1.
Atmospheric icing
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Atmospheric icing occurs when water droplets in the atmosphere freeze on objects they contact. This can be dangerous to aircraft, as the built-up ice changes the aerodynamics of the flight surfaces. For this reason, ice protection systems are considered critical components of flight. Not all water freezes at 0 °C or 32 °F, liquid water below this temperature is called supercooled, and such supercooled droplets cause the icing problems on aircraft. Below −20 °C, icing is rare because clouds at these usually consist of ice particles rather than supercooled water droplets. Below −48 °C, supercooled water cannot exist, therefore icing is impossible, icing also occurs on towers, wind turbines, boats, oil rigs, trees and other objects exposed to low temperatures and water droplets. Ice loads are a cause of catastrophic failures of overhead electric power lines. Their estimation is, therefore, crucial in the design of power line systems. And can be done by numerical icing models that include meteorological data, a number of aircraft crashes have been caused by ice. In other incidents icing was a contributory factor
2.
Pilot error
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Pilot error is a term used to describe a decision, action or inaction by a pilot or crew of an aircraft determined to be a cause or contributing factor in an accident or incident. The term includes mistakes, oversights, lapses in judgment, gaps in training, adverse habits, accounting for the way human factors influence the actions of pilots is now considered standard practice by accident investigators when examining the chain of events that led to an accident. Usually in an accident caused by error, it is assumed that the pilot in command makes an error unintentionally. However, a disregard for a standard operating procedure is still considered to be a pilot error. Pilot error is a decision or action mistake by pilots when there is an emergency, as the commander of the aircraft, the pilot is always regarded to be one of the most important factors. The decisions of the pilot determine everything on the craft, analyses of accident patterns can have value for the improvement of passengers safety. The pilot may be a factor even during adverse weather conditions if the investigating body deems that the pilot did not exercise due diligence. The responsibility for the accident in such a case would depend whether the pilot could reasonably know of the danger and whether he or she took reasonable steps to avoid the weather problem. Some weather phenomena are difficult to avoid, especially if the aircraft involved is the first aircraft to encounter the phenomenon in an area at a certain time. Placing pilot error as a cause of an accident has often been controversial. Attorneys for the co-pilot, who was killed in the crash, modern accident investigators avoid the words pilot error, as the scope of their work is to determine the cause of an accident, rather than apportion blame. Furthermore, any attempt to blame pilots does not consider that they are part of a broader system, ICAO and its member states therefore adopted the Reason Model in 1993 in an effort to better understanding the role of human factors in aviation accidents. Thus, pilot error is a cause of air accidents. During 2004, pilot error was pointed to be the reason of 78. 6% of disastrous GA accidents. Pilot errors are related to multiple causes, decision errors can be caused by several factors such as tendencies, biases as well as breakdowns when human proceeds the information coming in. For pilot in aviation, these errors are highly to produce not only errors, pilots work in complex environments and are routinely exposed to high amounts of situational stress in the workplace, inducing pilot error which may result in a threat to flight safety. While aircraft accidents are infrequent, they are visible and often involve massive loss of life. For this reason, research on causal factors and methodologies of mitigating risk associated with pilot error is exhaustive, pilot error results from physiological and psychological limitations inherent in humans
3.
Potomac River
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The Potomac River /pəˈtoʊmək/ is located along the mid-Atlantic Ocean coast of the United States and flows into the Chesapeake Bay. The river is approximately 405 miles long, with an area of about 14,700 square miles. In terms of area, this makes the Potomac River the fourth largest river along the Atlantic coast of the United States, over 5 million people live within the Potomac watershed. The river forms part of the borders between Maryland and Washington, D. C. on the left descending bank and West Virginia and Virginia on the right descending bank. The majority of the lower Potomac River is part of the State of Maryland, exceptions include a small tidal portion within the District of Columbia, and the border with Virginia being delineated from point to point. Except for a portion of its headwaters in West Virginia. The South Branch Potomac River lies completely within the state of West Virginia except for its headwaters, the Potomac River runs 405 miles from the Fairfax Stone in West Virginia on the Allegheny Plateau to Point Lookout, Maryland, and drains 14,679 square miles. The length of the river from the junction of its North and South Branches to Point Lookout is 302 miles, the average flow is 10,800 ft³/s. The largest flow recorded on the Potomac at Washington, D. C. was in March 1936 when it reached 425,000 ft³/s. The lowest flow recorded at the same location was 600 ft³/s in September,1966. The source of the North Branch is at the Fairfax Stone located at the junction of Grant, Tucker, the source of the South Branch is located near Hightown in northern Highland County, Virginia. The rivers two branches converge just east of Green Spring in Hampshire County, West Virginia, to form the Potomac. Once the Potomac drops from the Piedmont to the Coastal Plain at Little Falls, tides further influence the river as it passes through Washington, D. C. salinity in the Potomac River Estuary increases thereafter with distance downstream. The estuary also widens, reaching 11 statute miles wide at its mouth, Potomac is a European spelling of Patowmeck, the Algonquian name of a Native American village, perhaps meaning something brought. Native Americans had different names for different parts of the river, calling the river above Great Falls Cohongarooton, meaning honking geese and Patawomke below the fall, meaning river of swans. The spelling of the name has many forms over the years from Patawomeke to Patawomeck, Patowmack. The rivers name was decided upon as Potomac by the Board on Geographic Names in 1931. The river itself is at least two years old, likely extending back ten to twenty million years before present when the Atlantic Ocean lowered and exposed coastal sediments along the fall line
4.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
5.
Arlington County, Virginia
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Arlington County is a county in the Commonwealth of Virginia. It is coterminous with the U. S. Census Bureau-census-designated place of Arlington, as a result, the county is often referred to in the region simply as Arlington or Arlington, Virginia. In 2015, the population was estimated at 229,164. The land that became Arlington was originally donated by Virginia to the United States government to form part of the new federal district of Columbia. In 1846, Congress returned the land southwest of the Potomac River donated by Virginia due to issues involving Congressional representation, the General Assembly of Virginia changed the countys name to Arlington in 1920 to avoid confusion with the adjacent City of Alexandria. The county is situated in Northern Virginia on the bank of the Potomac River directly across from Washington. Arlington is also bordered by Fairfax County and City of Falls Church to the northwest, west and southwest, as of the 2010 census, the population was 207,627. Due to the proximity to downtown Washington, D. C. It is also home to Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, the many federal agencies, government contractors, and service industries contribute to Arlingtons stable economy. It is the county in the United States by median family income. According to a 2016 study by Bankrate. com, Arlington is the best place to retire, the area that now constitutes Arlington County was originally part of Fairfax County in the Colony of Virginia. Land grants from the British monarch were awarded to prominent Englishmen in exchange for political favors, one of the grantees was Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, who lends his name to both Fairfax County and the City of Fairfax. George Washington Parke Custis, grandson of First Lady Martha Washington, the estate was eventually passed down to Mary Anna Custis Lee, wife of General Robert E. Lee. The property later became Arlington National Cemetery during the American Civil War, the area that now contains Arlington County was ceded to the new United States federal government by the Commonwealth of Virginia. With the passage of the Residence Act in 1790, Congress approved a new permanent capital to be located on the Potomac River, the Residence Act originally only allowed the President to select a location within Maryland as far east as what is now the Anacostia River. However, President Washington shifted the federal territorys borders to the southeast in order to include the city of Alexandria at the Districts southern tip. In 1791, Congress amended the Residence Act to approve the new site, however, this amendment to the Residence Act specifically prohibited the erection of the public buildings otherwise than on the Maryland side of the River Potomac. As permitted by the U. S. Constitution, the shape of the federal district was a square, measuring 10 miles on each side
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
14th Street Bridges
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The 14th Street Bridges are five bridges near each other that cross the Potomac River, connecting Arlington, Virginia, and Washington, D. C. A major gateway for automotive and rail traffic, the complex is named for 14th Street. The complex contains three four-lane automobile bridges—one northbound, one southbound, and one bi-directional — that carry Interstate 395, the original bridge ran to the junction of 14th Street and Maryland Avenue, with access to either for cars. Each of the five bridge spans has its own name. From east to west, the bridges are, The 1903 Long Bridge carries CSX, Amtrak, the name seems to have been derived from its planned size and not as a memorial to any particular individual. At that time, the Rochambeau Bridge name was moved to the previously unnamed center bridge, the southbound span, opened in 1962, is named the George Mason Memorial Bridge. A footpath is on the side of the bridge for pedestrians. The first bridge at the site was the Long Bridge, a toll bridge opened on May 20,1809. British forces leaving the Battle of Bladensburg during the War of 1812 set fire to the end of the Long Bridge on August 25,1814. The bridge was rebuilt by 1816, the western portion was carried away by an ice freshet on February 23,1831, and Congress decided to purchase the franchise of the Washington Bridge Company on July 14,1832. A ferry carried traffic across the river until October 30,1835, another freshet struck on February 10,1840, closing the bridge until 1843. A rail line over the Potomac had been envisioned at least since 1835, in 1855, the Alexandria and Washington Railway was chartered to connect the B&O to other railroads in Alexandria, by then part of Virginia. A city ordinance passed July 27,1855, authorized the A&W to build tracks from the B&Os Washington terminal to the Long Bridge. By December, tracks had been completed from the south along First Street, past the United States Capitol. This line never opened due to opposition and the inability to lay tracks on the bridge. But the A&W did complete its Virginia line, from the southern end to downtown Alexandria. To reach Washington and the B&O, freight and passengers had to use a connection over the bridge. The bridge was washed out by a flood in February 1857
8.
Boeing 737
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The Boeing 737 is an American short- to medium-range twinjet narrow-body airliner. The 737 is Boeings only narrow-body airliner in production, with the 737 Next Generation variants currently being built, production has also begun on the re-engined and redesigned 737 MAX, which is set to enter service in 2017. Originally envisioned in 1964, the initial 737-100 made its first flight in April 1967, Next, the lengthened 737-200 entered service in April 1968. In the 1980s Boeing launched the -300, -400, and -500 models, the 737 Classics added capacity and incorporated CFM56 turbofan engines along with wing improvements. In the 1990s, Boeing introduced the 737 Next Generation, with changes including a redesigned, increased span laminar flow wing, upgraded glass cockpit. The 737 Next Generation comprises the four -600, -700, -800, Boeing Business Jet versions of the 737 Next Generation are also produced. The 737 series is the best-selling jet commercial airliner in history, the 737 has been continuously manufactured by Boeing since 1967 with 9,401 aircraft delivered and 4,423 orders yet to be fulfilled as of February 2017. Assembly of the 737 is performed at the Boeing Renton Factory in Renton, Washington, many 737s serve markets previously filled by 707,727,757, DC-9, and MD-80/MD-90 airliners, and the aircraft currently competes primarily with the Airbus A320 family. As of 2006, there were an average of 1,250 Boeing 737s airborne at any given time, Boeing had been studying short-haul jet aircraft designs and wanted to produce another aircraft to supplement the 727 on short and thin routes. Preliminary design work began on May 11,1964, and Boeings intense market research yielded plans for a 50- to 60-passenger airliner for routes 50 to 1,000 mi long, consultation with Lufthansa over the previous winter resulted in an increase in capacity to 100 seats. On April 5,1965, Boeing announced an order by United Airlines for 40 737s, United wanted a slightly larger airplane than the original 737. So Boeing stretched the fuselage 91 centimeters ahead of, and 102 cm behind the wing, the longer version was designated 737-200, with the original short-body aircraft becoming the 737-100. Detailed design work continued on both variants at the same time, Boeing was far behind its competitors when the 737 was launched, as rival aircraft BAC-111, Douglas DC-9, and Fokker F28 were already into flight certification. To expedite development, Boeing used 60% of the structure and systems of the existing 727 and this fuselage permitted six-abreast seating compared to the rival BAC-111 and DC-9s five-abreast layout. Design engineers decided to mount the nacelles directly to the underside of the wings to reduce the landing gear length and kept the low to the ground for easy ramp inspection. Originally, the arrangement of the airfoil sections of the 737 wing was planned to be very similar to that of the 707 and 727. However, an improvement in drag at high Mach numbers was achieved by altering these sections near the nacelle. The engine chosen was the Pratt & Whitney JT8D-1 low-bypass ratio turbofan engine, with the wing-mounted engines, Boeing decided to mount the horizontal stabilizer on the fuselage rather than the T-tail style of the Boeing 727
9.
Air Florida
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Air Florida was an American low-cost carrier that operated from 1971 to 1984. In 1975 it was headquartered in the Dadeland Towers in what is now Kendall, Florida in unincorporated Miami-Dade County, Air Florida was based at Miami International Airport. It was founded in September 1971 by a Miami, Florida, native, Eli Timoner, and was organized by company president Ted Griffin, the airline later acquired Lockheed L-188 Electra turboprop aircraft. Although the airline operations as an intrastate air carrier flying wholly within Florida, it subsequently began added domestic. With this expansion, Air Floridas fleet grew to include Boeing 727, Boeing 737, Douglas DC-9, and McDonnell Douglas DC-10 jetliners. Ed Acker, formerly CEO of Braniff International Airways, led an acquisition of Air Florida in 1975, Air Florida was well known for its attractive flight attendants and, on international flights, four-star cuisine. In 1981, shortly before the crash of Air Florida Flight 90, Acker left Air Florida to become the Chairman, CEO, Air Florida tried to buy out Western Airlines during the 1980s, to increase its presence in the West and begin flights to Mexico and western Canada. The negotiations with Western ended up with Air Florida owning 16 percent of the California-based company, Western was later absorbed by Delta Air Lines. On January 13,1982, Air Florida Flight 90 crashed into Washington, DCs 14th Street Bridge, a total of 70 passengers,4 crew and 4 motorists on the bridge were killed. The crash prompted modifications to Air Floridas pilot training regarding anti-ice systems, the FAA also required revised aircraft de-icing procedures at airports. Midway Airlines acquired most of the assets of Air Florida for $53 million while Air Florida was in Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, Air Florida Commuter was not an airline, but a system of affiliated commuter and regional air carriers that fed traffic into Air Floridas hubs. In an arrangement commonly known as code-sharing, each painted their aircraft in Air Florida colors. As Air Florida became financially strapped, the system was dismantled in early 1984. Air Florida sponsored Southampton Football Club, an English Football League side, during the 1983-84 season, the deal was cancelled after one season due to Air Floridas insolvency. Worth, Texas, Düsseldorf, Germany, Frankfurt, Germany, Houston, Texas, Madrid, Spain, Providence, Rhode Island, and Zurich, Switzerland at various times during its existence. Three days later, on August 13,1980, Air Florida Flight 707, another 737, flying the opposite direction of Flight 4 and they demanded to be taken to Cuba, but later surrendered. On February 2,1982, Air Florida Flight 710, a Boeing 737-200 with 77 people on board from Miami International to Key West International was hijacked, the hijacker wanted to be taken to Cuba, but he later surrendered. On July 7,1983, Air Florida Flight 8 with 47 people on board was flying from Fort Lauderdale International Airport to Tampa International Airport
10.
Aircraft registration
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In accordance with the Convention on International Civil Aviation, all civil aircraft must be registered with a national aviation authority using procedures set by each country. Every country, even those not party to the Chicago Convention, has a NAA whose functions include the registration of civil aircraft, an aircraft can only be registered once, in the one jurisdiction. The registration identifier must be displayed prominently on the aircraft, most countries also require the registration identifier to be imprinted on a permanent fireproof plate mounted on the fuselage in case of a post-fire/post-crash aircraft accident investigation. Military aircraft typically use tail codes and serial numbers, although each aircraft registration identifier is unique, some countries allow it to be re-used when the aircraft has been sold, destroyed or retired. For example, N3794N is assigned to a Mooney M20F and it had been previously assigned to a Beechcraft Bonanza. Also note that an aircraft may be assigned different registrations during its existence. This can be because the aircraft ownership, jurisdiction of registration. The first use of aircraft registrations was based on the radio callsigns allocated at the London International Radiotelegraphic Conference in 1913, the format was a single letter prefix followed by four other letters. The major nations operating aircraft were allocated a letter prefix. Smaller countries had to share a single letter prefix, but were allocated exclusive use of the first letter of the suffix and this was modified by agreement by the International Bureau at Berne and published on April 23,1913. The agreement stipulated that the nationality marks were to be followed by a then a group of four letters that must include a vowel. This system operated until the adoption of the system in 1928. The International Radiotelegraph Convention at Washington in 1927 revised the list of markings and these were adopted from 1928 and are the basis of the currently used registrations. The markings have been amended and added to over the years, upon registration, the aircraft receives its unique registration, which must be displayed prominently on the aircraft. Annex 7 to the Chicago Convention describes the definitions, location, the aircraft registration is made up of a prefix selected from the countrys callsign prefix allocated by the International Telecommunication Union and the registration suffix. Depending on the country of registration, this suffix is a numeric or alphanumeric code, a supplement to Annex 7 provides an updated list of approved nationality and common marks used by various countries. When painted on the fuselage, the prefix and suffix are usually separated by a dash, when entered in a flight plan, the dash is omitted. In some countries use a number suffix rather than letters, like the United States, South Korea, and Japan
11.
Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport
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%5B%5BWikipedia%3ARedirects+for+discussion%5D%5D+debate+closed+as+delete REDIRECT Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport
12.
Tampa International Airport
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Tampa International Airport is a public airport six miles west of Downtown Tampa, in Hillsborough County, Florida, United States. This airport is owned by Hillsborough County Aviation Authority. The airport was called Drew Field Municipal Airport until 1952, the airport is served by over twenty major air carrier airlines, four regional airlines, and two air cargo carriers. Three of the regional airlines operate under the banner of mainline air carriers, while a fourth, Silver Airways, is independent, southwest Airlines operates a focus city in TPA and carries the airports largest share of passengers, operating up to 84 daily flights. The airport presently serves 85 non-stop destinations throughout North America, Central America, the Caribbean, Tampa International is also one of only two airports in the United States to host regularly scheduled charters to four Cuban cities, Camagüey, Havana, Holguín and Santa Clara. The airport handled 18,931,922 passengers in 2016, in 2011, it was called one of the 10 best airports by CNNGo. See, Drew Army Airfield for the World War II use of the airport In 1928 the city completed the 160-acre Drew Field six miles west of Downtown Tampa. The more popular Peter O. Knight Airport was opened on Davis Islands near Downtown Tampa in 1935, the United States Army Air Corps began negotiating for the use Drew Field in 1939 during the buildup of military forces prior to World War II. In 1940, the City of Tampa leased Drew Field to the U. S. Government for 25 years, during the war, the United States Army Air Forces expanded and modernized the airport. The airfield was used by Third Air Force and renamed it Drew Army Airfield. S, there was one mishap in 1943 that killed five fliers. Despite this, Drew Field set a safety record for the Third Air Force in 1945 after 100,000 flying hours had been completed over a period of 10 months without a fatal incident. The aircraft operated included the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, Douglas C-47 Skytrain, North American AT-6, North American B-25 Mitchell, after World War II, the Army Air Forces vacated the facility and Drew Field was returned to the City of Tampa. The Peter O. Knight Airport and Drew Field reversed roles as the main Tampa airport because Drew Field was greatly expanded by the United States Army Air Forces during the war years, during this period, the airlines were housed in the former Drew AAF Base Operations building. Trans Canada Airlines international flights began in 1950 and Drew Field was renamed Tampa International Airport, the airports second terminal opened in 1952 near the intersection of Columbus Drive and West Shore Blvd. The April 1957 OAG shows 30 departures a day on Eastern Air Lines, nonstops to Chicago-Midway, Detroit, Cleveland, New York Idlewild, Boston, seven nonstops to Atlanta and 18 within Florida. National Airlines had 26 departures, including seven nonstops beyond Florida to Houston Hobby, Havana, Washington National, New York/Idlewild, trans-Eastern had 12 departures and Mackey had two DC-3s, none nonstop beyond Florida. Trans-Canada had thirteen nonstops a week to Toronto or Montreal, the 1952 terminal, built for three airlines, was swamped after the Civil Aeronautics Board granted Capital, Delta, Northeast, Northwest and Trans World Airlines authority to Tampa in the late 1950s. An annex was built east of the terminal for the new carriers, turbine-powered flights began in 1959 on Eastern Air Lines L-188 Electra, in 1960 National, Eastern and Delta Air Lines began jet flights with the Douglas DC-8
13.
White House
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The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States, located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D. C. It has been the residence of every U. S. president since John Adams in 1800, the term White House is often used to refer to actions of the president and his advisers, as in The White House announced that. The residence was designed by Irish-born architect James Hoban in the Neoclassical style, construction took place between 1792 and 1800 using Aquia Creek sandstone painted white. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he added low colonnades on each wing that concealed stables and storage. In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior, reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Exterior construction continued with the addition of the semi-circular South portico in 1824, because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later in 1909, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office, in the main mansion, the third-floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as an area for social events. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space, by 1948, the houses load-bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the rooms were completely dismantled. Once this work was completed, the rooms were rebuilt. The Executive Residence is made up of six stories—the Ground Floor, State Floor, Second Floor, the property is a National Heritage Site owned by the National Park Service and is part of the Presidents Park. In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of Americas Favorite Architecture, in May 1790, New York began construction of Government House for his official residence, but he never occupied it. The national capital moved to Philadelphia in December 1790, the July 1790 Residence Act named Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the temporary national capital for a 10-year period while the Federal City was under construction. The City of Philadelphia rented Robert Morriss city house at 190 High Street for Washingtons presidential residence, the first president occupied the Market Street mansion from November 1790 to March 1797, and altered it in ways that may have influenced the design of the White House. As part of an effort to have Philadelphia named the permanent national capital, Pennsylvania built a much grander presidential mansion several blocks away. President John Adams also occupied the Market Street mansion from March 1797 to May 1800, on Saturday, November 1,1800, he became the first president to occupy the White House. The Presidents House in Philadelphia became a hotel and was demolished in 1832, the Presidents House was a major feature of Pierre Charles LEnfants plan for the newly established federal city, Washington, D. C
14.
Guard rail
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Guard rail or guardrail, sometimes referred to as guide rail or railing, is a system designed to keep people or vehicles from straying into dangerous or off-limits areas. A handrail is less restrictive than a rail and provides both support and the protective limitation of a boundary. Most public spaces are fitted with guard rails as a means of protection against accidental falls, any abrupt change in elevation where the higher portion is accessible makes a fall possible. Due to this responsibility and liability, rails are placed to protect people using the premises, guardrails are generally required by code where there is a drop of 30 or more. Examples of this are both architectural and environmental, environmental guard rails are placed along hiking trails where adjacent terrain is steep. Railings may also be located at scenic overlooks, guard rails in buildings are numerous, and are required by building codes in many circumstances. Guard rails along stairways are common, and catwalks and balconies are also lined with them, the most common residential guard rail is usually a wood railing around the deck. This typically is built on-site from pressure treated lumber, featuring a design of vertical baluster spaced every 3.5 to comply with building code. Other guard rail construction options are available, cable railings typically use stainless steel cables strung horizontally. Glass balusters and glass panels open the view while still providing safety, with the increasing popularity of composite lumber for decking, manufacturers, like TimberTech are providing composite railing components. Wrought iron is another choice that is traditional and sturdy, Building codes also require that no opening in a guard be of a size such that a 4 sphere may pass. There are three exceptions according to the 2003 International Building Code Section 1012.3 which allow openings to not exceed 8 or 21 depending on occupancy groups or special areas, an architect who was famous for creative use of handrails for social stability was Alvar Aalto. The guard rails of a tower such as the Space Needle or Eiffel Tower become exaggerated to the point of becoming a fence or cage. This is also done on bridges and overpasses to prevent accidents, guardrails are used in a facility setting to protect a companys greatest assets which include their people and expensive equipment. The strongest guardrail option is utilizing a manufacturer who produces industrial strength guardrail and this guardrail is constructed out of 4 Schedule 806 Schedule 40. It is then sleeved in Hi-Density Thermoplastic Polyethylene which makes it maintenance free and it can be mounted using a base-plate or cored into cement to enhance the strength. Guardrail can also be constructed of 10 gauge high-tensile steel formed into a two-rib corrugated design with two secondary ribs and this guardrail is similar in appearance to guardrails in an outdoor setting, but is often used in facilities. Once it is impacted, it must be repaired and replaced, guardrails were being used for the first time in Germany
15.
Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
16.
State of the Union
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The State of the Union address is a speech presented by the President of the United States to a joint session of the United States Congress, except in the first year of a new presidents term. The address not only reports on the condition of the nation but also allows the President to outline his legislative agenda, during most of the countrys first century, the President primarily only submitted a written report to Congress. With the advent of radio and television, the address is now broadcast live across the country on most networks, although the language of this Section of the Constitution is not specific, by tradition, the President makes this report annually in late January or early February. Between 1934 and 2013 the date has been as early as January 3, before that time, most presidents delivered the State of the Union as a written report. When a presidential inauguration occurs in January, the date may be delayed until February, what began as a communication between president and Congress has become a communication between the president and the people of the United States. Since the advent of radio, and then television, the speech has been broadcast live on most networks, to reach the largest audience, the speech, once given during the day, is now typically given in the evening, after 9pm ET. George Washington delivered the first regular annual message before a joint session of Congress on January 8,1790, in New York City, in 1801, Thomas Jefferson discontinued the practice of delivering the address in person, regarding it as too monarchical. Instead, the address was written and then sent to Congress to be read by a clerk until 1913 when Woodrow Wilson re-established the practice despite some initial controversy, however, there have been exceptions to this rule. Presidents during the half of the 20th century have sent written State of the Union addresses. The last President to do this was Jimmy Carter in 1981, for many years, the speech was referred to as the Presidents Annual Message to Congress. The actual term State of the Union first emerged in 1934 when Franklin D. Roosevelt used the phrase, prior to 1934, the annual message was delivered at the end of the calendar year, in December. The ratification of the 20th Amendment on January 23,1933 changed the opening of Congress from early March to early January, since 1934, the message or address has been delivered to Congress in January or February. The Twentieth Amendment also established January 20 as the beginning of the presidential term, in years when a new president is inaugurated, the outgoing president may deliver a final State of the Union message, but none has done so since Jimmy Carter sent a written message in 1981. In 1953 and 1961, Congress received both a written State of the Union message from the president and a separate State of the Union speech by the incoming president. In 1936, President Roosevelt set a precedent when he delivered the address at night, only once before—when Woodrow Wilson asked Congress to order the U. S. into World War I—had a sitting president addressed Congress at night. Calvin Coolidges 1923 speech was the first to be broadcast on radio, harry S. Trumans 1947 address was the first to be broadcast on television. Johnsons address in 1965 was the first delivered in the evening, three years later, in 1968, television networks in the United States, for the first time, imposed no time limit for their coverage of a State of the Union address. Johnson, this address was followed by extensive televised commentary by, among others, Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Ronald Reagans 1986 State of the Union Address is the only one to have been postponed
17.
National Transportation Safety Board
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The National Transportation Safety Board is an independent U. S. government investigative agency responsible for civil transportation accident investigation. In this role, the NTSB investigates and reports on accidents and incidents, certain types of highway crashes, ship and marine accidents, pipeline incidents. When requested, the NTSB will assist the military and foreign governments with accident investigation, the NTSB is also in charge of investigating cases of hazardous materials releases that occur during transportation. The agency is based in Washington, D. C, as of December 2014, it has four regional offices located in Anchorage, Alaska, Denver, Colorado, Ashburn, Virginia, and Seattle, Washington. The agency also operates a training center at its Ashburn facility. The origin of the NTSB was in the Air Commerce Act of 1926, the USAs first independent Air Safety Board was established in 1938, it lasted only fourteen months. In 1940, this authority was transferred to the Civil Aeronautics Boards newly formed Bureau of Aviation Safety, in 1967, Congress created a separate cabinet-level Department of Transportation, which among other things established the Federal Aviation Administration as an agency under the DOT. At the same time, the NTSB was established as an independent agency which absorbed the Bureau of Aviation Safetys responsibilities. However, from 1967 to 1975, the NTSB reported to the DOT for administrative purposes, while conducting investigations into the Federal Aviation Administration, also a DOT agency. To avoid any conflict, Congress passed the Independent Safety Board Act, as of 2015, the NTSB has investigated over 140,000 aviation incidents and several thousand surface transportation incidents. Formally, the National Transportation Safety Board refers to a five-manager investigative board whose five members are nominated by the President, no more than three of the five members may be from the same political party. This board is authorized by Congress under Chapter 11, Title 49 of the United States Code to investigate civil aviation, highway, marine, pipeline, and railroad accidents and incidents. This five-member board is authorized to establish and manage separate sub-offices for highway, marine, aviation, railroad, pipeline, collectively, National Transportation Safety Board, the Safety Board or NTSB is used to refer to the entire investigative agency established and managed by this five-member board. As of December 2015, Christopher A. Hart is Chairman of the NTSB, the board also includes Robert L. Sumwalt and Earl F. Weener, and has one vacant seat. Based on the results of investigations within its jurisdiction, the NTSB issues formal safety recommendations to agencies, the NTSB considers safety recommendations to be its primary tool for preventing future civil transportation accidents. However, the NTSB does not have the authority to enforce its safety recommendations, the NTSB is the lead agency in the investigation of a civil transportation accident or incident within its sphere. The go team can have as few as 3-4 people or as many as a dozen, following the investigation, the agency may then choose to hold public hearings on the issue. Ultimately, it will publish a report which may include safety recommendations based on its findings
18.
Ice protection system
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Ice protection systems are designed to keep atmospheric ice from accumulating on aircraft surfaces, such as wings, propellers, rotor blades, engine intakes, and environmental control intakes. An ice protection system either prevents formation of ice, or enables the aircraft to shed the ice before it can grow to a dangerous thickness, the pneumatic boot is usually made of layers of rubber, with one or more air chambers between the layers. If multiple chambers are used, they are shaped as stripes aligned with the long direction of the boot. It is typically placed on the edge of an aircrafts wings. The chambers are rapidly inflated and deflated, either simultaneously, or in a pattern of specific chambers only. The rapid change in shape of the boot is designed to break the force between the ice and the rubber, and allow the ice to be carried away by the relative wind flowing past the aircraft. However, the ice must be carried away cleanly from the portions of the surface. Re-freezing of ice in this manner was a factor to the crash of American Eagle Flight 4184. Certain older designs of pneumatic boot were subject to a known as Ice Bridging. If the ice had not accumulated to a sufficient thickness and fragility and this problem is mostly solved in modern designs by increasing the speed of inflation/deflation action, and by alternating the timing of inflating/deflating adjacent chambers. The pneumatic boot is most appropriate for low and medium speed aircraft, therefore, this system is most commonly found on turbo propeller aircraft such as the Saab 340, Embraer EMB120 Brasilia, and British Aerospace Jetstream 41. Pneumatic De-Icing boots are sometimes found on larger piston prop aircraft, smaller turbojets such as the Cessna Citation V and this device is rarely used on modern turbojet aircraft. This device was invented by the Goodrich Corporation in 1923, electro-thermal systems use resistive circuits buried in the airframe structure to generate heat when a current is applied. The heat can be generated continuously to protect the aircraft from icing, de-ice operation is generally preferred due to the lower power consumption, as the system only needs to melt the contact layer of ice for the wind-shear to shed the remainder. The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is an example of an airframe to use electro-thermal ice protection. In this case the heating circuit is embedded inside the glass. Boeing claim the system uses half the energy of traditional systems. For metallic aircraft skin structures, etched foil resistive heating circuits have been bonded to the surface of skins
19.
Thrust reversal
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Thrust reversal, also called reverse thrust, is the temporary diversion of an aircraft engines thrust so that it is directed forward, rather than backwards. Reverse thrust acts against the travel of the aircraft, providing deceleration. Thrust reverser systems are featured on many jet aircraft to help slow down just after touch-down, reducing wear on the brakes, such devices affect the aircraft significantly and are considered important for safe operations by airlines. There have been accidents involving thrust reversal systems such as Lauda Air Flight 004, reverse thrust is also available on many propeller-driven aircraft through reversing the controllable-pitch propellers to a negative angle. The equivalent concept for a ship is called astern propulsion, a landing roll consists of touchdown, bringing the aircraft to taxi speed, and eventually to a complete stop. However, most commercial jet engines continue to produce thrust in the direction, even when idle. In scenarios involving bad weather, where factors like snow or rain on the runway reduce the effectiveness of the brakes, and in emergencies like rejected takeoffs, this need is more pronounced. A simple and effective method is to reverse the direction of the exhaust stream of the jet engine, ideally, the reversed exhaust stream would be directed straight forward. However, for reasons, this is not possible. Thrust reversal can also be used in flight to reduce airspeed, there are three common types of thrust reversing systems used on jet engines, the target, clam-shell, and cold stream systems. Some propeller-driven aircraft equipped with variable-pitch propellers can reverse thrust by changing the pitch of their propeller blades, most commercial jetliners have such devices, and it also has applications in military aviation. Small aircraft typically do not have thrust reversal systems, except in specialized applications, on the other hand, large aircraft almost always have the ability to reverse thrust. Reciprocating engine, turboprop and jet aircraft can all be designed to include thrust reversal systems, propeller-driven aircraft generate reverse thrust by changing the angle of their controllable-pitch propellers so that the propellers direct their thrust forward. Single-engine aircraft tend not to have reverse thrust, however, single-engine turboprop aircraft such as the PAC P-750 XSTOL, Cessna 208 Caravan, and Pilatus PC-6 Porter do have this feature available. One special application of reverse thrust comes in its use on multi-engine seaplanes and these aircraft, when landing on water, have no conventional braking method and must rely on slaloming and/or reverse thrust, as well as the drag of the water in order to slow or stop. On aircraft using jet engines, thrust reversal is accomplished by causing the jet blast to flow forward, the engine does not run or rotate in reverse, instead, thrust reversing devices are used to block the blast and redirect it forward. High bypass ratio engines usually reverse thrust by changing the direction of only the fan airflow, since the majority of thrust is generated by this section, as opposed to the core. There are three jet engine thrust reversal systems in use, The target thrust reverser uses a pair of hydraulically-operated bucket type doors to reverse the hot gas stream
20.
United Airlines
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United Continental Holdings, Inc. commonly referred to as United, is a major American airline headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. It is the worlds third-largest airline when measured by revenue, operates a domestic and international route network. In the late 1920s, just prior to the use of the United Airlines name, The Boeing Company, currently one of the worlds largest aircraft manufacturers, United was previously known as United Air Lines. United is a member of Star Alliance, the worlds largest global airline alliance. Regional service is operated by independent carriers under the brand name United Express and its main competitors are American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and Southwest Airlines. United operates out of nine airline hubs located in Chicago, Denver, Guam, Houston, Los Angeles, Newark, San Francisco, Tokyo and Washington, D. C. Chicago-OHare is Uniteds largest hub, both in terms of passengers carried annually and in terms of departures 181,488 in 2016) and this passed George Bush Intercontinental in Houston, which carried 15.5 million with 178,019 departures. The company employs over 86,000 people while maintaining its headquarters in Chicagos Willis Tower, through the airlines parent company, United Continental Holdings, it is publicly traded under NYSE, UAL with a market capitalization of over $18 billion as of September 2014. United operates maintenance bases in Cleveland and Orlando in addition to the maintenance locations located at Uniteds hubs, United Airlines traces its roots to the Varney Air Lines air mail service of Walter Varney, who also founded Varney Speed Lines from which Continental Airlines had originated. In 1927, aviation pioneer William Boeing founded his airline Boeing Air Transport to operate the San Francisco to Chicago air mail route, in 1933, United began operating the Boeing 247 airliner. It was able to fly a transcontinental flight in 20 hours, after passage of the Air Mail Act in 1934, UATC separated into United Aircraft, the Boeing Airplane Company and United Air Lines. In 1954 United Airlines became the first airline to purchase modern flight simulators which had visual, sound, purchased for US$3 million from Curtiss-Wright, these were the first of todays modern flight simulators for training of commercial passenger aircraft pilots. United merged with Capital Airlines in 1961 and regained its position as the United States largest airline, in 1968, the company reorganized, creating UAL Corporation, with United Airlines as a wholly owned subsidiary. In 1970, the UAL Corporation acquired Western International Hotels, the 1970s also saw economic turmoil, resulting in stagflation and labor unrest. The 1978 Airline Deregulation Act, resulting in industry shakeups, further added to the difficulties in a loss-making period. In 1982, United became the first carrier to operate the Boeing 767, in May 1985, the airline underwent a 29-day pilot strike over managements proposed B-scale pilot pay rates. Making it one of two US carriers permitted exclusive access to Heathrow under Bermuda II until open skies took effect in 2008, the aftermath of the Gulf War and increased competition from low-cost carriers led to losses in 1991 and 1992. In 1995, United became the first airline to introduce the Boeing 777 in commercial service, in 1997, United co-founded the Star Alliance airline partnership
21.
Pratt & Whitney
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Pratt & Whitney is an American aerospace manufacturer with global service operations. It is a subsidiary of United Technologies, Pratt & Whitneys aircraft engines are widely used in both civil aviation and military aviation. Its headquarters are in East Hartford, Connecticut, as one of the big three aero-engine manufacturers, it competes with General Electric and Rolls-Royce, although it has also formed joint ventures with both of these companies. In addition to engines, Pratt & Whitney manufactures gas turbines for industrial and power generation. As of 2014, the company reported having 31,500 employees supporting more than 11,000 customers in 180 countries around the world, in 2013, Pratt & Whitneys revenue totaled $14.5 billion. In April 1925, Frederick Rentschler, an Ohio native and former executive at Wright Aeronautical, was determined to start a business of his own. Frederick Rentschler approached these men as he sought capital and assets for his new venture, deeds and G. Mead, and colleagues, all formerly of Wright Aeronautical. Conceived and designed by Mead, the new engine would be a large, air-cooled, Pratt & Whitney Machine Tool was going through a period of self-revision at the time to prepare itself for the post–Great War era, discontinuing old product lines and incubating new ones. P&WMTs future growth would depend on innovation and it lent Rentschler $250,000, the use of the Pratt & Whitney name, and space in their building. This was the beginning of the Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Company, Pratt & Whitney Aircrafts first engine, the 425 horsepower R-1340 Wasp, was completed on Christmas Eve 1925. On its third test run it easily passed the Navy qualification test in March 1926, by October, the Wasp exhibited performance and reliability that revolutionized American aviation. The R-1340 powered the aircraft of Wiley Post, Amelia Earhart, the R-1340 was followed by another very successful engine, the R-985 Wasp Junior. Eventually a whole Wasp series was developed, both engines are still in use in agricultural aircraft around the world and produce more power than their original design criteria. George Mead soon led the next step in the field of large, state-of-the-art, air-cooled and it was basically a bigger Wasp. In 1929, Rentschler ended his association with Pratt & Whitney Machine Tool and merged Pratt & Whitney Aircraft with Boeing and other companies to form the United Aircraft and his agreement allowed him to carry the Pratt & Whitney name with him to his new corporation. In October 2014, Pratt & Whitney was awarded a million contract with US Defense Department to supply 36 F135 engines for the F-35 fighter. In January 2017,10 employees reportedly left the company, including the head of the F135 engine program, incurred expenses used to transport South Korean officials to the companys West Palm Beach facility in 2012 were deemed unethical, which lead to the departure of the employees. In 2015, the stadium was renamed to Pratt & Whitney Stadium at Rentschler Field in time for the 2015-2016 University of Connecticut football season
22.
Pratt & Whitney JT8D
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The Pratt & Whitney JT8D is a low-bypass turbofan engine, introduced by Pratt & Whitney in February 1963 with the inaugural flight of the Boeing 727. It was a modification of the Pratt & Whitney J52 turbojet engine, the Volvo RM8 is an afterburning version that was license-built in Sweden for the Saab 37 Viggen fighter. Pratt & Whitney also sells static versions for powerplant and ship propulsion as the FT8, the JT8D is an axial-flow front turbofan engine incorporating dual-spool design. The high-pressure compressor is driven by the first turbine, which has a single stage, the front-mounted bypass fan has two stages. The annular discharge duct for the bypass fan runs along the length of the engine. This arrangement allows some noise attenuation, in that the still-hot fast-moving turbine exhaust is shrouded in much-cooler, eight models comprise the JT8D standard engine family, covering the thrust range from 12,250 to 17,400 pounds-force and power 727, 737-100/200, and DC-9 aircraft. Within the fan case, there are anti-icing air bosses and probes to sense the inlet pressure and temperature. Similar units exist throughout the engine to check temperatures and pressures, at the 13th compressor stage, air is bled out and used for anti-icing. The amount is controlled by the Pressure Ratio Bleed Control sense signal, the diffuser case at the aft end of the compressor houses the 13th stage. Its increasing cross-sectional area allows the air to slow down before entering one of the engines nine burner cans. Again, there are two bosses to extract 13th stage air for anti-icing, de-icing of fuel, and airframe use, there are nine combustion chambers positioned in a can-annular arrangement. Each chamber has three air inlet hole sizes, the smallest is for cooling, the medium is for burning, in response to environmental concerns that began in the 1970s, the company began developing a new version of the engine, the JT8D-200 series. This increase was achieved by increasing bypass fan diameter from 39.9 inches to 49.2 inches, overall engine pressure ratio was also increased from 15.4 to 21.0. Since entering service in 1980, more than 2,900 of the -200 series engines have been produced. The JT8D-217 and -219 engine were tested in 2001 and were deemed suitable replacements for the old TF33 engines on military, Pratt & Whitney, in a joint venture with Seven Q Seven and Omega Air, has developed the JT8D-219 as a re-engine powerplant for Boeing 707-based aircraft. NATO also plans to re-engine their fleet of E-3 Sentry AWACS aircraft, the proposed Aerion SBJ supersonic business jet, previously under development, was to use a pair of JT8D-219 engines for sustained supersonic flight. The flight encountered severe rain and hail,63 people on-board and 9 on the ground died as a result of the accident. 22 August 1985 British Airtours Flight 28M - an engine failed during take-off from Manchester Airport,21 December 1991 Scandinavian Airlines Flight 751 - The engines on an MD-81 ingested wing ice during takeoff causing engine damage that led to a total loss of thrust on both engines
23.
Turbofan
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The turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft propulsion. Thus, whereas all the air taken in by a turbojet passes through the turbine, a turbofan thus can be thought of as a turbojet being used to drive a ducted fan, with both of those contributing to the thrust. The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine compared to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio. Most commercial aviation jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type, afterburners are not used on high-bypass turbofan engines but may be used on either low-bypass turbofan or turbojet engines. Other noise sources are the fan, compressor and turbine, Jet noise is reduced with chevrons, sawtooth patterns on the exhaust nozzles, on the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 and General Electric GEnx engines used on the Boeing 787. Turbofans are thus the most efficient engines in the range of speeds from about 500 to 1,000 km/h, turbofans retain an efficiency edge over pure jets at low supersonic speeds up to roughly Mach 1.6. Modern turbofans have either a large single-stage fan or a fan with several stages. An early configuration combined a low-pressure turbine and fan in a single rear-mounted unit, early turbojet engines were not very fuel-efficient as their overall pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature were severely limited by the technology available at the time. In 1939-1941 Soviet designer Arkhip Lyulka elaborated the design for the worlds first turbofan engine, although several prototypes were built and ready for testing, Lyulka was in 1941 forced to abandon his research and evacuate to the Urals following the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. So the first turbofan to run was apparently the German Daimler-Benz DB670 with a first run date of 27 May 1943, turbomachinery testing, using an electric motor, had started on 1 April 1943. The engine was abandoned later while the war went on and problems could not be solved, the British wartime Metrovick F.2 axial flow jet was given a fan, as the Metrovick F.3 in 1943, to create the first British turbofan. The original low-bypass turbofan engines were designed to improve efficiency by reducing the exhaust velocity to a value closer to that of the aircraft. The Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, had a ratio of 0.3. Civilian turbofan engines of the 1960s, such as the Pratt & Whitney JT8D and the Rolls-Royce Spey had bypass ratios closer to 1, the first General Electric turbofan was the aft-fan CJ805-23 based on the CJ805-3 turbojet. It was followed by the aft-fan General Electric CF700 engine with a 2.0 bypass ratio and this was derived from the General Electric J85/CJ610 turbojet to power the larger Rockwell Sabreliner 75/80 model aircraft, as well as the Dassault Falcon 20 with about a 50% increase in thrust. The CF700 was the first small turbofan in the world to be certified by the Federal Aviation Administration, there were at one time over 400 CF700 aircraft in operation around the world, with an experience base of over 10 million service hours. The CF700 turbofan engine was used to train Moon-bound astronauts in Project Apollo as the powerplant for the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle. A high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofan normally has a fan, developing a relatively high pressure ratio and, thus
24.
Miami International Airport
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Miami International Airport, also known as MIA and historically Wilcox Field, is the primary airport serving the Miami area, United States. It is South Floridas main airport for international flights. Miami International is also one of only eight U. S. airports to accommodate the Airbus A380 jumbo jet and it is a focus airport for Avianca, Frontier Airlines, and LATAM, both for passengers and cargo operations. Miami International Airport has passenger and cargo flights to cities throughout the Americas, Europe and Western Asia, as well as cargo flights to East Asia. In the past, it has been a hub for Braniff International Airways, Eastern Air Lines, Air Florida, the original National Airlines, the original Pan Am, United Airlines, Iberia and Fine Air. In 2011 the airport ranked first in the United States by percentage of international flights and second by volume of international passengers, in 2016,44,901,753 passengers traveled through the airport, making the airport the 23rd-busiest airport in the world by passenger traffic. The airport also ranks as the 10th busiest airport in the United States by annual passenger count and is the busiest airport in the state of Florida, the airport also handled more international cargo than any other airport in the United States. For the World War II and United States Air Force Reserve use of the airport, Pan American World Airways opened an expanded facility adjacent to City Airport, Pan American Field, in 1928. Pan American Field was built on 116 acres of land on 36th Street and was the only airport in the eastern United States that had port of entry facilities. Its runways were located around the threshold of todays Runway 26R, Eastern Airlines began to serve Pan American Field in 1931, followed by National Airlines in 1936. National used a terminal on the side of LeJeune Road from the airport. In 1945 the City of Miami established a Port Authority and raised bond revenue to purchase Pan American Field and it merged with the Army airfield south of the railroad in 1949 and expanded further in 1951 when the railroad line was moved south to make room. The old terminal on 36th Street was closed in 1959 when the passenger terminal opened. Nonstop flights to Chicago and Newark started in late 1946, but nonstops didnt reach west beyond St. Louis, nonstop transatlantic flights began in 1970. In the late 1970s and early 1980s Air Florida had a hub at MIA, Air Florida ceased operations in 1982 after the crash of Air Florida Flight 90. British Airways flew a Concorde triweekly between Miami and London via Washington, D. C. from 1984 to 1991, in the midst of Easterns turmoil American Airlines CEO Bob Crandall sought a new hub in order to utilize new aircraft which AA had on order. AA studies indicated that Delta Air Lines would provide strong competition on most routes from Easterns hub at Atlanta, American announced that it would establish a base at MIA in August 1988. The effort quickly proved futile, and American purchased the routes in a liquidation of Eastern which was completed in 1990, later in the 1990s, American transferred more employees and equipment to MIA from its failed domestic hubs at Nashville and Raleigh–Durham
25.
Miami, Florida
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Miami is a seaport city at the southeastern corner of the U. S. state of Florida and its Atlantic coast. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, Miamis metro area is the eighth-most populous, Miami is a major center, and a leader in finance, commerce, culture, media, entertainment, the arts, and international trade. In 2012, Miami was classified as an Alpha−World City in the World Cities Study Groups inventory, in 2010, Miami ranked seventh in the United States in terms of finance, commerce, culture, entertainment, fashion, education, and other sectors. It ranked 33rd among global cities, in 2008, Forbes magazine ranked Miami Americas Cleanest City, for its year-round good air quality, vast green spaces, clean drinking water, clean streets, and citywide recycling programs. According to a 2009 UBS study of 73 world cities, Miami was ranked as the richest city in the United States, Miami is nicknamed the Capital of Latin America and is the largest city with a Cuban-American plurality. Miami has the third tallest skyline in the U. S. with over 300 high-rises, Downtown Miami is home to the largest concentration of international banks in the United States, and many large national and international companies. The Civic Center is a center for hospitals, research institutes, medical centers. For more than two decades, the Port of Miami, known as the Cruise Capital of the World, has been the number one cruise port in the world. It accommodates some of the worlds largest cruise ships and operations, Metropolitan Miami is the major tourism hub in the American South, number two in the U. S. after New York City and number 13 in the world, including the popular destination of Miami Beach. The Miami area was inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous Native American tribes, the Tequestas occupied the area for a thousand years before encountering Europeans. An Indian village of hundreds of people dating to 500–600 B. C. was located at the mouth of the Miami River, in 1566 the explorer, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, claimed it for Spain. A Spanish mission was constructed one year later in 1567, Spain and Great Britain successively controlled Florida, and Spain ceded it to the United States in 1821. In 1836, the US built Fort Dallas as part of its development of the Florida Territory and attempt to suppress, the Miami area subsequently became a site of fighting during the Second Seminole War. Miami is noted as the major city in the United States conceived by a woman, Julia Tuttle, a local citrus grower. The Miami area was known as Biscayne Bay Country in the early years of its growth. In the late 19th century, reports described the area as a promising wilderness, the area was also characterized as one of the finest building sites in Florida. The Great Freeze of 1894–95 hastened Miamis growth, as the crops of the Miami area were the ones in Florida that survived. Julia Tuttle subsequently convinced Henry Flagler, a tycoon, to expand his Florida East Coast Railway to the region
26.
Dania Beach, Florida
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Dania Beach is a city in Broward County, Florida, United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 29,639. It is part of the South Florida metropolitan area, which was home to 5,564,635 people at the 2010 census, Dania Beach is the location of one of the largest jai alai frontons in the United States, The Casino at Dania Beach. It was formerly the location for two amusement centers, one named Boomers, which housed the Dania Beach Hurricane roller coaster, and the other being Pirates World amusement park, which was featured in Barry Mahons Thumbelina. It is also home to the IGFA Fishing Hall of Fame & Museum. The area was started as a neighborhood called Modello in the late 19th century, in November 1904, the area was incorporated as the town of Dania, because most of the 35 residents were farmers of Danish ancestry. On January 4,1926, Dania voted to annex itself to the City of Hollywood, after the September 1926 Miami hurricane decimated Hollywood’s fortunes, most of Dania seceded from the City of Hollywood and reincorporated as a city. The areas that chose to part of the City of Hollywood caused Danias current noncontinuous city boundaries. On November 1998, Dania formally changed its name to Dania Beach, the name Dania is still commonly used to refer to the city. In 2001, the city annexed several unincorporated areas of Broward County increasing the population by about 3,600 people, Dania Beach is located at 26°03′18″N 80°09′11″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 8.3 square miles. Dania Beach is adjacent to Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport, as of 2010, there were 15,671 households out of which 17. 8% were vacant. In 2000,21. 4% had children under the age of 18 living with them,34. 9% were married couples living together,14. 1% had a householder with no husband present. 35. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.85. In 2000, the city the population was out with 20. 0% under the age of 18,6. 9% from 18 to 24,31. 9% from 25 to 44,25. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40 years, for every 100 females there were 99.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.4 males, in 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $34,125, and the median income for a family was $37,405. Males had an income of $35,081 versus $26,535 for females
27.
Propylene glycol
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Propylene glycol, also called propane-1, 2-diol, is a synthetic organic compound with the chemical formula C3H8O2. It is a colorless liquid which is nearly odorless but possesses a faintly sweet taste. Chemically it is classed as a diol and is miscible with a range of solvents, including water, acetone. The compound is sometimes called α-propylene glycol to distinguish it from the isomer propane-1, propylene glycol is a clear, colorless and hygroscopic liquid. Propylene glycol contains a carbon atom, so it exists in two enantiomers. The commercial product is a racemic mixture, pure optical isomers can be obtained by hydration of optically pure propylene oxide. The freezing point of water is depressed when mixed with propylene glycol owing to the effects of dissolution of a solute in a solvent. In general, glycols are non-corrosive, have low volatility and very low toxicity, however. Industrially, propylene glycol is produced from propylene oxide, and global capacity in 1990 was 900,000 tonnes per year, final products contain 20% propylene glycol,1. 5% of dipropylene glycol and small amounts of other polypropylene glycols. Further purification produces finished industrial grade or USP/JP/EP/BP grade propylene glycol that is typically 99. 5% or greater, propylene glycol can also be converted from glycerol, a biodiesel byproduct. This starting material is usually reserved for use because of the noticeable odor. In this regard, propylene glycol reacts with a mixture of unsaturated maleic anhydride and this partially unsaturated polymer undergoes further crosslinking to yield thermoset plastics. Related to this application, propylene glycol reacts with propylene oxide to give oligomers and polymers that are used to produce polyurethanes, propylene glycol is used as a humectant, solvent, and preservative in food and for tobacco products. It is also one of the ingredients, along with vegetable glycerin, of the e-liquid and cartridges used in electronic cigarettes. Propylene glycol is used in various edible items such as coffee-based drinks, liquid sweeteners, ice cream, whipped dairy products. Vaporizers used for delivery of pharmaceuticals or personal-care products often include propylene glycol among the ingredients, propylene glycol is used as a solvent in many pharmaceuticals, including oral, injectable and topical formulations, such as for diazepam and lorazepam which are insoluble in water. Certain formulations of artificial tears, such as Systane, use proplyene glycol as an ingredient, like ethylene glycol, propylene glycol is able to lower the freezing point of water, and so it is used as aircraft de-icing fluid. Water-propylene glycol mixtures dyed pink to indicate the mixture is relatively nontoxic are sold under the name of RV or marine antifreeze, propylene glycol is frequently used as a substitute for ethylene glycol in low toxicity, environmentally friendly automotive antifreeze
28.
American Airlines
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American Airlines, Inc. commonly referred to as American, is a major American airline headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas. It is the worlds largest airline measured by fleet size, revenue, scheduled passenger-kilometres flown. Regional service is operated by independent and subsidiary carriers under the name of American Eagle. American operates out of ten located in Dallas/Fort Worth, Charlotte, Chicago-OHare, Philadelphia, Miami, Phoenix, Washington, DC-National, Los Angeles, New York-JFK. American operates its primary base at Tulsa International Airport in addition to the maintenance locations located at its hubs. Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport is Americans largest passenger carrying hub handling 51.1 million passengers annually with an average of 140,000 passengers daily, the company as of 2015 employs over 113,300 people. Through the airlines parent company, American Airlines Group, it is traded under NASDAQ. American Airlines was started in 1930 via a union of more than eighty small airlines, the two organizations from which American Airlines was originated were Robertson Aircraft Corporation and Colonial Air Transport. The former was first formed in Missouri in 1921, with both being merged in 1929 into holding company The Aviation Corporation and this in turn, was made in 1930 into an operating company and rebranded as American Airways. In 1934, when new laws and attrition of mail contracts forced many airlines to reorganize, the corporation redid its routes into a connected system, between 1970 and 2000, the company grew into being an international carrier, purchasing Trans World Airlines in 2001. In 2011, due to a downturn in the airline industry, in 2013, US Airways and American Airlines merged. Eventually operations were merged under one operating certificate to create the largest United States airline which kept the American Airlines brand name, American Airlines is headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, adjacent to the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. The headquarters is located in two buildings in the CentrePort office complex and these buildings together have about 1,400,000 square feet of space. As of 2014 over 4,300 employees work at this complex, before it was headquartered in Texas, American Airlines was headquartered at 633 Third Avenue in the Murray Hill area of Midtown Manhattan, New York City. In 1979 American moved its headquarters to a site at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, Mayor of New York City Ed Koch described the move as a betrayal of New York City. American moved to two leased office buildings in Grand Prairie, Texas, the airline began leasing the facility from the airport, which owns the facility. As of 2015 American Airlines is the corporation with the largest presence in Fort Worth, in 2015 the airline announced it will build a new headquarters in Fort Worth. Groundbreaking began in the spring of 2016 and occupancy is scheduled for summer 2019, the airline plans to house 5,000 new workers in the building
29.
Pitot tube
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A pitot tube is a pressure measurement instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity. The pitot tube was invented by the French engineer Henri Pitot in the early 18th century and was modified to its form in the mid-19th century by French scientist Henry Darcy. It is widely used to determine the airspeed of an aircraft, water speed of a boat, the pitot tube is used to measure the local flow velocity at a given point in the flow stream and not the average flow velocity in the pipe or conduit. The basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid flow, as this tube contains fluid, a pressure can be measured, the moving fluid is brought to rest as there is no outlet to allow flow to continue. This pressure is the pressure of the fluid, also known as the total pressure or the pitot pressure. The measured stagnation pressure cannot itself be used to determine the flow velocity. Liquids are treated as incompressible under almost all conditions, gases under certain conditions can be approximated as incompressible. Where, u is flow velocity to be measured in m/s, p t is stagnation or total pressure in pascals, p s is static pressure in pascals, the dynamic pressure, then, is the difference between the stagnation pressure and the static pressure. The dynamic pressure is determined using a diaphragm inside an enclosed container. If the air on one side of the diaphragm is at the pressure. In aircraft, The static pressure is measured using the static ports on the side of the fuselage. The dynamic pressure measured can be used to determine the airspeed of the aircraft. The diaphragm arrangement described above is typically contained within the airspeed indicator, which converts the dynamic pressure to an airspeed reading by means of mechanical levers. If a liquid column manometer is used to measure the pressure difference p t – p s, or Δ p, Δ h = Δ p ρ l g where, a pitot-static system generally consists of a pitot tube, a static port, and the pitot-static instruments. Errors in pitot-static system readings can be dangerous as the information obtained from the pitot static system. Several commercial airline incidents and accidents have been traced to a failure of the pitot-static system, examples include Austral Líneas Aéreas Flight 2553, Northwest Airlines Flight 6231, and one of the two X-31s. The French air safety authority BEA said that pitot tube icing was a factor in the crash of Air France Flight 447 into the Atlantic Ocean. In 2008 Air Caraïbes reported two incidents of pitot tube icing malfunctions on its A330s, birgenair Flight 301 had a fatal pitot tube failure which investigators suspected was due to insects creating a nest inside the pitot tube, the prime suspect is the Black and yellow mud dauber wasp
30.
Snow chains
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Snow chains, or tire chains, are devices fitted to the tires of vehicles to provide maximum traction when driving through snow and ice. Snow chains attach to the wheels of a vehicle or special systems deploy chains which swing under the tires automatically. Although named after steel chain, snow chains may be made of materials and in a variety of patterns. Chains are usually sold in pairs and often must be purchased to match a particular tire size, driving with chains reduces fuel efficiency, and can reduce the allowable speed of the automobile to approximately 50 km/h, but increase traction and braking on snowy or icy surfaces. Some regions require chains to be used under some weather conditions, Snow chains were invented in 1904 by Harry D. Patent Number 768495 for his Grip-Tread for Pneumatic Tires on August 23,1904 and he sought to make a traction device that was more durable and would work with snow as well as mud. In July 1935, the Canadian Auguste Trudeau obtained a patent for his tread, in snowy conditions, transportation authorities may require that snow chains or other traction aids be installed on vehicles, or at least supplied for them. This can apply to all vehicles, or only those without other traction aids, local requirements may be enforced at checkpoints or by other type of inspection. Tires come with standardized tire code sizing information, found on the sidewalls of the tires, the first letter, indicate the vehicle type. The next three digits indicate the tires width in millimeters, the middle two digit number indicates the tires height-to-width ratio. The next character is a letter R, which indicates radial ply tires, followed by a final two digit number indicating the rim size for the vehicles wheels. Additionally, the correct Society of Automotive Engineers class of snow chains must be installed, based on the clearance of the vehicle. The SAE Class S well clearance is a requirement on newer cars, especially if after-market wider, low-profile. The classes are defined as follows, SAE Class S - Regular passenger tire traction devices for vehicles with restricted wheel well clearance, SAE Class U - Regular and lug-reinforced passenger tire traction devices for vehicles with regular wheel well clearances. SAE Class W - Passenger tire traction devices that use light truck components, recommended maximum speeds in the owners manual of the chains – generally 30 to 50 km/h – maximum. Driving on dry roads with chains for extended periods of time, driving on dry roads with chains can cause a vehicle to slide when braking. Not securing the chains tightly enough, owners manual of the chains recommends tightening a second time after driving a short distance and checking for tightness from time to time. If a chain comes loose, it should either be refastened or removed before it wraps around the axle of the vehicle
31.
McDonnell Douglas DC-9
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The McDonnell Douglas DC-9 is a twin-engine, single-aisle jet airliner. It was first manufactured in 1965 with its maiden flight later that year, the DC-9 was designed for frequent, short flights. The final DC-9 was delivered in October 1982, the DC-9-based airliners, MD-80, MD-90 and Boeing 717 later followed in production. With the final deliveries of the 717 in 2006, production of the DC-9/MD-80/90/717 aircraft family ceased after 41 years, during the 1950s Douglas Aircraft studied a short- to medium-range airliner to complement their higher capacity, long range DC-8. A medium-range four-engine Model 2067 was studied but it did not receive enough interest from airlines, in 1960, Douglas signed a two-year contract with Sud Aviation for technical cooperation. Douglas would market and support the Sud Aviation Caravelle and produce a licensed version if airlines ordered large numbers, none were ordered and Douglas returned to its design studies after the cooperation deal expired. In 1962, design studies were underway, the first version seated 63 passengers and had a gross weight of 69,000 lb. This design was changed into what would be initial DC-9 variant, Douglas gave approval to produce the DC-9 on April 8,1963. Unlike the competing but larger Boeing 727 trijet, which used as many 707 components as possible, the DC-9 has two rear-mounted Pratt & Whitney JT8D turbofan engines, relatively small, efficient wings, and a T-tail. The DC-9s takeoff weight was limited to 80,000 lb for a flight crew by Federal Aviation Agency regulations at the time. DC-9 aircraft have five seats across for economy seating, the airplane seats 80 to 135 passengers depending on version and seating arrangement. Accessibility and short field characteristics were called for, turnarounds were simplified by built-in airstairs, including one in the tail, which shortened boarding and deplaning times. The tail-mounted engine design facilitated a clean wing without engine pods, for example, flaps could be longer, unimpeded by pods on the leading edge and engine blast concerns on the trailing edge. This simplified design improved airflow at low speeds and enabled lower takeoff and approach speeds, thus lowering field length requirements, the second advantage of the tail-mounted engines was the reduction in foreign object damage from ingested debris from runways and aprons. With this position, the engines could ingest ice streaming off the wing roots, third, the absence of engines in underslung pods allowed a reduction in ground clearance, making the aircraft more accessible to baggage handlers and passengers. The first DC-9, a model, flew on February 25,1965. The second DC-9 flew a few later, with a test fleet of five aircraft flying by July. This allowed the initial Series 10 to gain airworthiness certification on November 23,1965, the initial Series 10 would be followed by the improved -20, -30, and -40 variants
32.
V speeds
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In aviation, V-speeds are standard terms used to define airspeeds important or useful to the operation of all aircraft. Using them is considered a best practice to maximize aviation safety, the actual speeds represented by these designators are specific to a particular model of aircraft. They are expressed by the indicated airspeed, so that pilots may use them directly, without having to apply correction factors. In general aviation aircraft, the most commonly used and most safety-critical airspeeds are displayed as color-coded arcs, the lower ends of the green arc and the white arc are the stalling speed with wing flaps retracted, and stalling speed with wing flaps fully extended, respectively. These are the speeds for the aircraft at its maximum weight. The yellow range is the range in which the aircraft may be operated in air, and then only with caution to avoid abrupt control movement, and the red line is the Vne. Proper display of V speeds is a requirement for type-certificated aircraft in most countries. The most common V-speeds are often defined by a particular governments aviation regulations, in the United States, these are defined in title 14 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations, known as the Federal Aviation Regulations or FARs. In Canada, the body, Transport Canada, defines 26 commonly used V-speeds in their Aeronautical Information Manual. V-speed definitions in FAR23,25 and equivalent are for designing and certification of airplanes, the descriptions below are for use by pilots. These V-speeds are defined by regulations and they are typically defined with constraints such as weight, configuration, or phases of flight, some of these constraints have been omitted to simplify the description. Some of these V-speeds are specific to types of aircraft and are not defined by regulations. Whenever a limiting speed is expressed by a Mach number, it is expressed relative to the speed of sound, e. g. VMO, Maximum operating speed, MMO, V1 is the critical engine failure recognition speed or takeoff decision speed. It is the speed above which the takeoff will continue if a engine fails or another problem occurs. Aborting a takeoff after V1 is strongly discouraged because the aircraft will by definition not be able to stop before the end of the runway, Transport Canada defines it as, Critical engine failure recognition speed and adds, This definition is not restrictive. An operator may adopt any other definition outlined in the flight manual of TC type-approved aircraft as long as such definition does not compromise operational safety of the aircraft. Getting to grips with aircraft performance, flight Operations Support & Line Assistance
33.
United States Coast Guard
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The United States Coast Guard is a branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the countrys seven uniformed services. This has happened twice, in 1917, during World War I, created by Congress on 4 August 1790 at the request of Alexander Hamilton as the Revenue Marine, it is the oldest continuous seagoing service of the United States. As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton headed the Revenue Marine, by the 1860s, the service was known as the U. S. Revenue Cutter Service and the term Revenue Marine gradually fell into disuse, the modern Coast Guard was formed by a merger of the Revenue Cutter Service and the U. S. Life-Saving Service on 28 January 1915, under the U. S. Department of the Treasury. As one of the five armed services, the Coast Guard has been involved in every U. S. war from 1790 to the Iraq War. As of 2014 the Coast Guard had over 36,000 men and women on duty,7,350 reservists,29,620 auxiliarists. In terms of size, the U. S. Coast Guard by itself is the worlds 12th largest naval force. Because of its authority, the Coast Guard can conduct military operations under the U. S. Department of Defense or directly for the President in accordance with Title 14 USC 1–3. The Coast Guards enduring roles are maritime safety, security, to carry out those roles, it has 11 statutory missions as defined in 6 U. S. C. §468, which include enforcing U. S. law in the worlds largest exclusive economic zone of 3.4 million square miles, the Coast Guards motto is the Latin phrase, Semper Paratus. In a 2005 article in Time magazine following Hurricane Katrina, the author wrote, the Coast Guards most valuable contribution to may be as a model of flexibility, and most of all, spirit. Wil Milam, a swimmer from Alaska told the magazine, In the Navy. Practicing for war, training for war, in the Coast Guard, it was, take care of our people and the mission will take care of itself. The Coast Guard carries out three basic roles, which are subdivided into eleven statutory missions. Both agencies maintain rescue coordination centers to coordinate this effort, and have responsibility for military and civilian search and rescue. The two services jointly provide instructor staff for the National Search and Rescue School that trains SAR mission planners and coordinators, previously located on Governors Island, New York, the school is now located at Coast Guard Training Center Yorktown at Yorktown, Virginia. The NRC also takes Maritime Suspicious Activity and Security Breach Reports, details on the NRC organization and specific responsibilities can be found in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan. The Marine Information for Safety and Law Enforcement database system is managed and used by the Coast Guard for tracking pollution, the five uniformed services that make up the U. S
34.
Tugboat
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A tug is a boat or ship that maneuvers vessels by pushing or towing them. Tugboats are powerful for their size and strongly built, and some are ocean-going, some tugboats serve as icebreakers or salvage boats. Early tugboats had steam engines, but today most have diesel engines, many tugboats have firefighting monitors, allowing them to assist in firefighting, especially in harbors. Seagoing tugs fall into four categories, The standard seagoing tug with model bow that tows its payload on a hawser. The notch tug which can be secured in a notch at the stern of a specially designed barge and this configuration is dangerous to use with a barge which is in ballast or in a head- or following sea. Therefore, notch tugs are usually built with a towing winch and these units stay combined under virtually any sea conditions and the tugs usually have poor sea-keeping designs for navigation without their barges attached. Vessels in this category are considered to be ships rather than tugboats. These vessels must show navigation lights compliant with those required of ships rather than required of tugboats. Articulated tug and barge units also utilize mechanical means to connect to their barges, the tug slips into a notch in the stern and is attached by a hinged connection. ATBs generally utilize Intercon and Bludworth connecting systems, aTBs are generally staffed as a large tugboat, with between seven and nine crew members. The typical American ATB operating on the east coast customarily displays navigational lights of a towing vessel pushing ahead, compared to seagoing tugboats, harbour tugboats are generally smaller and their width-to-length ratio is often higher, due to the need for a lower draught. In smaller harbours these are also termed lunch bucket boats, because they are only manned when needed and only at a minimum. The number of tugboats in a harbour varies with the harbour infrastructure, things to take into consideration includes ships with/without bow thrusters and forces like wind, current and waves and types of ship. River tugs are also referred to as towboats or pushboats and their hull designs would make open ocean operation dangerous. River tugs usually do not have any significant hawser or winch and their hulls feature a flat front or bow to line up with the rectangular stern of the barge, often with large pushing knees. Tugboat engines typically produce 500 to 2,500 kW, for safety, tugboats engines often feature two of each critical part for redundancy. A tugboats power is stated by its engines horsepower and its overall bollard pull. The largest commercial harbour tugboats in the 2000s-2010s, used for towing container ships or similar, had around 60-65 tons of bollard pull, Tugboats are highly maneuverable, and various propulsion systems have been developed to increase maneuverability and increase safety
35.
St. Elizabeths Hospital
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St. Elizabeths Hospital opened in 1855 as the first Federally operated psychiatric hospital in the U. S. St. Elizabeths is in southeast Washington, D. C, since 2010, hospital functions have been limited to a portion of the east campus operated by the District of Columbia Department of Mental Health. The remainder of the east campus is slated for redevelopment by the District of Columbia which owns the site, the west campus is owned by the federal government and is being redeveloped for use as headquarters for the U. S. Department of Homeland Security and its child agencies. As early as the 1830s, local residents including Dr. Thomas Miller, board of Health, had been petitioning Congress for a facility to care for the mentally ill in the City of Washington. Their efforts were given a significant boost when Dorothea Dix, an advocate for people living with mental illnesses. In 1852 she wrote the legislation that established the hospital, Dix, who was on friendly terms with President Millard Fillmore, was asked to assist the Secretary of the Interior in getting the hospital started. Her first recommendation resulted in the appointment of Dr. Charles H. Nichols as the hospitals first superintendent and his 1854 manual recommended specifics such as site, ventilation, number of patients and the need for a rural location proximate to a city. He also recommended that the location have good soil for farming, Dr. Nichols oversaw the design and building of St. Elizabeths which began in 1853. It was built in three phases, the west wing first, then the east wing and finally the center portion, the center portion was built to house all administrative operations as well as the superintendents residential quarters. All three sections of the hospital were together under one roof, in keeping with Kirkbrides design, two other buildings, the West Lodge for men and the East Lodge for women were built to house and care for African American patients. Soon after the hospital opened to patients in January 1855, it became known officially as the Government Hospital for the Insane, during the Civil War the West Lodge, originally built for male African-American patients, was used as a general hospital by the U. S. Navy. The unfinished east wing of the building was used by the U. S. Army as a general hospital for sick. The Army hospital officially took the name of St. Elizabeths Army Medical Hospital to differentiate it from the hospital in the west wing of the same building. The name St. Elizabeths was derived from the name for the tract of land on which the hospital was built. At its peak, the St. Elizabeths campus housed 8,000 patients, beginning in the 1950s, however, large institutions such as St. Elizabeths were being criticized for hindering the treatment of patients. Community-based health care, as specified in the passage of the 1963 Community Mental Health Act, the act provided for local outpatient facilities and drug therapy as a more effective means of allowing patients to live near-normal lives. The first community-based center for health was established at St. Elizabeths in 1969. The patient population of St. Elizabeths steadily declined, by 2002, all remaining patients on the Federal western campus were transferred to other facilities
36.
United States Park Police
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The United States Park Police is one of the oldest uniformed federal law enforcement agencies in the United States. It functions as a law enforcement agency with responsibilities and jurisdiction in those National Park Service areas primarily located in the Washington. San Francisco, and New York City areas and certain other government lands, the United States Park Police is one of the few full-service police departments in the federal government that possess both state and federal authority. The agency also provides protection for the President, Secretary of the Interior, the Park Police is a unit of the National Park Service, which is a bureau of the Department of the Interior. The Park Watchmen were first recruited in 1791 by George Washington to protect federal property only in the District of Columbia. The Watchmen were given the powers and duties as the Metropolitan Police of Washington in 1882. Their authority first began to expand outside D. C and these sites include the National Mall, the C&O Canal towpath in the region, and the parallel roadways of the George Washington Memorial Parkway in Virginia and Clara Barton Parkway in Maryland. The police functioned as an independent agency of the government until 1849. In 1867, Congress transferred the police to the Office of Public Buildings and Grounds, in 1925, Congress placed the Park Police in the independent Office of Public Buildings and Public Parks of the National Capital. Headed by an Army officer, Lt. Col. Ulysses S. Grant III, in 1933, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt transferred the police to the National Park Service. C. Maryland, Virginia, New Jersey, New York and California, One example would be the past deployment to the Dakotas to assist the Bureau of Indian Affairs. District 1, Officers at Hains Point provide policing for the downtown D. C. area, District 2, Officers provide coverage in three states at the GWMP Station. In Virginia, Fort Hunt, Mt. Vernon and the George Washington Memorial Parkway are primary responsibilities, in the District, Humpback Bridge and Lady Bird Johnson Parks. In Maryland, the Clara Barton Parkway is policed, the Presidio is exclusive federal jurisdiction. District 9, This district is one of the two districts that make up the New York Field Office, District 9 provides patrol coverage for the Gateway National Recreation Area in Staten Island, Brooklyn and Queens. Liberty Island is exclusive federal jurisdiction, in Virginia, USPP Officers are provided with Conservator of the Peace powers as set forth in 19. 2-12 of the Code of Virginia with powers and duties provided under 19. 2-18 of the Code of Virginia. In Washington, D. C. itself, USPP Officers have the same powers, USPP Officers possess a limited arrest authority in the State of Maryland. The U. S. Park Police hold state arrest authority in New York, in California, arrest powers are provided under California Penal Code Section 830.8
37.
Bell 206
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The Bell 206 is a family of two-bladed, single- or twin-engined helicopters, manufactured by Bell Helicopter at its Mirabel, Quebec plant. Originally developed as the Bell YOH-4 for the United States Armys Light Observation Helicopter program, Bell redesigned the airframe and successfully marketed the aircraft commercially as the five-place Bell 206A JetRanger. The new design was selected by the Army as the OH-58 Kiowa. The ICAO-assigned model designation B06 is used on plans for the JetRanger and LongRanger. On October 14,1960, the United States Navy solicited response from 25 aircraft manufacturers to a request for proposals on behalf of the Army for the Light Observation Helicopter, Bell entered the competition along with 12 other manufacturers, including Hiller Aircraft and Hughes Tool Co. Bell submitted the D-250 design, which would be designated as the YHO-4, on May 19,1961, Bell and Hiller were announced as winners of the design competition. Bell developed the D-250 design into the Bell 206 aircraft, redesignated as YOH-4A in 1962, the first prototype flew on December 8,1962. The YOH-4A also became known as the Ugly Duckling in comparison to the other contending aircraft, following a flyoff of the Bell, Hughes and Fairchild-Hiller prototypes, the Hughes OH-6 was selected in May 1965. When the YOH-4A was eliminated by the Army, Bell went about solving the problem of marketing the aircraft, in addition to the image problem, the helicopter lacked cargo space and only provided cramped quarters for the planned three passengers. The solution was a fuselage, sleeker and aesthetically appealing, adding 16 ft3 of cargo space in the process. A Bell executive contributed to this redesign by drawing on a sketch two lines extending the fuselage to where it meets the tail. The redesign was designated Bell 206A, and Bell President Edwin J. Ducayet named it the JetRanger, the 206L LongRanger is a stretched variant with seating for seven. The fuselage, stretched a total of 30 inches, adds two rear-facing seats between the front and rear seats, since 1975, Bell has produced more than 1,700 LongRangers across all variant types. In 1981, a version was released, the 206L TexasRanger. In both applications, the 250-C30P is derated from 650 hp for takeoff and 501 hp continuous, the 206L-3 is transmission–limited to 435 hp for take-off, and the 206L-4 is transmission-limited to 495 hp. The 206L-3 and L-4 have not been offered in a twin configuration under those model designations, in 2007, Bell announced an upgrade program for the 206L-1 and 206L-3 which is designed to modify the aircraft to the 206L-4 configuration, modified aircraft are designated 206L-1+ and 206L-3+. On January 24,2008, Bell Helicopter announced plans to end production of the Bell 206B-3 version after current order commitments were fulfilled in 2010, in 2011, used 206B-3s sold for around $1.4 million depending upon the equipment and configuration. However, production of the 206L-4 is ongoing as of 2016, the TwinRanger name dates from the mid-1980s when Bell developed the Bell 400 TwinRanger, but it never entered production
38.
Helicopter
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A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward and these attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft and many forms of VTOL aircraft cannot perform. English language nicknames for helicopter include chopper, copter, helo, heli, Helicopters were developed and built during the first half-century of flight, with the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 being the first operational helicopter in 1936. Some helicopters reached limited production, but it was not until 1942 that a helicopter designed by Igor Sikorsky reached full-scale production, with 131 aircraft built. Though most earlier designs used more than one rotor, it is the single main rotor with anti-torque tail rotor configuration that has become the most common helicopter configuration. Tandem rotor helicopters are also in use due to their greater payload capacity. Coaxial helicopters, tiltrotor aircraft, and compound helicopters are all flying today, quadcopter helicopters pioneered as early as 1907 in France, and other types of multicopter have been developed for specialized applications such as unmanned drones. The earliest references for vertical flight came from China, since around 400 BC, Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. This bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor, the spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released. The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge Hong reportedly describes some of the ideas inherent to rotary wing aircraft, designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other works. In the 18th and early 19th centuries Western scientists developed flying machines based on the Chinese toy. It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine that could be described as an aerial screw, that any recorded advancement was made towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built flying models, but there were no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate. As scientific knowledge increased and became accepted, people continued to pursue the idea of vertical flight. In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after the Chinese top but powered by a spring device. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a method to lift meteorological instruments. Sir George Cayley, influenced by a fascination with the Chinese flying top, developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor blades and his writings on his experiments and models would become influential on future aviation pioneers
39.
Aircraft pilot
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A pilot or aviator is a person who controls the flight of an aircraft by operating its directional flight controls. Other aircrew members such as attendants, mechanics and ground crew, are not classified as aviators. In recognition of the qualifications and responsibilities, most militaries and many airlines worldwide award aviator badges to their pilots. The first recorded use of the aviator was in 1887, as a variation of aviation, from the Latin avis. The term aviatrix, now archaic, was used for a female aviator. These terms were used more in the days of aviation, when airplanes were extremely rare. For example, a 1905 reference work described the Wright brothers first airplane, The weight, the Aéro-Club de France delivered the first certificate to Louis Blériot in 1908—followed by Glenn Curtiss, Léon Delagrange, and Robert Esnault-Pelterie. The absolute authority given to the pilot in command derives from that of a ships captain, when flying for an airline, pilots are usually referred to as airline pilots, with the pilot in command often referred to as the captain. While the flight decks of U. S. and European airliners do have ex-military pilots, military training and flying, while rigorous, is fundamentally different in many ways from civilian piloting. Pilots licensing in Canada is similar to the United States, the Aeronautics Act of 1985 and Canadian Aviation Regulations provide rules for pilots in Canada. Retirement age is provided by each airline with some set to age 60, in 1930, the Air Commerce Act established pilot licensing requirements for American civil aviation. Commercial airline pilots in the United States have a retirement age of 65. Military pilots fly with the forces of a government or nation-state. Their tasks involve combat and non-combat operations, including direct hostile engagements, military pilots undergo specialized training, often with weapons. Examples of military pilots include fighter pilots, bomber pilots, transport pilots, military pilots also serve as flight crews on aircraft for government personnel, such as Air Force One and Air Force Two in the United States. Military pilots are trained with a different syllabus than civilian pilots and this is due to the different aircraft, flight goals, flight situations and chains of responsibility. Many military pilots do transfer to civilian-pilot qualification after they leave the military, the person controlling a remotely piloted UAV may be referred to as its pilot or operator. Most jurisdictions have restrictions on the use of UAVs which have limited their use in controlled airspace, UAVs have mostly been limited to military
40.
Paramedic
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A paramedic is a healthcare professional, predominantly in the pre-hospital and out-of-hospital environment, and working mainly as part of emergency medical services, such as on an ambulance. The scope of practice of a paramedic will vary between countries, but generally includes autonomous decision making around the care of patients. In some countries Paramedic is a title and accountable to a professional regulatory body. The scope of the role varies widely across the world, having developed as a paraprofession in the United States during the 1970s. There are different models of care for EMS providers which significantly influence the scope of practice of paramedics in an area, in the Franco-German model paramedics directly support a doctor in the field, in a role more akin to a hospital nurse, rather than operating with clinical autonomy. The development of the profession has been a move from simply transporting patients to hospital. Throughout the evolution of care, there has been an ongoing association with military conflict. Such individuals, although not physicians, were probably among the worlds earliest surgeons by default, being required to suture wounds, in time, however, these arrangements began to formalize and become permanent. During the American Civil War, Jonathan Letterman devised a system of field hospitals employing the first uses of the principles of triage. In most cases these ambulances were operated by drivers and attendants with little or no medical training, an early example was the members of the Toronto Police Ambulance Service receiving a mandatory five days of training from St. John as early as 1889. Prior to World War I motorized ambulances started to be developed, in terms of advanced skills, once again the military led the way. The Korean War also marked the first widespread use of helicopters to evacuate the wounded from forward positions to medical units and these innovations would not find their way into the civilian sphere for nearly twenty more years. By the early 1960s experiments in improving care had begun in some civilian centres, one early experiment involved the provision of pre-hospital cardiac care by physicians in Belfast, Northern Ireland, in 1966. In 1966, a report called Accidental Death and Disability, The Neglected Disease of Modern Society—commonly known as The White Paper—was published in the United States. As a result of the The White Paper the US government moved to develop standards for ambulance attendant training, ambulance equipment. The White Paper also prompted the inception of a number of medical service pilot units across the US including paramedic programs. The success of these led to a rapid transition to make them fully operational. In 1969, the Haywood County Volunteer Rescue Squad developed a program under the medical direction of Ralph Fleicher
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Congressional Budget Office
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The Congressional Budget Office is a federal agency within the legislative branch of the United States government that provides budget and economic information to Congress. There is a consensus among economists that the CBO has historically issued credible forecasts of the effects of both Democratic and Republican legislative proposals. The Congressional Budget Office was created by Title II of the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974, official operations began on February 24,1975, with Alice Rivlin as director. The CBOs creation stems from a fight between President Richard Nixon and a Democratic-controlled Congress, Congress wanted to protect its power of the purse from the executive. The CBO was created within the branch to bolster Congress’s budgetary understanding. Since its creation, the CBO has since supplanted the OMB as the source of information on the economy and the budget in the eyes of Congress, the press. The Congressional Budget Office is nonpartisan, and produces independent analyses of budgetary, each year, the agency releases reports and cost estimates for proposed legislation, without issuing any policy recommendations. This includes projections on the effect on national debt and cost estimates for legislation, section 202 of the Budget Act requires the CBO to submit periodic reports about fiscal policy to the House and Senate budget committees to provide baseline projections of the federal budget. This is currently done by preparation of an annual Economic and Budget Outlook plus a mid-year update, the agency also each year issues An Analysis of the Presidents Budgetary Proposals for the upcoming fiscal year per a standing request of the Senate Committee on Appropriations. These three series are designated essential titles distributed to Federal Depository Libraries and are available for purchase from the Government Publishing Office, the CBO often provides testimony in response to requests from various Congressional committees and issues letters responding to queries made by members of Congress. The Congressional Budget Office is divided into eight divisions, the term of office is four years, with no limit on the number of terms a director may serve. Either house of Congress, however, may remove the director by resolution, at the expiration of a term of office, the person serving as Director may continue in the position until his or her successor is appointed. According to MIT economist David Autor, the CBO has a track record with a very difficult assignment. It errs, but not systematically or with partisan intent, according to Yale economist Christopher Udry, There is no credible evidence of partisan bias. Economist Walter E. Williams wrote in 1998 that the CBO was well-regarded for its honest numbers on fiscal, according to the Los Angeles Times, the CBO’s analyses and forecasting are regarded as good or better than others doing similar work. Economists say that the CBO’s economic projections generally compare favorably against other outfits, the agency has a nonpartisan staff culture. Historically, the House Budget Committee and Senate Budget Committee have insulated the CBO from external pressures, professor Philip Joyce of the University of Maryland School of Public Policy writes, This is quite surprising, in a sense, given the partisan nature of the Congress. It is not necessarily that these partisans have embraced nonpartisanship as a end in itself
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