviors and not by birth date is stressed by advocates of these views. Childrens rights cover all the rights belong to children, when they grow up they are granted new rights. After youth reach these limits they are free to vote, have intercourse, buy or consume alcohol beverages or to drive cars. They point out distinctions between 1970s youth liberation literature and child rights literature from groups such as the Childrens Defense Fund, International Youth Rights is a student-run youth rights organization in China, with regional chapters across the country and abroad. Its aim is to make voices of youth be heard across the world, the European Youth Forum is the platform of the National Youth Council and International Non-Governamental Youth Organisations in Europe. It strives for youth rights in International Institutions such as the European Union, the Council of Europe, the European Youth Forum works in the fields of youth policy and youth work development. It focuses its work on European youth policy matters, whilst through engagement on the level it is enhancing the capacities of its members. The principles of equality and sustainable development are mainstreamed in the work of the European Youth Forum, other International youth rights organizations include Article 12 in Scotland and K. R. A. T. Z. A. in Germany
2.
Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.
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The Court indicated that the tax imposed by the statute was actually a penalty in disguise. The Court later abandoned the underlying the Bailey case. For example, see United States v. Kahriger,345 U. S.22, overruled on other grounds, Marchetti v. United States,390 U. S.39. On February 24,1919, Congress passed the Child Labor Tax Law which imposed a tax of 10 percent on the net profits of a company that employed children. The law defined child labor as “under the age of sixteen in any mine or quarry, drexel was a furniture manufacturing company in North Carolina. On September 21,1921, a collector from the Bureau of Internal Revenue assessed $6,312.79 in excise taxes for employing a child under fourteen during the 1919 tax year, drexel paid the tax under protest and sued for a refund. Drexel’s main argument was that the tax was an attempt to regulate manufacturing. The United States argued that the statute as an indirect tax did not need to meet a standard as long as it was geographically uniform. In addition, the government contended that the tax was merely a tax levied by Congress under its broad power of taxation under Article One of the Constitution. The lower court ruled in favor of the company, Chief Justice Tafts Court declared the tax on child labor was unconstitutional because it was a disguised criminal penalty, not a tax, on employment of children. In addition, the Child Labor Tax Law is a regulation on businesses instead of a tax, taft argued the law describes a set course for businesses and when they deviate from that course, a payment is enacted. Taft said, “Scienters are associated with penalties, not with taxes. ”“ court must be not to see that the so-called tax is imposed to stop the employment of children within the age limits prescribed. ”Taft said that the court must commit itself to the highest law of the land. He went on to say that the good sought in unconstitutional legislation leads citizens and legislators down a path of breaching the constitution and recognized standards. ”This would break down the constitutional limitations on Congress. A tax is a source of revenue for the government, while a penalty is a regulation, as a general rule, the court repeatedly favored the federal power to tax. In other cases, the court has upheld Congress’s excise tax on narcotics, marijuana, even with the firearms case, the Court admitted the law was unmistakably a legislative purpose to regulate rather than tax. Sebelius, penned by Chief Justice John Roberts in 2012, previously, in Hammer v. Dagenhart,247 U. S.251, the Court ruled a law prohibiting the transportation in interstate commerce of goods manufactured with child labor was unconstitutional. Unlike most proposed amendments, this did not have a deadline for state’s ratification, the proposed amendment eventually failed to achieve ratification, as many states passed their own child labor laws, making a federal amendment unnecessary. In addition, in 1938, Congress enacted Section 212 of the Fair Labor Standards Act which prohibited the transportation of goods in interstate commerce made from oppressive child labor
3.
Child Labor Deterrence Act
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The Child Labor Deterrence Act was created by Senator Tom Harkin, and was first proposed in the United States Congress in 1992, with subsequent propositions in 1993,1995,1997 and 1999. According to Harkins website, This bill would prohibit the importation of products that have produced by child labor. The final proposal for the bill, called Child Labor Deterrence Act of 1999, was bill number S.1551 in the U. S. Senate. Harkin was the lead sponsor calling for a bill that would prohibit the importation of manufactured and mined goods into the U. S. which are produced by children under the age of 15. The original wording of Senate Bill 706 in 1995 included the purpose of and it included civil and criminal punishments for anyone or business that defies the act. Harkins original proposal in 1992 is attributed for inciting concrete responses to the issue of child labor by the U. S. Congress. Harkin is involved in several other labor and anti-sweatshop movements. According to Harkin, I was able to amend the Trade Act of 2000 to ensure that the statute applied to goods made with forced or indentured child labor. While the original bill was not passed in Congress in 1999, of the millions of wage earning children in Bangladesh in 1990, almost all of them worked in the ready-made garment industry. Based on the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics Labor Force Survey estimated there were about 5.7 million 10- to 14-year-old children engaged in Child labour in Bangladesh and this number may have been as high as 15 million children. In 1993 employers in Bangladesh ready-made garment industry dismissed 50,000 children out of fear of reprisals of the imminent passage of the Child Labor Deterrence Act. The act which banned importation to the United States of products which are manufactured or mined in whole or in part by children would have resulted in the loss of lucrative American contracts. Its impact on Bangladeshs economy would have been significant as the export-oriented ready-made garment industry represents most of the countrys exports, UNICEF sent a team of investigators into Bangladesh to learn what came of the children who were dismissed from their factory jobs. Many of the girls ended up in prostitution Childrens rights movement Child labor laws
4.
Children's Online Privacy Protection Act
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The Childrens Online Privacy Protection Act of 1998 is a United States federal law, located at 15 U. S. C. The act, effective April 21,2000, applies to the collection of personal information by persons or entities under U. S. jurisdiction from children under 13 years of age. The Federal Trade Commission has the authority to issue regulations and enforce COPPA, also under the terms of COPPA, the FTC-designated safe harbor provision is designed to encourage increased industry self-regulation. As of June 2016, the FTC has approved seven safe harbor programs operated by TRUSTe, ESRB, CARU, PRIVO, Aristotle, samet Privacy, and the Internet Keep Safe Coalition. In September 2011, the FTC announced proposed revisions to the COPPA rules, the proposed rule changes expanded the definition of what it meant to collect data from children. Most recognized non-profit organizations are exempt from most of the requirements of COPPA, however, the Supreme Court ruled that non-profits operated for the benefit of their members commercial activities are subject to FTC regulation and consequently also COPPA. The FTC has brought a number of actions against website operators for failure to comply with COPPA requirements, including actions against Girls Life, American Pop Corn Company, Lisa Frank, mrs. Fields Cookies, and The Hershey Company. In February 2004, UMG Recordings, Inc, other websites that were directed towards children and fined due to COPPA include Imbee Kidswirl, and Skid-e-Kids. Operators are prohibited from conditioning a child’s participation in an activity on the child providing more information than is reasonably necessary to participate in that activity. Another example cited by the FTC that an operator may have actual knowledge based on answers to “age identifying” questions like “What grade are you in. ” or “What type of school do you go to. A small fee is charged by Microsoft under the COPPA as a way to verify parent consent, the fee is donated to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children. Google, however, charges the fee as a way to verify ones date of birth. However, no notice and consent is required when an operator collects a persistent identifier for the sole purpose of supporting the website or online service’s internal operations. The definition of information after July 1,2013, also includes geolocation information, as well as photos, videos. On November 19,2015, the FTC announced it had approved a method for obtaining verifiable parental consent. COPPA is controversial and has criticized as ineffective and potentially unconstitutional by legal experts. Delays in obtaining parental consent often result in moving on to other activities that are less appropriate for their age. In addition, age restrictions and the consent process is easy for children to circumvent
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Convention on the Rights of the Child
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The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child is a human rights treaty which sets out the civil, political, economic, social, health and cultural rights of children. The Convention defines a child as any human being under the age of eighteen, Nations that ratify this convention are bound to it by international law. Compliance is monitored by the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child and their reports and the committees written views and concerns are available on the committees website. The UN General Assembly adopted the Convention and opened it for signature on 20 November 1989 and it came into force on 2 September 1990, after it was ratified by the required number of nations. Currently,196 countries are party to it, including member of the United Nations except the United States. Two optional protocols were adopted on 25 May 2000, the First Optional Protocol restricts the involvement of children in military conflicts, and the Second Optional Protocol prohibits the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography. Both protocols have been ratified by more than 160 states, a third optional protocol relating to communication of complaints was adopted in December 2011 and opened for signature on 28 February 2012. It came into effect on 14 April 2014, the Convention deals with the child-specific needs and rights. It requires that the nations that ratify this convention are bound to it by international law, ratifying states must act in the best interests of the child. The Convention obliges states to allow parents to exercise their parental responsibilities, the Convention forbids capital punishment for children. The European Court of Human Rights has referred to the Convention when interpreting the European Convention on Human Rights, global human rights standards were challenged at the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna when a number of governments raised serious objections to the idea of universal human rights. Some scholars link slavery and slavery-like practices for many child marriages, Child marriage as slavery is not directly addressed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Currently 196 countries are parties to the treaty and this includes every member of the United Nations, plus the Cook Islands, Niue, the State of Palestine, and the Holy See. The United States has not ratified it, somalias domestic ratification finished in January 2015 and the instrument was deposited with the United Nations in October 2015. All successor states of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia made declarations of succession to the treaty, the convention does not apply in the territories of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, Gibraltar, Guernsey and Tokelau. Canada became a signatory to the Convention on 28 May 1990, Youth criminal laws in Canada underwent major changes resulting in the Youth Criminal Justice Act which went into effect on 1 April 2003. The Act specifically references Canadas different commitments under the Convention, the convention was influential in the administrative Law decision of Baker v Canada. India ratified UNCRC on 11 December 1992, agreeing in principles all articles except with certain reservations on issues relating to child labor
6.
Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938
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The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 is a federal statute of the United States. Several exemptions exist that relieve an employer from having to meet the minimum wage, overtime. The largest exceptions apply to the white collar exemptions that are applicable to professional. Exemptions are narrowly construed, as an employer must prove that the employees fit plainly and unmistakably within the exemptions terms, the Fair Labor Standards Act applies to any individual employed by an employer but not to independent contractors or volunteers because they are not considered employees under the FLSA. Some employers similarly mislabel employees as volunteers, Courts look at the economic reality of the relationship between the putative employer and the worker to determine whether the worker is an independent contractor. Courts use a similar test to determine whether a worker was concurrently employed by more than one person or entity, for example, a farm worker may be considered jointly employed by a labor contractor and a grower. If an employee is entitled to overtime, the employer must pay them one, employees employed in a ministerial role by a religiously affiliated employer are not entitled to overtime under the act. During World War II, the Army-Navy E Award for excellence in war production required maintaining the fair labor standards established under the Act, if the employees wage does not equal minimum wage, including tips, the employer must make up the difference. However, the employee must be allowed to keep all tips, a tip pool may also contain only employees who customarily and regularly receive tips. The phrase customarily and regularly signifies a frequency which must be greater than occasional, while the nomenclature of a job title is not dispositive, the job of busboy is explicitly validated for tip-pool inclusion by an authoritative source. A busboy performs a part of customer service without much direct interaction. The Fair Labor Standards Act was originally drafted in 1932 by Senator Hugo Black, Blacks proposal to require employers to adopt a thirty-hour workweek met stiff resistance. In 1938, a version of Senator Blacks proposal was passed that adopted an eight-hour day. According to the act, workers must be minimum wage. Children under eighteen cannot do certain jobs, and children under the age of sixteen cannot work during school hours. The Fair Labor Standards Act affected 700,000 workers, in response, Congress passed the Portal-to-Portal Act narrowing the Supreme Courts decision. The 1947 Portal-to-Portal Act specified exactly what type of time was considered compensable work time. In general, as long as an employee is engaging in activities that benefit the employer, regardless of when they are performed and it also specified that travel to and from the workplace was a normal incident of employment and should not be considered paid working time
7.
History of youth rights in the United States
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The youth rights movement in the United States has long been concerned with civil rights and intergenerational equity. Since the advent of the Internet, youth rights is gaining predominance again, Youth rights first emerged as a distinct issue in the 1930. The Great Depression kick started the radicalization and politicization of undergraduates for the first time, Youth Rights first began to emerge through the National Student League, and were furthered greatly when young people across the country banded together to form the American Youth Congress. Concerned with many issues of the times, this organization went so far as to present a Declaration of the Rights of American Youth to the U. S. Congress. The group was so successful that its executive director claimed that it was a sort of a student brain of the New Deal and this schism caused the rapid decline of the organization, and shortly after the loss of its political benefactors and member support, the AYC collapsed. In the 1960s, two landmark U. S. Supreme Court cases, with the majority opinions authored by Justice Abe Fortas were decided in favor of youths rights. The movement emerged again in the early 1960s with the arrival of Students for a Democratic Society, the effect of the movement on the national Vietnam anti-war movement is widely acknowledged, particularly for its emphasis on youth empowerment through activism. Despite a court challenge hindering her ability to be listed on the ballot, later in that year another youth rights-focused book, Birthrights by Richard Farson, was published. During the rest of the 1970s and early 1980s, youth rights faced a backlash, in March 1986 the National Child Rights Alliance was founded by seven youth and adults who had been abused and neglected as children. The organization disbanded in 1999 due to funding issues, in the mid-1990s, a youth led movement for self-determination rights began on the Internet. This reborn Youth Rights movement coalesced in 1996 into Americans for a Society Free from Age Restrictions, divisions soon emerged between radicals and moderates within ASFAR leading to the formation in 1998 of the National Youth Rights Association. NYRA, founded by leaders of ASFAR and YouthSpeak, was founded to professionalize the youth rights movement, today, the youth rights movement has become a broad-based movement, with central leadership from NYRA augmented by grassroots organizations around the world. Organizations such as The Freechild Project and Global Youth Action Network position the youth movement within the sphere of international youth activism. Other organizations, including Oblivion and Peacefire provide support for the youth rights movement, the 1990s-2000s also saw a resurgence in youth rights books. Males describes the attack on youth as a pathology, unwarranted by fact, smokescreen for the failure of adulthood. Later, in 2007, Robert Epstein published the most comprehensive book for youth rights since the 1970s with The Case Against Adolescence, the book was described by Albert Ellis as one of the most revolutionary books I have ever read. Adam Fletcher released a publication called, A Short Introduction to Youth Rights through The Freechild Project in 2014. Youth rights List of articles related to youth rights
8.
Morse v. Frederick
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Morse v. Frederick,551 U. S. Frederick sued, claiming his constitutional rights to free speech were violated. His suit was dismissed by the district court, but on appeal. Chief Justice Roberts, writing for the majority, concluded that the officials did not violate the First Amendment. One scholar noted that by its language, Morses holding is narrow in that it expressly applies only to student speech promoting illegal drug use. Further, Morse arguably permits viewpoint discrimination of purely political speech whenever that speech mentions illegal drugs—a result seemingly at odds with the First Amendment. On January 23,2002, students and staff at Juneau-Douglas High School in Alaska were permitted to leave classes to watch the Olympic Torch pass by. Joseph Frederick, who was late for school day, joined some friends on the sidewalk across from the high school. Frederick and his friends waited for the cameras so they could unfurl a banner reading BONG HiTS4 JESUS. Frederick was quoted as saying hed first seen the phrase on a snowboard sticker, when they displayed the banner, then-principal Deborah Morse ran across the street and seized it. Morse initially suspended Frederick for five days for violating the school districts anti-drug policy, Frederick then appealed to the Juneau School Board, which upheld the suspension on March 19,2002. On April 25,2002, Frederick filed a civil lawsuit against Morse. He sought a relief, injunctive relief, and monetary awards. The United States District Court for the District of Alaska dismissed Fredericks case on summary judgment, the district court reasoned that Bethel School District No.403 v. Fraser, as opposed to Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District, governed Fredericks school speech. The Ninth Circuit reversed the decision of the District Court, the unanimous panel decision was written by Judge Andrew Kleinfeld. First, the Court decided that the incident should be interpreted under school-speech doctrines, even though Frederick was standing across the street, the answer under controlling, long-existing precedent is plainly No. To reach this determination, the Court inquired whether Fredericks constitutional rights were violated, the Court explained, Fraser holds that high school students rights to free speech in school are not coextensive with adultss rights, and pervasive sexual innuendo that is plainly offensive. To any mature person can be marked off as impermissible incivility within the school context,12 Fraser focuses upon the sexual nature of the offensiveness in the in-school speech that can be punished, as contrasted with the political viewpoint of the speech protected in Tinker. 13 Our case differs from Fraser in that Fredericks speech was not sexual,14 The phrase Bong Hits 4 Jesus may be funny, stupid, or insulting, depending on ones point of view, but it is not plainly offensive in the way sexual innuendo is
9.
Newsboys' strike of 1899
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The strike lasted two weeks, causing Pulitzers New York World to reduce its circulation from 360,000 to 125,000. The strike was successful in increasing the amount of money that newsboys received for their work, there were newsboy strikes several years before the events of 1899, including those in 1884,1886,1887, and 1889. The last notable strike that the newsboys held against the World, after the war, many papers reduced the cost back to previous levels, with the notable exceptions of the The Morning World and the New York Evening Journal. On July 21,1899, a number of New York City newsboys refused to distribute the papers of Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the World. The strikers demonstrated across the Brooklyn Bridge for several days, effectively bringing traffic to a standstill and they kept others from selling the papers by tearing up the distribution in the streets. The boys also requested from the public that no longer buy either paper until the strike was settled. Pulitzer tried to hire men to do the boys job. Several rallies drew more than 5,000 newsboys, complete with speeches by strike leader Kid Blink. Blink and his strikers were the subject of violence, as well, Hearst and Pulitzer hired men to break up rallies and protect the newspaper deliveries still underway. During one rally Blink told strikers, Friens and feller workers and this is a time which tries de hearts of men. Dis is de time when wese got to stick together like glue and we know wot we wants and well git it even if we is blind. Although the World and the Journal did not lower their 60¢-a-bundle price, they did agree to buy back all unsold papers and the union disbanded, ending the strike on August 2,1899. The newsboys strike of 1899 has been credited with inspiring later strikes, including the Butte, Montana, Newsboys Strike of 1914, some decades later, the introduction of urban child-welfare practices led to improvements in the newsboys quality of life. The events of the 1899 strike later inspired a 1992 Disney film Newsies, including a character named Kid Blink, a musical theatre adaptation of the film, also called Newsies, debuted in 2011 and played on Broadway from 2012 to 2014 and on tour from 2014-2016. The newsboy strike is described in detail in the 2003 non-fiction book, NLRB v. Hearst Publications An Uncivil War, The Newsboys Strike of 1899 City Hall Park 1899 Collection of newspaper articles about the strike. The ethics of Newsboys in The Westminster Review
