1.
Condor Flugdienst
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Condor Flugdienst GmbH, branded as Condor, is a German leisure airline based in Frankfurt. It operates scheduled flights to destinations in the Mediterranean, Asia, Africa, North America, South America. Condor is Germanys third largest commercial airline based on fleet size and it is headquartered at Gateway Gardens near Frankfurt Airport with an important branch office at Berlin Schönefeld Airport. The company was founded on 21 December 1955 as Deutsche Flugdienst GmbH, the initial fleet of three 36-passenger Vickers VC.1 Viking aircraft was based at Frankfurt Airport, the Lufthansa hub. Scheduled flight operations were launched on 29 March 1956 with a flight to Israel. Further destinations flown to during the first year were Majorca and Tenerife, in 1959, Lufthansa took over 95.5 percent of the stake, thus creating its first post-war subsidiary. In 1961, Deutsche Flugdienst took over its rival Condor-Luftreederei, subsequently changing its name to Condor Flugdienst GmbH, in 1962, Condor Flugdienst transported ca.32,000 passengers and had a market share of 63.3 percent in the German leisure air travel. In 1966, the business was launched, with flights to Thailand, Ceylon, Kenya. In 1971, Condor became the worlds first leisure airline to add the Boeing 747 to its fleet, in 1973, the airline generated a revenue of 291 million DM, surpassing all other leisure airlines worldwide. At that time, the Condor fleet consisted of two Boeing 747-200s, two 707s and ten 727s, during this period the Condor Individuell system was launched, allowing direct flight bookings by passengers without the need of a travel agency. In 1989, SunExpress was founded as a co-operation between Condor and Turkish Airlines, aiming at leisure traffic between Germany and Turkey, Condor added Boeing 757 and Boeing 767 jets to its fleet, operated from the production workshop of Südflug, a 100% subsidiary of Condor. In 1991, as the first leisure carrier, Condor introduced a separate, the Südflug subsidiary was integrated into Condor in autumn 1992. In 1995, Condor expanded its shareholdings, Alpha Holding GmbH, Kreutzer Touristik GmbH, Fischer Reisen GmbH and Öger Tours GmbH, with 10%, Condor also acquired Lufthansa’s 40% holding in the Turkish charter airline SunExpress, which was later increased to 50%. In 1996, commemorating the 40th birthday of the airline, US painter James Rizzi created a paint scheme which was applied to one of Condors Boeing 757s. With an order for 12 aircraft, the became the launch customer of the enlarged Boeing 757-300. In 1998, Condor Flugdienst GmbH was owned by C&N Touristic AG, in 1998, Condor Berlin GmbH was founded as a wholly owned subsidiary with headquarters at Berlin Tegel Airport. As with all other German airlines, Condor was not allowed to operate into West Berlin until 1990 and it used Airbus A320 aircraft, which had recently been added to the fleet, replacing the Boeing 737 short-haul airliners. In the early 2000s, the Berlin business was moved to Schönefeld Airport, from 2000 onwards, the Condor shares held by Lufthansa were gradually acquired by Thomas Cook
2.
Jet airliner
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A jet airliner is an airliner powered by jet engines. Airliners usually have two or four jet engines, three-engined designs were popular in the 1970s but are common today. Most airliners today are powered by jet engines, because they are capable of operating at high speeds. The first airliners, introduced in the 1950s, used the simpler turbojet engine, these were supplanted by designs using turbofans. Airliners are commonly classified as either the generally long-haul widebody aircraft and they retained the two inboard piston engines, the jets being housed in the outboard nacelles. The first airliner with jet power only was the Nene-powered Vickers VC.1 Viking G-AJPH, also developed in 1949 was the Avro Canada C102 Jetliner, which never reached production, however the term jetliner came into use as a generic term for passenger jet aircraft. National prestige was attached to developing prototypes and bringing these first generation designs into service, there was also a strong nationalism in purchasing policy, so that US Boeing and Douglas aircraft became closely associated with Pan Am, while BOAC ordered British Comets. Aeroflot used Soviet Tupolevs, while Air France introduced French Caravelles, Boeing became the most successful of the early manufacturers. The KC-135 Stratotanker and military versions of the 707 remain operational, the Pratt & Whitney JT3 turbojets powered the original Boeing 707 and DC-8 models, in the early 1960s the JT3 was modified into the JT3D low-bypass turbofan for long-range 707 and DC-8 variants. The second-generation of jet airliners was known for the advancement of turbofan technology, the rear-engined T-tail arrangement is still used for jetliners with a maximum takeoff weight of less than 50 tons. Other second-generation developments, such as rocket assisted takeoff, water-injection, and afterburners used on supersonic jetliners such as Concorde, the third generation of jet airliners introduced wide-body craft and high-bypass turbofan engines. There was also the debut of the European consortium Airbus. In 1978, Boeing unveiled the twin-engine Boeing 757 to replace its 727, the mid-size 757 and 767 launched to market success, due in part to 1980s extended-range twin-engine operational performance standards regulations governing transoceanic twinjet operations. These regulations allowed twin-engine airliners to make ocean crossings at up to three hours distance from emergency diversionary airports, under ETOPS rules, airlines began operating the 767 on long-distance overseas routes that did not require the capacity of larger airliners. By the late 1980s, DC-10 and L-1011 models were approaching retirement age, mcDonnell Douglas were working on the MD-11, a stretched and upgraded successor of the DC-10. Airbus, thanks to the success of its A320 family, developed the medium-range A330 twinjet, in 1988, Boeing began developing what would be the 777 twinjet, using the twin-engine configuration given past design successes, projected engine developments, and reduced-cost benefits. In addition, Boeing also released an update on their 747. Airliner Aviation Business jet Freight aircraft Jet aircraft Wide-body aircraft List of jet airliners
3.
Airbus
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Airbus SAS is a division of the multinational Airbus Group SE that manufactures civil aircraft. It is based in Blagnac, France, a suburb of Toulouse, with production and manufacturing facilities mainly in France, Germany, Spain, China, United Kingdom, Airbus began as a consortium of aerospace manufacturers, Airbus Industrie. After a protracted sales process BAE sold its shareholding to EADS on 13 October 2006, Airbus has sixteen key sites in four countries, France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom. Final assembly production is based at Toulouse, France, Hamburg, Germany, Seville, Spain, Tianjin, China, Airbus has subsidiaries in the United States, Japan and India. The company produces and markets the first commercially viable digital fly-by-wire airliner, the Airbus A320, and the worlds largest passenger airliner, Airbus Industrie began as a consortium of European aviation firms formed to compete with American companies such as Boeing, McDonnell Douglas, and Lockheed. While many European aircraft were innovative, even the most successful had small production runs, in the mid-1960s, tentative negotiations commenced regarding a European collaborative approach. The same year Hawker Siddeley teamed with Breguet and Nord to study airbus designs, the Hawker Siddeley/Breguet/Nord groups HBN100 became the basis for the continuation of the project. By 1966 the partners were Sud Aviation, later Aérospatiale, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Airbus, later Deutsche Airbus, a request for funding was made to the three governments in October 1966. On 25 July 1967 the three agreed to proceed with the proposal. In the two years following this agreement, both the British and French governments expressed doubts about the project, the MoU had stated that 75 orders must be achieved by 31 July 1968. With concerns at proposal of the A300B proposal in December 1968, and fearing it would not recoup its investment due to lack of sales, West Germany took this opportunity to increase its share of the project to 50%. Given the participation by Hawker Siddeley up to point, France. Thus the British company was allowed to continue as a privileged subcontractor, Hawker Siddeley invested GB£35 million in tooling and, requiring more capital, received a GB£35 million loan from the West German government. Airbus Industrie was formally established as a Groupement dIntérêt Économique on 18 December 1970 and it had been formed by a government initiative between France, West Germany and the UK that originated in 1967. Its initial shareholders were the French company Aérospatiale and the West German company Deutsche Airbus, Aérospatiale and Deutsche Airbus each took a 36. 5% share of production work, Hawker Siddeley 20% and the Dutch company Fokker-VFW 7%. Each company would deliver its sections as fully equipped, ready-to-fly items, in October 1971 the Spanish company CASA acquired a 4. 2% share of Airbus Industrie, with Aérospatiale and Deutsche Airbus reducing their stakes to 47. 9%. In January 1979 British Aerospace, which had absorbed Hawker Siddeley in 1977, the majority shareholders reduced their shares to 37. 9%, while CASA retained its 4. 2%. The Airbus A300 was to be the first aircraft to be developed, manufactured and marketed by Airbus, by early 1967 the A300 label began to be applied to a proposed 320 seat, twin engined airliner
4.
Lufthansa
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It operates services to 18 domestic destinations and 197 international destinations in 78 countries across Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe, using a fleet of more than 270 aircraft. Lufthansa is one of the five founding members of Star Alliance, the name of the company is derived from Luft, and Hansa. Combined with its subsidiaries, the group has 656 aircraft, as of February 2016, in 2014, the group carried over 106 million passengers. Lufthansas registered office and corporate headquarters are in Cologne, the main operations base, called Lufthansa Aviation Center, is at Lufthansas primary hub at Frankfurt Airport. The majority of Lufthansas pilots, ground staff, and flight attendants are based there, Lufthansas secondary hub is Munich Airport. Lufthansa was a state-owned enterprise until 1994, in 2014, 60% of Lufthansas shares were held by institutional investors. The remaining 40% were held by individual stock owners, since 1970, Lufthansa has involved its employees in profit sharing, giving them the opportunity to choose between cash and preference shares. When Lufthansa was privatised, employees received more than 3% of its shares, Lufthansa traces its history to 1926 when Deutsche Luft Hansa A. G. was formed in Berlin. DLH, as it was known, was Germanys flag carrier until 1945 when all services were suspended following the defeat of Nazi Germany, West Germany had not yet been granted sovereignty over its airspace, so it was not known when the new airline could become operational. Nevertheless, in 1953 Luftag placed orders for four Convair CV-340s and four Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellations and set up a maintenance base at Hamburg Airport. On 6 August 1954, Luftag acquired the name and logo of the liquidated Deutsche Lufthansa for DM30,000, on 1 April 1955 Lufthansa won approval to start scheduled domestic flights, linking Hamburg, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Cologne, and Munich. In August 1958 fifteen Lufthansa 1049Gs and 1649s left Germany each week to Canada, the special status of Berlin meant that Lufthansa was not allowed to fly to either part of Berlin until 1989. Originally thought to be only a matter, the Division of Germany turned out to be long. East Germany tried to establish its own airline in 1955 using the Lufthansa name, but this resulted in a dispute with West Germany. East Germany instead established Interflug as its national airline in 1963, in 1958 Lufthansa ordered four Boeing 707s and started jet flights from Frankfurt to New York City in March 1960. Boeing 720Bs were later bought to back up the 707 fleet, in February 1961 Far East routes were extended beyond Bangkok, Thailand, to Hong Kong and Tokyo. Lagos, Nigeria and Johannesburg, South Africa were added in 1962, Lufthansa introduced the Boeing 727 in 1964 and that May began the Polar route from Frankfurt to Tokyo via Anchorage. In February 1965 the company ordered twenty-one Boeing 737s that went into service in 1968, Lufthansa was the first customer for the Boeing 737 and was one of four buyers of the 737-100s
5.
American Airlines
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American Airlines, Inc. commonly referred to as American, is a major American airline headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas. It is the worlds largest airline measured by fleet size, revenue, scheduled passenger-kilometres flown. Regional service is operated by independent and subsidiary carriers under the name of American Eagle. American operates out of ten located in Dallas/Fort Worth, Charlotte, Chicago-OHare, Philadelphia, Miami, Phoenix, Washington, DC-National, Los Angeles, New York-JFK. American operates its primary base at Tulsa International Airport in addition to the maintenance locations located at its hubs. Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport is Americans largest passenger carrying hub handling 51.1 million passengers annually with an average of 140,000 passengers daily, the company as of 2015 employs over 113,300 people. Through the airlines parent company, American Airlines Group, it is traded under NASDAQ. American Airlines was started in 1930 via a union of more than eighty small airlines, the two organizations from which American Airlines was originated were Robertson Aircraft Corporation and Colonial Air Transport. The former was first formed in Missouri in 1921, with both being merged in 1929 into holding company The Aviation Corporation and this in turn, was made in 1930 into an operating company and rebranded as American Airways. In 1934, when new laws and attrition of mail contracts forced many airlines to reorganize, the corporation redid its routes into a connected system, between 1970 and 2000, the company grew into being an international carrier, purchasing Trans World Airlines in 2001. In 2011, due to a downturn in the airline industry, in 2013, US Airways and American Airlines merged. Eventually operations were merged under one operating certificate to create the largest United States airline which kept the American Airlines brand name, American Airlines is headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, adjacent to the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. The headquarters is located in two buildings in the CentrePort office complex and these buildings together have about 1,400,000 square feet of space. As of 2014 over 4,300 employees work at this complex, before it was headquartered in Texas, American Airlines was headquartered at 633 Third Avenue in the Murray Hill area of Midtown Manhattan, New York City. In 1979 American moved its headquarters to a site at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, Mayor of New York City Ed Koch described the move as a betrayal of New York City. American moved to two leased office buildings in Grand Prairie, Texas, the airline began leasing the facility from the airport, which owns the facility. As of 2015 American Airlines is the corporation with the largest presence in Fort Worth, in 2015 the airline announced it will build a new headquarters in Fort Worth. Groundbreaking began in the spring of 2016 and occupancy is scheduled for summer 2019, the airline plans to house 5,000 new workers in the building
6.
China Southern Airlines
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China Southern Airlines Company Limited is an airline headquartered in Baiyun District, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China. It is the worlds fourth-largest airline measured by passengers carried and Asias largest airline in fleet size, revenue and it is the fourth-largest airline in the world in domestic passenger traffic and the sixth-largest in scheduled domestic passenger-kilometres flown. From its main hubs at Beijing Capital International Airport and Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport, China Southern Airlines was established on 1 July 1988 following the restructuring of the Civil Aviation Administration of China. Since then, it acquired and merged with a number of domestic airlines, China Southern Airlines is a member of SkyTeam. The airliness logo is a red flower on a blue vertical tail fin. In 2014, China Southern Airlines carried more than 100 million domestic, in 1984, the Chinese government disclosed the decision to decentralise the Civil Aviation Administration of China. In 1988, CAAC granted its seven regional divisions, among which was the Guangzhou Regional Administration, China Southern Airlines began flying under its own name and livery in February 1991. At this time, the aircraft operated some 160 flights a day on 100 routes using the Antonov An-24, Boeing 737 and Boeing 757, along with helicopters, in December 1992, the airline placed an US$800-million order for six Boeing 777s and the associated spare parts and training. The airline completed its decentralisation from CAAC when it gained independence on 10 October 1993, as such, the airline could from then on restructure itself into shareholding enterprises, independently arrange external financing and establish subsidiaries to complement its core enterprise. During the airlines early years, the carrier was the dominant domestic carrier, together with the two major airlines of China – Air China and China Eastern – the airline handled half of passenger traffic carried by all Chinese carriers. Like other Chinese carriers, China Southern was subjected to CAACs exclusive right to grant operating rights for every prospective route as well as to regulate domestic prices, starting in the mid-1990s, China Southern sought to expand its international reach beyond Asia. In December 1995, the Chinese and US governments signed an agreement that would allow the commencement of non-stop air services between the two countries. After having been granted the right to services to Amsterdam in early 1996. The following year, the carrier commenced non-stop trans-Pacific services Los Angeles, due to engine-certification and labour-relations issues, the delivery of the first Boeing 777 was more than a month behind schedule. Nevertheless, the airline planned to double its fleet of 67 aircraft, in order to keep pace with fast developments, China Southern raised capital from the capital market. The airline was listed on the Hong Kong and New York Stock Exchanges in July 1997. The airline groups revenue totalled some US$1.4 billion with a net income of $90 million, the end of the 1990s was a period of consolidation for the Chinese airline industry. At one stage, it was reported that CAAC was contemplating a merger of Air China and China Southern
7.
China Eastern Airlines
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It is a major Chinese airline operating international, domestic and regional routes. China Eastern Airlines is Chinas second-largest carrier by passenger numbers, China Eastern and its subsidiary Shanghai Airlines became the 14th member of SkyTeam on 21 June 2011. China Eastern Airlines was established on 25 June 1988 under the CAAC Huadong Administration, in 1997, China Eastern took over unprofitable China General Aviation and also became the countrys first airline to offer shares on the international market. In 1998 it founded China Cargo Airlines in a joint venture with COSCO, in March 2001, it completed the takeover of Great Wall Airlines. China Yunnan Airlines and China Northwest Airlines merged into China Eastern Airlines in 2003, the Chinese government has a majority ownership stake in China Eastern Airlines, while some shares are publicly held, A shares,6. 17%. After receiving approval from the State Council of China, it was announced that on 2 September 2007 Singapore Airlines and Temasek Holdings would jointly acquire shares of China Eastern Airlines. On 9 November 2007 investors signed an agreement to buy a combined 24% stake in China Eastern Airlines, Singapore Airlines would own 15. 73%. However, on 24 September Cathay Pacific announced that it had abandoned these plans, however, minority shareholders declined the offer made by Singapore Airlines. It is thought that this was due to the effort made by Air China to buy the 24% stake. On 11 June 2009 it was announced that China Eastern Airlines would merge with Shanghai Airlines, in February 2010 the merger was completed. Shanghai Airlines became a wholly owned subsidiary of China Eastern Airlines, however, Shanghai Airlines retained its brand and livery. The new combined airline was expected to have half of the market share in Shanghai. China Eastern would hold a 50% stake in the new airline, with the Qantas Group holding the other 50%, however, in June 2015, the Hong Kong authority refused to issue operating license to Jetstar Hong Kong. China Eastern and Qantas subsequently announced the end of the investment, in April 2013, China Eastern got a temporary permit to operate in the Philippines, but the Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines required them to obtain a technical permit and an airport slot. The airline announced a 25% fall in earnings for 2014 from their net profit of 2. 38bn Chinese Yuan in 2013 and it commented that tougher competition from low-cost airlines and a newly launched high-speed rail network is affecting profitability. On September 9,2014, China Eastern was introduced the new logo, in 2014, China Eastern Airlines carried 83.08 million domestic and international passengers with an average load factor of 73%. In 2015 the airline entered a partnership with Delta Air Lines in which Delta will buy a 3. 55% share in China Eastern for $450m, China Eastern Airlines has a strong presence on routes in Asia, North America and Australia. The airline looks to exploit the market potential as it boosts flight frequencies from Shanghai to other Chinese cities
8.
Turkish Airlines
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Turkish Airlines is the national flag carrier airline of Turkey, headquartered at the Turkish Airlines General Management Building on the grounds of Atatürk Airport in Yeşilköy, Bakırköy, Istanbul. As of July 2015, it operates scheduled services to 290 destinations in Europe, Asia, Africa, and it serves more destinations non-stop from a single airport than any other airline in Europe. Turkish Airlines flies to 119 countries, more than any other airline, with an operational fleet of ten cargo aircraft, the airlines cargo division serves 52 destinations. Istanbul Atatürk Airport is its base, and there are secondary hubs at Esenboğa International Airport, Sabiha Gökçen International Airport. Turkish Airlines has been a member of the Star Alliance network since 1 April 2008, Turkish Airlines was established on 20 May 1933 as State Airlines Administration as a department of the Ministry of National Defence. The initial fleet consisted of two five-seat Curtiss Kingbirds, two four-seat Junkers F. 13s and one ten-seat Tupolev ANT-9, in 1935, the airline was turned over to the Ministry of Public Works and was subsequently renamed General Directorate of State Airlines. Three years later, in 1938, it part of the Ministry of Transportation. Several Douglas DC-3s and Douglas C-47s were phased in during 1945, nicosia, Beirut and Cairo were soon added to the airlines international flight destinations. However, domestic services remained the Turkish carriers main focus until the early 1960s, in 1956, the Turkish government reorganized the airline under the name Türk Hava Yollari A. O. It was capitalized at TRL60 million, the airline joined the International Air Transport Association shortly thereafter. In 1957, British Overseas Airways Corporation began supplying technical support after acquiring a 6.5 percent shareholding, New aircraft including Vickers Viscounts, Fokker F27s and Douglas DC-3s were added to the fleet in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Turkish Airlines began operating their first jet, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and this was followed by the addition of three Boeing 707 jets in 1971. Other aircraft operated in the early 1970s included the McDonnell Douglas DC-10, the airline was plagued by several difficult issues. It developed a reputation for customer service and delays. It also endured hijackings and suffered seven accidents between 1974 and 1983, the most notorious was the 1974 crash of Turkish Airlines Flight 981 when a faulty cargo door broke off in flight near Ermenonville, France, resulting in the deaths of 346 people. A new government came to power in 1983 which recognized THYs importance as Turkeys ambassador to the world and it would maintain one of the youngest fleets in the world. Security was intensified, causing one shipper to compare it to Israels El Al, THY built a new, state-of-the-art technical center at Yeşilköy Airport in 1984. The airline was capable of light and heavy maintenance on a number of different aircraft types
9.
Airbus A320 family
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The Airbus A320 family consists of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The family includes the A318, A319, A320 and A321, the A320s are also named A320ceo after the introduction of the A320neo. Final assembly of the takes place in Toulouse, France. A plant in Tianjin, China, has also been producing aircraft for Chinese airlines since 2009, while a final facility in Mobile, Alabama, United States. The aircraft family can accommodate up to 220 passengers and has a range of 3,100 to 12,000 km, the first member of the A320 family—the A320—was launched in March 1984, first flew on 22 February 1987, and was first delivered in March 1988. The family was extended to include the A321, the A319, the A320 family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side-stick controls, in commercial aircraft. There has been a continuous improvement process since introduction, as of 28 February 2017, a total of 7,481 Airbus A320-family aircraft have been delivered, of which 7,157 are in service. In addition, another 5,580 airliners are on firm order and it ranked as the worlds fastest-selling jet airliner family according to records from 2005 to 2007, and as the best-selling single-generation aircraft programme. The A320 family has proved popular with airlines including low-cost carriers such as EasyJet, as of 28 February 2017, American Airlines was the largest operator of the Airbus A320 family aircraft, operating 384 aircraft. The aircraft family competes directly with the 737 and has competed with the 717,757, in December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the A320neo. The A320neo offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements, the aircraft will deliver fuel savings of up to 15%. As of February 2017, a total of 5,063 A320neo family aircraft had been ordered by more than 70 airlines, the first A320neo was delivered to Lufthansa on 20 January 2016 and it entered service on 25 January 2016. From the moment of formation, Airbus had begun studies into derivatives of the Airbus A300B in support of this long-term goal, prior to the service introduction of the first Airbus airliners, engineers within Airbus had identified nine possible variations of the A300 known as A300B1 to B9. A 10th variation, conceived in 1973, later the first to be constructed, was designated the A300B10 and it was a smaller aircraft which would be developed into the long-range Airbus A310. Airbus then focused its efforts on the market, which was dominated by the 737. Plans from a number of European aircraft manufacturers called for a successor to the relatively successful BAC One-Eleven, germanys MBB, British Aircraft Corporation, Swedens Saab and Spains CASA worked on the EUROPLANE, a 180- to 200-seat aircraft. It was abandoned after intruding on A310 specifications, vFW-Fokker, Dornier and Hawker Siddeley worked on a number of 150-seat designs. Alongside BAe were MBB, Fokker-VFW and Aérospatiale, the design within the JET study that was carried forward was the JET2, which then became the Airbus S. A1/2/3 series, before settling on the A320 name for its launch in 1984
10.
Airbus A320neo family
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The original family is now called A320ceo, for current engine option. The first flight of the A320neo took place on 25 September 2014 and it was introduced by Lufthansa on 25 January 2016. Airbus has 5,063 firm orders as of February 2017, in 2006 Airbus started the A320 Enhanced programme as a series of improvements targeting a 4-5% efficiency gain with large winglets, aerodynamic refinements, weight savings and a new aircraft cabin. At the time Airbus Chief Operating Officer and executive member John Leahy said Whos going to roll over a fleet to a new aircraft for 5% better than an A320 today. Especially if another 10% improvement might be coming in the half of the next decade based on new engine technology. Engine improvements reducing fuel consumption by 1% were fitted into the A320 in 2007 with the CFM56 Tech Insertion, the winglets increase efficiency by decreasing lift-induced drag. In December 2011, Airbus filed suit in the district of Texas over Aviation Partners claims of infringement of its patents on winglet design & construction which were granted in 1993. The first Sharklet equipped A320 was delivered to Air New Zealand at the June 2013 Paris Airshow and it offers better and larger luggage storage. The flight crew controls the cabin through touchscreen displays, with larger, Cabin-Flex relocated exit doors, it allows up to 20 more passengers for the A321neo without putting more sardines in the can, and up to 9 more passengers for the A320neo. Fuel efficiency per seat is increased by 6% with this option, in total exceeding 20% together with the new engines, the moved and enlarged exit doors are estimated to add 100 kg empty weight. At the February 2010 Singapore Air Show, Airbus said its decision to launch was scheduled for the July 2010 Farnborough Air Show and it wasnt still decided in August but the choice for new engines included the CFM International LEAP-1A and the Pratt & Whitney PW1100G. On 1 December 2010, Airbus launched the A320neo New Engine Option with a range of 500 nmi or 2 t of extra payload. Initially scheduled for spring 2016, introduction was advanced to October 2015, Airbus announces a 15% fuel saving thanks to those latest-generation engines and large sharklet wingtip devices, keeping over 95% airframe commonality with the current A320. In March 2013, airlines choices between the two engines were almost equal and its commonality helped to reduce delays associated with large changes. A rearranged cabin allows up to 20 more passengers enabling in total over 20% lower fuel consumption per seat, the first Airbus A320neo rolled out of the Toulouse factory on 1 July 2014 and first flight was scheduled to September 2014. Its first flight occurred on 25 September 2014 and its Pratt & Whitney PW1100G-JM geared turbofan engine was certified by the Federal Aviation Administration on 19 December 2014. A first flight on schedule is unusual for most recent airliner developments like competitors Bombardier CSeries, Comac C919, Irkut MS-21, first delivery slipped to early 2016. Lufthansa has taken delivery of the first A320neo on 20 January 2016, the A320neo is half as loud than an A320 at take-off with a 85 decibel noise footprint
11.
Twinjet
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A twinjet or twin-engine jet is a jet aircraft powered by two engines. As of today, there are three most common configurations of twinjet aircraft, the first has a podded engine usually mounted beneath, or occasionally above or within, each wing, usually for standard narrow-body and wide-body airliners. The second has one engine mounted on each side of the fuselage, close to its empennage. The first twinjet ever to fly was the April 1941-debuted German fighter prototype Heinkel He 280, the twinjet configuration was originally suitable for the short-range narrow-body such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and Boeing 737. The MD-11s long range advantage was brief as it was nullified by the Airbus A330s four-engine derivative, the Airbus A340. The Boeing 737 twinjet stands out as the most produced jet airliner, the Boeing 777 is the worlds largest twinjet, and the 777-200LR variant is the worlds longest range airliner. Other Boeing twinjets include the 767,757 and 787, competitor Airbus produces the A320 family, the A330, and the A350. Some modern commercial airplanes still use four engines like the Airbus A380 and Boeing 747-8, four engines are still used on the largest cargo aircraft capable of transporting outsize cargo, including strategic airlifters. There are plans to revive production of 6 engine giants like the Antonov An-225 Mriya, twin jets tend to be more fuel-efficient than trijet and quad-jet aircraft. As fuel efficiency in airliners is a priority, many airlines are increasingly retiring trijet and quad-jet designs in favor of twinjets since the 2000s. The trijet designs were phased out first, in due to the more complicated design. One of the reasons for the jets is cost of the engines itself which make up a significant proportion of the planes final cost. Each engine also require service, paperwork, and certificates, so fewer engines means less to repair or replace and this is also the reason why private aviation generally consists of aircraft with only 1-2 engines. The stability and fewer errors of modern engines leads naturally to as few engines as possible, when flying far from diversionary airports, the aircraft must be able to reach an alternate on the remaining engine within a specified time in case of one engine failure. When aircraft are certified according to ETOPS standards, thrust is not an issue, mostly, ETOPS certification involves maintenance and design requirements ensuring that a failure of one engine cannot make the other one fail also. The engines and related systems need to be independent and independently maintained, ETOPS/LROPS is often incorrectly thought to apply only to long overwater flights, but it applies to any flight more than a specified distances from an available diversion airport. Overwater flights near diversion airports need not be ETOPS/LROPS-compliant, in other words, a fully laden twinjet must be able to climb on one engine. Since the 1990s, airlines have increasingly turned from four-engine or three-engine airliners to twin-engine airliners to operate Transatlantic flight, on a nonstop flight from America to Asia the long-range aircraft usually follows the great circle route
12.
Hamburg
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Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2015, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2015. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast
13.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
14.
Mobile, Alabama
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Mobile is the county seat of Mobile County, Alabama, United States. Alabamas only saltwater port, Mobile is located at the head of the Mobile Bay, Mobile is the principal municipality of the Mobile metropolitan area. This region of 412,992 residents is composed solely of Mobile County, Mobile is the largest city in the Mobile-Daphne−Fairhope CSA, with a total population of 604,726, the second largest in the state. As of 2011, the population within a 60-mile radius of Mobile is 1,262,907, Mobile began as the first capital of colonial French Louisiana in 1702. During its first 100 years, Mobile was a colony of France, then Britain, Mobile first became a part of the United States of America in 1813, with the annexation of West Florida under President James Madison. In 1861 Alabama joined the Confederate States of America, which surrendered in 1865, Mobile is known for having the oldest organized Carnival celebrations in the United States. The festival began to be celebrated in the first decade of the 18th century by its first French Catholic colonial settlers. Mobile was host to the first formally organized Carnival mystic society, known elsewhere as a krewe, to celebrate with a parade in the United States, in 2005 the first integrated mystic society had a parade for Mardi Gras. The city gained its name from the Mobile tribe that the French colonists encountered living in the area of Mobile Bay. The Mobile tribe, along with the Tohomé, obtained permission from the colonists, about seven years after the founding of the Mobile settlement, to settle near the fort. It was founded by French Canadian brothers Pierre Le Moyne dIberville and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, Bienville was appointed as royal governor of French Louisiana in 1701. Mobiles Roman Catholic parish was established on July 20,1703, by Jean-Baptiste de la Croix de Chevrières de Saint-Vallier, the parish was the first French Catholic parish established on the Gulf Coast of the United States. In 1704 the ship Pélican delivered 23 French women to the colony, though most of the Pélican girls recovered, numerous colonists and neighboring Native Americans contracted the disease in turn and died. This early period was also the occasion of the importation of the first African slaves, the population of the colony fluctuated over the next few years, growing to 279 persons by 1708, yet descending to 178 persons two years later due to disease. A new earth-and-palisade Fort Louis was constructed at the new site during this time, by 1712, when Antoine Crozat was appointed to take over administration of the colony, its population had reached 400 persons. The capital of La Louisiane was moved in 1720 to Biloxi, leaving Mobile to serve as a regional military and trading center. In 1723 the construction of a new fort with a stone foundation began and it was renamed Fort Condé in honor of Louis Henri, Duc de Bourbon. In 1763, the Treaty of Paris was signed, ending the Seven Years War, by this treaty, France ceded its territories east of the Mississippi River to Britain
15.
Wingtip device
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Wingtip devices are intended to improve the efficiency of fixed-wing aircraft. Wingtip devices can also improve aircraft handling characteristics and enhance safety for following aircraft, such devices increase the effective aspect ratio of a wing without materially increasing the wingspan. An extension of span would lower lift-induced drag, but would increase parasitic drag and would require boosting the strength, at some point, there is no net benefit from further increased span. There may also be operational considerations that limit the allowable wingspan, wingtip devices increase the lift generated at the wingtip and reduce the lift-induced drag caused by wingtip vortices, improving lift-to-drag ratio. This increases fuel efficiency in powered aircraft and increases cross-country speed in gliders, U. S. Air Force studies indicate that a given improvement in fuel efficiency correlates directly with the causal increase in the aircrafts lift-to-drag ratio. The initial concept dates back to 1897, when English engineer Frederick W. Lanchester patented wing end-plates as a method for controlling wingtip vortices, in the United States, Scottish-born engineer William E. Somerville patented the first functional winglets in 1910. Somerville installed the devices on his biplane and monoplane designs. Vincent Burnelli received US Patent no,1,774,474 for his Airfoil Control Means on August 26,1930. This was done in order to counteract the dutch roll characteristic the marked three degrees of angle for each wing panel that the original He 162 designs wings possessed. Following the end of World War II, Dr. Sighard F. Drooped wingtips are often called Hoerner tips in his honor, gliders and light aircraft have made use of Hoerner tips for many years. The term winglet was previously used to describe an additional lifting surface on an aircraft, richard Whitcombs research in the 1970s at NASA first used winglet with its modern meaning referring to near-vertical extension of the wing tips. The upward angle of the winglet, its inward or outward angle, as well as its size, the winglet converts some of the otherwise-wasted energy in the wingtip vortex to an apparent thrust. This small contribution can be worthwhile over the lifetime, provided the benefit offsets the cost of installing and maintaining the winglets. Another potential benefit of winglets is that they reduce the intensity of wingtip vortices, minimum spacing requirements between aircraft operations at airports is largely dictated by these factors. Aircraft are classified by weight because the vortex strength grows with the lift coefficient, and thus. The drag reduction permitted by winglets can also reduce the takeoff distance. Wingtip vortices create turbulence, originating at the edge of the wingtip and propagating backwards. This turbulence delaminates the airflow over a triangular section of the outboard wing
16.
Boeing 757
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The Boeing 757 is a mid-size, narrow-body twin-engine jet airliner that was designed and built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. It is the manufacturers largest single-aisle passenger aircraft and was produced from 1981 to 2004. Intended to replace the smaller three-engine 727 on short and medium routes, the 757 was designed concurrently with a wide-body twinjet, the 767, and owing to shared features pilots can obtain a common type rating that allows them to operate both aircraft. The 757 was produced in two fuselage lengths, the original 757-200 entered service in 1983, the 757-200PF, a package freighter variant, and the 757-200M, a passenger-freighter combi model, debuted in the late 1980s. The stretched 757-300, the longest narrow-body twinjet ever produced, began service in 1999, passenger 757-200s have been modified to special freighter specification for cargo use, while military derivatives include the C-32 transport, VIP carriers, and other multi-purpose aircraft. Private and government operators have also customized the 757 for research, all 757s are powered by Rolls-Royce RB211 or Pratt & Whitney PW2000 series turbofans. Eastern Air Lines and British Airways placed the 757 in commercial service in 1983, the narrow-body twinjet succeeded earlier single-aisle airliners, and became commonly used for short and mid-range domestic routes, shuttle services, and transcontinental U. S. flights. After regulators granted approval for extended flights over water in 1986, major customers for the 757 included U. S. mainline carriers, European charter airlines, and cargo companies. The airliner has recorded eight hull-loss accidents, including seven fatal crashes, production of the 757 ended in October 2004, after 1,050 had been built for 54 customers. The 757-200 was by far the most popular model, with 913 built, diminished sales amid an airline industry trend toward smaller jetliners led Boeing to end production without a direct replacement, in favor of the 737 family. The last 757 was delivered to Shanghai Airlines in November 2005, in July 2015,738 of the narrow-body twinjets were in airline service, Delta Air Lines is the largest operator with 138 aircraft. In the early 1970s, following the launch of the wide-body 747, designed for short and medium length routes, the three-engined 727 was the best-selling commercial jetliner of the 1960s and a mainstay of the U. S. domestic airline market. Studies focused on improving the 189-seat 727-200, the most successful 727 variant, two approaches were considered, a stretched 727-300, and an all-new aircraft code-named 7N7. United Airlines provided input for the proposed 727-300, which Boeing was poised to launch in late 1975, although the 727-300 was offered to Braniff International Airways and other carriers, customer interest remained insufficient for further development. Instead, airlines were drawn to the high-bypass-ratio turbofan engines, new flight technologies, lower weight, improved aerodynamics. These features were included in a parallel development effort for a new mid-size wide-body airliner, code-named 7X7. Work on both proposals accelerated as a result of the airline industry upturn in the late 1970s, by 1978, development studies focused on two variants, a 7N7-100 with seating for 160, and a 7N7-200 with room for over 180 seats. New features included a wing, under-wing engines, and lighter materials, while the forward fuselage, cockpit layout
17.
Alitalia
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Alitalia – Società Aerea Italiana, operating as Alitalia, is the flag carrier of Italy. The company has its office in Fiumicino, Rome, Italy. Its main hub is Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino Airport, in Rome, other focus airports are Catania-Fontanarossa Airport, Milan-Malpensa Airport, Palermo Airport, Turin Airport and Venice Marco Polo Airport. On 30 September 2014, Alitalias budget subsidiary Air One ceased flight operations, in 2014, it was the eleventh-largest airline in Europe. The name Alitalia is an Italian portmanteau of the words ali, on 1 August 2014, the Abu Dhabi-based UAE national airline Etihad Airways confirmed it had agreed to buy a 49% stake in Alitalia. This deal was signed on 8 August 2014 and became effective on 1 January 2015, in 2008, a group of investors made the Compagnia Aerea Italiana consortium aimed to buy the bankrupt Alitalia – Linee Aeree Italiane and to merge these with Air One, another bankrupt Italian carrier. On 30 October 2008, CAI offered €1 billion to acquire parts of the airline, amidst pilots. On 19 November 2008, CAIs offer was accepted by the administrator of Alitalia with the permission of the Italian government. The rules of bankruptcy were changed in the middle of the game to meet the governments needs, berlusconi pulled this one off, but his involvement probably cost the Italian taxpayers a lot of money. On 13 January 2009, the new Alitalia launched operations, the owners of Compagnia Aerea Italiana sold 25% of the companys shares to Air France-KLM for €322 million. Air France-KLM also obtained an option, subject to certain conditions, the new Alitalia has not claimed the old Alitalias history as its own, as can be seen in official documents regarding the new Alitalia Group. Instead, they stressed they are a different company, as it can be seen in different occasions. For example, they not to recognize benefits such as discounted tickets to former Alitalia-LAI workers. They also refused to honour passengers claims against the old Alitalia on this basis, the new Alitalia doesnt own many of its operating airplanes. Almost every plane that CAI had acquired from the old Alitalia was sold or decommissioned, in January 2010, Alitalia celebrated its first anniversary since the relaunch. It carried 22 million passengers in its first year of operations, in 2011,25 million passengers were carried. On 1 February 2010, it was announced that Alitalia crew would go on a strike over wages. This was the first strike action for Alitalia since the relaunch and it was predicted that the subsidiary would handle 2.4 million passengers by 2012
18.
Assembly line
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Assembly lines are common methods of assembling complex items such as automobiles and other transportation equipment, household appliances and electronic goods. Assembly lines are designed for the organization of workers, tools or machines. The motion of workers is minimized to the extent possible, all parts or assemblies are handled either by conveyors or motorized vehicles such as fork lifts, or gravity, with no manual trucking. Heavy lifting is done by such as overhead cranes or fork lifts. Each worker typically performs one simple operation, use sliding assembling lines by which the parts to be assembled are delivered at convenient distances. Consider the assembly of a car, assume that certain steps in the line are to install the engine, install the hood. In traditional production, only one car would be assembled at a time, if engine installation takes 20 minutes, hood installation takes five minutes, and wheels installation takes 10 minutes, then a car can be produced every 35 minutes. In an assembly line, car assembly is split between several stations, all working simultaneously, when one station is finished with a car, it passes it on to the next. By having three stations, a total of three different cars can be operated on at the time, each one at a different stage of its assembly. After finishing its work on the first car, the installation crew can begin working on the second car. While the engine installation crew works on the car, the first car can be moved to the hood station and fitted with a hood, then to the wheels station. After the engine has been installed on the car, the second car moves to the hood assembly. At the same time, the car moves to the engine assembly. When the third car’s engine has been mounted, it then can be moved to the station, meanwhile. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufactured products were made individually by hand, a single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product. They would use their skills and tools such as files and knives to create the individual parts and they would then assemble them into the final product, making cut-and-try changes in the parts until they fit and could work together. Adam Smith discussed the division of labour in the manufacture of pins at length in his book The Wealth of Nations, the Venetian Arsenal, dating to about 1104, operated similar to a production line. Ships moved down a canal and were fitted by the various shops they passed, although the Venice Arsenal lasted until the early Industrial Revolution, production line methods did not become common even then
19.
Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport
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Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport is a private airport in the quarter of Finkenwerder, in the southwest part of Hamburg, Germany. It is part of the Hamburg plant of Airbus and is used by them for corporate, freight, test. Finkenwerder is fully able to handle the Airbus A380 and it should not be confused with Hamburg Fuhlsbüttel Airport, the citys international airport. The airfield was built about 10 years after World War II, in 1964 the third prototype of the Transall C-160 made its first flight from the airport. Beginning in April 2006, the runway was extended from 2,684 m to 3,183 m at the southern end, on 16 July 2007, the extended runway was handed over after completion of works to Airbus, around two months ahead of schedule. The airport is part of the Airbus facility in Hamburg, where around 15,000 people are employed, final assembly for all models of the A320 family takes place here, and both the A320 and A380 are fitted with their cabin interiors and painted for final delivery. In addition, final acceptance and delivery of A380s for customers in Europe, the Hamburg factory is also home to Airbus’ A380 major component assembly hall, which houses the structural assembly and the fitting-with equipment of the forward and complete rear fuselage sections. These sections are shipped to France on a specially built ferry. A large spares centre is maintained at Hamburg, and A320 Family maintenance training facilities can also be found on-site. Hamburg also plays a key role in the A330 and A350 XWB programmes, for which it manufactures and equips the forward, there are no public flights to and from the airport. Besides transfer, freight and test flights for Airbus there is a twice daily corporate shuttle service from here to Airbus plant in Toulouse, the airport handles around 10 to 15 aircraft movements per day
20.
Maiden flight
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The maiden flight of an aircraft is the first occasion on which an aircraft leaves the ground under its own power. This is similar to a maiden voyage. The first flight of a new type is always a historic occasion for the type. In the early days of aviation it could be dangerous, because the exact handling characteristics of the aircraft were generally unknown, the first flight of a new type is almost invariably flown by a highly experienced test pilot. First flights are usually accompanied by a plane, to verify items like altitude, airspeed. A first flight is one stage in the development of an aircraft type. Unless the type is a research aircraft, the aircraft must be tested extensively to ensure that it delivers the desired performance with an acceptable margin of safety. In the case of aircraft, a new type must be certified by a governing agency before it can enter operation. An incomplete list of first flights of aircraft types, organized by date. October 23,1906 – Alberto Santos-Dumont 14-bis flight, in Bagatelle park, Paris and he flew 5,080 feet, to win the Scientific American Trophy and its $2,500 purse. July 28,1935 – Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress – World War II American heavy bomber. December 17,1935 – Douglas DC-3 – propeller-driven passenger and cargo aircraft of more than 10,000 were produced December 29,1939 – Consolidated B-24 – World War II American heavy bomber. November 2,1947 – Hughes H-4 Hercules – only flight of this oversized flying boat, July 27,1949 – de Havilland Comet – first jet airliner. August 23,1954 – Lockheed C-130 Hercules – military transport plane, may 27,1955 – Sud Aviation Caravelle – first jet airliner with engines mounted in the tail. April 25,1962 – Lockheed A-12 Blackbird – supersonic reconnaissance plane, june 29,1962 – Vickers VC10 – first airliner with 4 engines mounted in the tail. April 9,1967 – Boeing 737 – short-to-medium-range airliner, october 4,1968 – Tupolev 154 – Soviet/Russian airliner, still in operation. December 31,1968 – Tupolev Tu-144 – Soviet supersonic airliner, february 9,1969 – Boeing 747 – first widebody airliner. March 2,1969 – Anglo-French Concorde – supersonic airliner, september 19,1969 – Mil Mi-24 – Russian/Soviet-made helicopter used by many countries to this day
21.
Prototype
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A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from. It is a used in a variety of contexts, including semantics, design, electronics. A prototype is used to evaluate a new design to enhance precision by system analysts. Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical one, in some design workflow models, creating a prototype is the step between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea. The word prototype derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον prototypon, primitive form, neutral of πρωτότυπος prototypos, original, primitive, from πρῶτος protos, first and τύπος typos, a Working Prototype represents all or nearly all of the functionality of the final product. A Visual Prototype represents the size and appearance, but not the functionality, a User Experience Prototype represents enough of the appearance and function of the product that it can be used for user research. A Functional Prototype captures both function and appearance of the design, though it may be created with different techniques. A Paper Prototype is a printed or hand-drawn representation of the interface of a software product. In some cases, the final production materials may still be undergoing development themselves, process - Mass-production processes are often unsuitable for making a small number of parts, so prototypes may be made using different fabrication processes than the final product. Differences in fabrication process may lead to differences in the appearance of the prototype as compared to the final product, verification - The final product may be subject to a number of quality assurance tests to verify conformance with drawings or specifications. These tests may involve custom inspection fixtures, statistical sampling methods, prototypes are generally made with much closer individual inspection and the assumption that some adjustment or rework will be part of the fabrication process. Prototypes may also be exempted from some requirements that apply to the final product. Engineers and prototype specialists will attempt to minimize the impact of these differences on the role for the prototype. Engineers and prototyping specialists seek to understand the limitations of prototypes to exactly simulate the characteristics of their intended design and it is important to realize that by their very definition, prototypes will represent some compromise from the final production design. Due to differences in materials, processes and design fidelity, it is possible that a prototype may fail to perform acceptably whereas the design may have been sound. In general, it can be expected that individual prototype costs will be greater than the final production costs due to inefficiencies in materials. Prototypes are also used to revise the design for the purposes of reducing costs through optimization and it is possible to use prototype testing to reduce the risk that a design may not perform as intended, however prototypes generally cannot eliminate all risk. As an alternative, rapid prototyping or rapid application development techniques are used for the prototypes, which implement part
22.
IAE V2500
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The IAE V2500 is a two-shaft high-bypass turbofan engine which powers the Airbus A320 family, the McDonnell Douglas MD-90, and the Embraer KC-390. International Aero Engines is a backed by four aero-engine manufacturers. FAA type certification for the V2500 was granted in 1988, Pratt & Whitney developed the combustor and the 2-stage air-cooled HP turbine, while the Japanese Aero Engine Corporation provided the LP compression system. MTU were responsible for the 5-stage LP turbine, the 4, 000th V2500 engine was delivered to the Brazilian flag carrier TAM and installed on the 4, 000th Airbus A320 family aircraft. First entered service with Adria Airways, a fourth booster stage was introduced into the engine basic configuration to increase core flow. This, together with a fan diameter/airflow increase, helped to increase the thrust to 33,000 lbf thrust, the vast majority of V2500s are A5. The maintenance, repair, and operations market for V2500 is close to US$3 billion as of 2015, the V2500SelectOne is a combination performance improvement package and aftermarket agreement. In February 2009, Pratt & Whitney upgraded the first V2500-A5 to the SelectOne Retrofit standard, on March 15,2011, IAE announced an upgrade option of V2500 SelectOne Engines to the SelectTwo Program. It offers 0. 58% reduced fuel consumption due to a software-upgrade and a turbine blade coating called ErCoat, Airbus A320ceo family Embraer KC-390 McDonnell Douglas MD-90 IAE engine facts Pratt & Whitney V2500 page MTU V2500 page
23.
Austrian Airlines
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Austrian Airlines AG, sometimes shortened to Austrian, is the flag carrier of Austria and a subsidiary of the Lufthansa Group. The airline is headquartered in the grounds of Vienna International Airport in Schwechat where it maintains its hub. It flies to 6 domestic and more than 120 international year-round, the airline was formed in 1957 by the merger of Air Austria and Austrian Airways, but traces its history back to 1923 at the founding of Austrian Airways. During the 2000s, the airline expanded through the acquisitions of Rheintalflug and Lauda Air, throughout the decade, Austrian sustained several years of losses, and in 2008 its owner, the Austrian Government was advised to sell the airline to a foreign company. In 2009, the Lufthansa Group purchased the airline after receiving approval from the European Commission following an investigation into the tendering process. Following disputes with staff over cost-cutting, all Austrian Airlines flights were transferred on 1 July 2012 to its subsidiary Tyrolean Airways, on 1 April 2015, all flights transferred back to Austrian, and Tyrolean Airways was merged into its parent. On 3 May 1923 Walter Barda-Bardenau received approval by the Austrian government for establishing an airline and he participated in the newly formed Austrian Airlines with one percent, with the remaining shares went to the Austrian railway transportation company and the Junkers-Werke. The initial fleet consisted of Junkers F 13s, the first flight of the company took place in Vienna on 14 May 1923 by Munich, with pilot Hans Baur. The landing took place in Vienna Jedlesee, there occurred a conversion to float, the company was operated by Junkers Trans European Union. Its destinations included Munich, Budapest, Nuremberg, Graz, Klagenfurt, some targets in Austria were served with seaplanes. The union was dissolved in September 1926, from 1927 the company procured new aircraft with support from the government. In the same year it began a partnership agreement with Deutsche Luft Hansa. Line connections were planned and operated jointly by the two companies, a route network to Berlin, Budapest and Milan ranged Vienna was created. In 1932 Luft Hansa Junkers held 49% interest, after the end of the world economic crisis the fleet with several Junkers Ju 52/3 m was added. In 1938, the company began planning of routes to Rome, Paris, Junkers Ju 90 planes were used. After the annexation of Austria by Germany in March 1938, these plans were abandoned, the airline was fully under the control of Lufthansa from 1 January 1939. In June 1939, the company was deleted from the commercial register, after the Second World War, Austria was separated from Germany, and Austria was left without a national airline. Austrian Airlines was formed as Österreichische Luftverkehrs AG through the merger of Air Austria and it began operations on 30 September 1957, making its maiden flight on 31 March 1958 when a leased Vickers Viscount 779 took off from Vienna for a scheduled service to Zurich and London
24.
Airbus A319
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The Airbus A319 is a member of the Airbus A320 family of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The A319 carries up to 160 passengers and has a range of 3,700 nmi. Final assembly of the takes place in Hamburg, Germany and Tianjin. The A319 is a variant of the Airbus A320 and entered service in April 1996 with Swissair. The aircraft shares a type rating with all other Airbus A320 family variants. As of 28 February 2017, a total of 1,457 Airbus A319 aircraft have been delivered, in addition, another 21 airliners are on firm order. As of 28 February 2017, EasyJet was the largest operator of the Airbus A319, in December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the A320neo. The similarly shortened fuselage A319neo variant offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements, the aircraft will deliver fuel savings of up to 15%. The first member of the A320 family was the A320 which was launched in March 1984, the family was extended to include the stretched A321, the shortened A319, and the further shortened A318. The A320 family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side stick controls, the A319 was developed at the request of Steven Udvar-Hazy, the former president and CEO of ILFC according to The New York Times. The A319 design is a shortened fuselage, minimum change derivative of the A320 with its origins in the 130- to 140-seat SA1, the SA1 was shelved as the consortium concentrated on its bigger siblings. After healthy sales of the A320/A321, Airbus re-focused on what was known as the A320M-7. It would provide competition for the 737–300/-700. The shrink was achieved through the removal of four frames fore. Consequently, the number of overwing exits was reduced from four to two, the bulk-cargo door was replaced by an aft container door, which can take in reduced height LD3-45 containers. Minor software changes were made to accommodate the different handling characteristics, power is provided by the CFM56-5A or V2500-A5, derated to 98 kN, with option for 105 kN thrust. With virtually the same capacity as the A320-200, and fewer passengers. The A319s wingspan is longer than the overall length
25.
Airbus A318
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The Airbus A318 is the smallest member of the Airbus A320 family of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The A318 carries up to 132 passengers and has a range of 3,100 nmi. Final assembly of the takes place in Hamburg, Germany. It is intended primarily for service, although British Airways uses them on their London City Airport to New York-JFK Airport transatlantic route. The aircraft shares a type rating with all other Airbus A320 family variants. It is the largest commercial aircraft certified by the European Aviation Safety Agency for steep approach operations, the A318 entered service in July 2003 with Frontier Airlines. Relative to other Airbus A320 family variants, it has sold in small numbers with total orders for only 80 aircraft placed. The first member of the A320 family was the A320 which was launched in March 1984, the family was soon extended to include the stretched A321, the shortened A319, and the further shortened A318. The A320 family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side stick controls, the A318 was born out of mid-1990s studies between Aviation Industries of China, Singapore Technologies Aerospace, Alenia and Airbus on a 95- to 125-seat aircraft project. The programme was called the AE31X, and covered the 95-seat AE316, the former was to have an overall length of 31.3 metres, while the AE317 would be longer by 3.2 metres, at 34.5 metres. The engines would be supplied from two BMW Rolls-Royce BR715s, CFM56-9s, or Pratt & Whitney PW6000s, with a maximum weight of 53.3 tonnes for the smaller version and 58 tonnes for the AE317. The thrust requirements were 77. 9–84.6 kilonewtons and 84. 6–91.2 kilonewtons, range was settled at 5,200 kilometres and 5,800 kilometres for the high gross weight versions of both variants. Both would share a wingspan of 31.0 metres and a deck similar to that of the A320 family. Costing $2 billion to develop, aircraft production was to place in China. The aircraft was first named A319M5 in as early as March 1995, the final proposal was for an aircraft seating 107 passengers in a two-class layout with a range of 3,350 kilometres. The aircrafts production took advantage of welding, eliminating the necessity for heavy rivets and bolts. Overall, the A318 is over six metres shorter and around 3 t lighter than the A320, to compensate for the reduced moment arm, it has a larger vertical stabiliser. Pilots who are trained on the other variants may fly the A318 with no further certification, since it features a flight deck
26.
Bond market
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The bond market is a financial market where participants can issue new debt, known as the primary market, or buy and sell debt securities, known as the secondary market. This is usually in the form of bonds, but it may include notes, bills and its primary goal is to provide long-term funding for public and private expenditures. The bond market has largely dominated by the United States. The bond market is part of the market, with bank loans forming the other main component. The global credit market in aggregate is about 3 times the size of the equity market. Bank loans are not securities under the Securities and Exchange Act, bonds are typically not secured by collateral, and are sold in relatively small denominations of around $1,000 to $10,000. Unlike bank loans, bonds may be held by retail investors, bonds are more frequently traded than loans, although not as often as equity. Nearly all of the daily trading in the U. S. bond market takes place between broker-dealers and large institutions in a decentralized over-the-counter market. However, a number of bonds, primarily corporate ones, are listed on exchanges. Bond trading prices and volumes are reported on FINRAs Trade Reporting and Compliance Engine, an important part of the bond market is the government bond market, because of its size and liquidity. Government bonds are used to compare other bonds to measure credit risk. The yield on government bonds in low risk countries such as the United States or Germany is thought to indicate a rate of default. The primary way to default is to not pay in full or not pay on time, the Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association classifies the broader bond market into five specific bond markets. In the United States, approximately 10% of the market is held by private individuals, amounts outstanding on the global bond market increased by 2% in the twelve months to March 2012 to nearly $100 trillion. Domestic bonds accounted for 70% of the total and international bonds for the remainder, the United States was the largest market with 33% of the total followed by Japan. As a proportion of global GDP, the market increased to over 140% in 2011 from 119% in 2008. The considerable growth means that in March 2012 it was larger than the global equity market which had a market capitalisation of around $53 trillion. Growth of the market since the start of the slowdown was largely a result of an increase in issuance by governments
27.
European Investment Bank
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The European Investment Bank is the European Unions nonprofit long-term lending institution established in 1958 under the Treaty of Rome. As a policy-driven bank whose shareholders are the states of the EU. It should not be confused with the European Central Bank, the EIB is a publicly owned international financial institution and its shareholders are the EU member states. Thus the member states set the broad policy goals and oversee the two independent decision-making bodies—the board of governors and the board of directors. It is the worlds largest international public lending institution, in 2009, Caisse des Dépots, Cassa Depositi e Prestiti, KfW and European Investment Bank founded the Long-Term Investors Club. The European Investment Bank was founded in Brussels in 1958 when the Treaty of Rome came into force and it relocated to Luxembourg, its current headquarters, in 1968. By 1999, it had more than 1,000 staff members, a figure that had doubled by 2012. The EIB Group was formed in 2000, comprising the EIB and the European Investment Fund, the EIB is the EIFs majority shareholder, with 62% of the shares. The total subscribed capital of the Bank was EUR232 billion in 2012, the capital of the EIB was virtually doubled between 2007 and 2009 in response to the crisis. The EU heads of government agreed to increase paid-in capital by EUR10 billion in June 2012, for the fiscal year 2011, EIB lent EUR61 billion in various loan products, bringing total outstanding loans to EUR395 billion, one-third higher than at the end of 2008. Nearly 90% of these were with EU member states with the remainder dispersed between around 150 partner countries, the bank uses its AAA credit rating and funds itself by raising equivalent amounts on the capital markets. As the Bank of the European Union, the EIBs mission is to make a difference to the future of Europe and its partners by supporting sound investments which further EU policy goals. In the wake of the 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine, the EIB is governed by the, Board of Governors – usually the Finance Ministers of the Member States. Their mandate is to authorise EIB activities outside the Union, form credit policy guidelines, Board of directors – twenty-eight members. There are eighteen alternates, meaning some of these positions are shared by groups of states. The board also co-opts a maximum of six experts, who participate in the Board meetings in an advisory capacity, the Board has sole power to take decisions in respect of loans, guarantees and borrowings. They are responsible only to the bank, the headquarters is situated at 100 Boulevard Konrad Adenauer in Kirchberg, Luxembourg. The buildings first phase, now the West building, was designed by British architect Sir Denys Lasdun and is one of his few works outside the UK, an extension, the East building, was designed by Ingenhoven Architects, Düsseldorf
28.
Landing gear
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Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and may be used for either takeoff or landing. For aircraft it is generally both, for aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it is not flying, allowing it to take off, land, and taxi without damage. Faster aircraft usually have retractable undercarriages, which folds away during flight to reduce air resistance or drag, for launch vehicles and spacecraft landers, the landing gear is typically designed to support the vehicle only post-flight, and are typically not used for takeoff or surface movement. Aircraft landing gear usually includes wheels equipped with shock absorbers, or more advanced air/oil oleo struts, for runway. Some aircraft are equipped with skis for snow or floats for water, the undercarriage is a relatively heavy part of the vehicle, it can be as much as 7% of the takeoff weight, but more typically is 4–5%. The taildragger arrangement was common during the early era, as it allows more room for propeller clearance. Most modern aircraft have tricycle undercarriages, taildraggers are considered harder to land and take off, and usually require special pilot training. Sometimes a small wheel or skid is added to aircraft with tricycle undercarriage. Concorde, for instance, had a tail bumper wheel. Both Boeinga largest WW II bomber, the B-29 Superfortress and the 1960s-introduction Boeing 727 trijet airliner each have a tail bumper. Some aircraft with conventional landing gear have a fixed tailwheel. Another arrangement sometimes used is central main and nose gear with outriggers on the wings and this may be done where there is no convenient location on either side to attach the main undercarriage or to store it when retracted. Examples include the Lockheed U-2 spy plane and the Harrier Jump Jet, to decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract into the wings and/or fuselage with wheels flush against the surface or concealed behind doors, this is called retractable gear. If the wheels rest protruding and partially exposed to the airstream after being retracted, most retraction systems are hydraulically operated, though some are electrically operated or even manually operated. This adds weight and complexity to the design, in retractable gear systems, the compartment where the wheels are stowed are called wheel wells, which may also diminish valuable cargo or fuel space. Pilots confirming that their landing gear is down and locked refer to three green or three in the green, a reference to the electrical indicator lights from the nosewheel/tailwheel and the two main gears. Red lights indicate the gear is in the position, amber lights indicate that the landing gear is in transit. Multiple redundancies are usually provided to prevent a failure from failing the entire landing gear extension process
29.
Cantilever
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A cantilever is a rigid structural element, such as a beam or a plate, anchored at only one end to a support from which it is protruding. Cantilevers can also be constructed with trusses or slabs, when subjected to a structural load, the cantilever carries the load to the support where it is forced against by a moment and shear stress. Cantilevers are widely found in construction, notably in cantilever bridges and balconies, in cantilever bridges the cantilevers are usually built as pairs, with each cantilever used to support one end of a central section. The Forth Bridge in Scotland is an example of a truss bridge. A cantilever in a timber framed building is called a jetty or forebay. In the southern United States a historic barn type is the barn of log construction. Temporary cantilevers are used in construction. The partially constructed structure creates a cantilever, but the structure does not act as a cantilever. This is very helpful when temporary supports, or falsework, cannot be used to support the structure while it is being built. So some truss arch bridges are built each side as cantilevers until the spans reach each other and are then jacked apart to stress them in compression before final joining. Nearly all cable-stayed bridges are built using cantilevers as this is one of their chief advantages, many box girder bridges are built segmentally, or in short pieces. This type of construction lends itself well to balanced cantilever construction where the bridge is built in both directions from a single support and these structures are highly based on torque and rotational equilibrium. In an architectural application, Frank Lloyd Wrights Fallingwater used cantilevers to project large balconies, the East Stand at Elland Road Stadium in Leeds was, when completed, the largest cantilever stand in the world holding 17,000 spectators. The roof built over the stands at Old Trafford Football Ground uses a cantilever so that no supports will block views of the field, the old, now demolished Miami Stadium had a similar roof over the spectator area. The largest cantilever in Europe is located at St James Park in Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, less obvious examples of cantilevers are free-standing radio towers without guy-wires, and chimneys, which resist being blown over by the wind through cantilever action at their base. Another use of the cantilever is in fixed-wing aircraft design, pioneered by Hugo Junkers in 1915, early aircraft wings typically bore their loads by using two wings in a biplane configuration braced with wires and struts. They were similar to bridges, having been developed by Octave Chanute. The wings were braced with crossed wires so they would stay parallel, the cables and struts generated considerable drag, and there was constant experimentation for ways to eliminate them
30.
Monoplane
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A monoplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with a single main wing plane, in contrast to a biplane or other multiplane, each of which has multiple planes. A monoplane has inherently the highest efficiency and lowest drag of any wing configuration and is the simplest to build, however, during the early years of flight, these advantages were offset by its greater weight and lower manoeuvrability, making it relatively rare until the 1930s. Since then, the monoplane has been the most common form for a fixed-wing aircraft, although the first successful aircraft were biplanes, the first attempts at heavier-than-air flying machines were monoplanes, and many pioneers continued to develop monoplane designs. For example, the first aeroplane to be put into production was the 1907 Santos-Dumont Demoiselle, while the Blériot XI flew across the English Channel in 1909, throughout 1909–1910, Hubert Latham set multiple altitude records in his Antoinette IV monoplane, eventually reaching 1,384 m. The equivalent German language term is Eindecker, as in the mid-wing Fokker Eindecker fighter of 1915 which for a time dominated the skies in what known as the Fokker scourge. The German military Idflieg aircraft designation system prior to 1918 prefixed monoplane type designations with an E, however, the success of the Fokker was short-lived, and World War I was dominated by biplanes. Towards the end of the war, the parasol monoplane became popular, nonetheless, relatively few monoplane types were built between 1914 and the late 1920s, compared with the number of biplanes. The reasons for this were primarily practical, towards the end of the First World War, the inherent high drag of the biplane was beginning to restrict performance. Engines were not yet enough to make the heavy cantilever-wing monoplane viable. It remained popular throughout the 1920s, on flying boats with a shallow hull, a parasol wing allows the engines to be mounted above the spray from the water when taking off and landing. It was popular on flying boats during the 1930s, an example being the Consolidated PBY Catalina. It died out when taller hulls became the norm during World War II, most military aircraft of WW II were monoplanes, as have been virtually all aircraft since. Jet and rocket engines have more power, and all modern high-speed aircraft. The inherent efficiency of the monoplane can best be realised in the cantilever wing which carries all structural forces internally. By contrast, a wing has additional drag from the exposed bracing struts and/or wires. On the other hand, the wing has greater structural efficiency. This in turn means that for a wing of a size, bracing allows it to fly slower with a lower-powered engine, while a heavy cantilever wing needs a more powerful engine. A cantilever wing can be lighter by making it thicker
31.
Empennage
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The empennage, also known as the tail or tail assembly, provides stability for aircraft, in a way similar to the feathers on an arrow. The term derives from the French language word empenner which means to feather an arrow, most aircraft feature an empennage incorporating vertical and horizontal stabilising surfaces which stabilise the flight dynamics of yaw and pitch, as well as housing control surfaces. In spite of effective control surfaces, many aircraft that lacked a stabilising empennage were virtually unflyable. Even so-called tailless aircraft usually have a tail fin, heavier-than-air aircraft without any kind of empennage are rare. Structurally, the empennage consists of the tail assembly, including the tailfin, the tailplane. On an airliner this would be all the flying and control surfaces behind the pressure bulkhead. The front section of the tailplane is called the tailplane or horizontal stabiliser and is used to pitch stability. The rear section is called the elevator, and is hinged to the horizontal stabiliser. The elevator is a movable aerofoil that controls changes in pitch, some aircraft employ an all-moving stabiliser and elevators in one unit, known as a stabilator or full-flying stabiliser. The vertical tail structure has a front section called the vertical stabiliser. The rear section of the fin is the rudder, a movable aerofoil that is used to turn the aircrafts nose to one side or the other. When used in combination with the ailerons, the result is a banking turn, some aircraft are fitted with a tail assembly that is hinged to pivot in two axes forward of the fin and stabiliser, in an arrangement referred to as a movable tail. The entire empennage is rotated vertically to actuate the horizontal stabiliser, in some aircraft trim devices are provided to eliminate the need for the pilot to maintain constant pressure on the elevator or rudder controls. The trim device may be, a tab on the rear of the elevators or rudder which act to change the aerodynamic load on the surface. Usually controlled by a wheel or crank. an adjustable stabiliser into which the stabiliser may be hinged at its spar. Usually controlled by a cockpit crank, a bungee trim system which uses a spring to provide an adjustable preload in the controls. Usually controlled by a cockpit lever, an anti-servo tab used to trim some elevators and stabilators as well as increased control force feel. Usually controlled by a wheel or crank
32.
Vertical stabilizer
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It is analogous to a skeg on boats and ships. On aircraft, vertical stabilizers generally point upwards and these are also known as the vertical tail, and are part of an aircrafts empennage. If the vertical stabilizer was mounted on the underside, it would produce a positive feedback whenever the aircraft dove or banked, the trailing end of the stabilizer is typically movable, and called the rudder, this allows the aircraft pilot to control yaw. Often navigational radio or airband transceiver antennas are placed on or inside the vertical tail, in all known trijets, the vertical stabilizer houses the central engine or engine inlet duct. Vertical stabilizers, or fins, have also used in automobiles, specifically in top level motor sports. A few aircraft models have a fin under the rear end. Normally this is small, or can fold sideways, to allow landing, the vertical stabilizer is mounted exactly vertically, and the horizontal stabilizer is directly mounted to the empennage. This is the most common vertical stabilizer configuration, a T-tail has the horizontal stabilizer mounted at the top of the vertical stabilizer. It is commonly seen on aircraft, such as the Bombardier CRJ200, the Fokker 70, the Boeing 727, the Vickers VC10 and Douglas DC-9. T-tails are often incorporated on configurations with fuselage mounted engines to keep the horizontal stabilizer away from the engine exhaust plume, T-tail aircraft are more susceptible to pitch-up at high angles of attack. This pitch-up results from a reduction in the horizontal stabilizers lifting capability as it passes through the wake of the wing at moderate angles of attack and this can also result in a deep stall condition. T-tails present structural challenges since loads on the stabilizer must be transmitted through the vertical tail. The cruciform tail is arranged like a cross, the most common configuration having the horizontal stabilizer intersecting the vertical tail somewhere near the middle, the PBY Catalina uses this configuration. Falconjets from Dassault always have cruciform tail, rather than a single vertical stabilizer, a twin tail has two. These are vertically arranged, and intersect or are mounted to the ends of the horizontal stabilizer, the Beechcraft Model 18 and many modern military aircraft such as the American F-14, F-15, and F/A-18 use this configuration. A variation on the tail, it has three vertical stabilizers. An example of configuration is the Lockheed Constellation. On the Constellation it was done to give the maximum vertical stabilizer area while keeping the overall height low enough so that it could fit into maintenance hangars
33.
Rudder
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A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other conveyance that moves through a fluid medium. On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw, a rudder operates by redirecting the fluid past the hull or fuselage, thus imparting a turning or yawing motion to the craft. In basic form, a rudder is a plane or sheet of material attached with hinges to the crafts stern, tail. Often rudders are shaped so as to minimize hydrodynamic or aerodynamic drag, on simple watercraft, a tiller—essentially, a stick or pole acting as a lever arm—may be attached to the top of the rudder to allow it to be turned by a helmsman. In larger vessels, cables, pushrods, or hydraulics may be used to link rudders to steering wheels, in typical aircraft, the rudder is operated by pedals via mechanical linkages or hydraulics. Generally, a rudder is part of the apparatus of a boat or ship that is fastened outside the hull, that is denoting all different types of oars, paddles. More specifically, the gear of ancient vessels can be classified into side-rudders and stern-mounted rudders. A third term, steering oar, can denote both types, in a Mediterranean context, side-rudders are more specifically called quarter-rudders as the later term designates more exactly the place where the rudder was mounted. Stern-mounted rudders are uniformly suspended at the back of the ship in a central position. S, a steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the oar was required to steer a straight course. The steering oar or steering board is an oar or board to control the direction of a ship or other watercraft prior to the invention of the rudder. It is normally attached to the side in larger vessels, though in smaller ones it is rarely, if ever. Rowing oars set aside for steering appeared on large Egyptian vessels long before the time of Menes, in the Old Kingdom as much as five steering oars are found on each side of passenger boats. The tiller, at first a small pin run through the stock of the steering oar, both the tiller and the introduction of an upright steering post abaft reduced the usual number of necessary steering oars to one each side. In Iran, oars mounted on the side of ships for steering are documented from the 3rd millennium BCE in artwork, wooden models, the strength of the steering oar lay in its combination of effectiveness, adaptability and simpleness. Roman quarter steering oar mounting systems survived mostly intact through the medieval period, by the first half of the 1st century AD, steering gear mounted on the stern were also quite common in Roman river and harbour craft as proved from reliefs and archaeological finds. A tomb plaque of Hadrianic age shows a harbour tug boat in Ostia with a long stern-mounted oar for better leverage, interestingly, the boat already featured a spritsail, adding to the mobility of the harbour vessel. Further attested Roman uses of stern-mounted steering oars includes barges under tow, transport ships for wine casks, also, the well-known Zwammerdam find, a large river barge at the mouth of the Rhine, featured a large steering gear mounted on the stern
34.
Flap (aeronautics)
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Flaps are a type of high-lift device used to increase the lift of an aircraft wing at a given airspeed. Flaps are usually mounted on the trailing edges of a fixed-wing aircraft. Flaps are used to lower the speed at which the aircraft can be safely flown. Flaps also cause an increase in drag, so they are retracted when not needed, extending the wing flaps increases the camber or curvature of the wing, raising the maximum lift coefficient or the upper limit to the lift a wing can generate. The increase in camber also increases the drag, which can be beneficial during approach and landing. In other configurations, however, depending on the type of flap, plain flaps, slotted flaps, and Fowler flaps are the most common. Krueger flaps are positioned on the edge of the wings and are used on many jet airliners. The Fowler, Fairey-Youngman and Gouge types of flap increase the area in addition to changing the camber. The larger lifting surface reduces wing loading, hence reducing the stalling speed. Leading-edge flaps form the leading edge and when deployed they rotate down to increase the wing camber. The de Havilland DH.88 Comet racer had flaps running across beneath the fuselage, many of the Waco Custom Cabin series biplanes have the flaps at mid-chord on the underside of the top wing. Here, it can be seen that increasing the area and lift coefficient allow an amount of lift to be generated at a lower airspeed. Extending the flaps also increases the coefficient of the aircraft. Therefore, for any given weight and airspeed, flaps increase the drag force, flaps increase the drag coefficient of an aircraft due to higher induced drag caused by the distorted spanwise lift distribution on the wing with flaps extended. Some flaps increase the area and, for any given speed. Depending on the type, flaps may be partially extended for takeoff. When used during takeoff, flaps trade runway distance for climb rate—using flaps reduces ground roll, the amount of flap used on takeoff is specific to each type of aircraft, and the manufacturer will suggest limits and may indicate the reduction in climb rate to be expected. The Cessna 172S Pilot Operating Handbook generally recommends 10° of flaps on takeoff, flaps may be fully extended for landing to give the aircraft a lower stall speed so the approach to landing can be flown more slowly, which also allows the aircraft to land in a shorter distance
35.
Maximum takeoff weight
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The analogous term for rockets is gross lift-off mass, or GLOW. MTOW is usually specified in units of kilograms or pounds, MTOW is the heaviest weight at which the aircraft has been shown to meet all the airworthiness requirements applicable to it. MTOW of an aircraft is fixed, and does not vary with altitude or air temperature or the length of the runway to be used for takeoff or landing. A different weight the maximum takeoff weight, or regulated takeoff weight, varies according to flap setting, altitude, air temperature, length of runway. It is different from one takeoff to the next, but can never be higher than the MTOW, certification standards applicable to the airworthiness of an aircraft contain many requirements. Performance requirements – to ensure the aircraft is capable of climbing at a gradient with all its engines operating. At the MTOW, all aircraft of a type and model must be capable of complying with all these certification requirements, with several of the manufacturers of large aircraft, the same model of aircraft can have more than one MTOW. An operator can choose to have the aircraft certified for a weight, often for a reduced cost with an option to later increase the MTOW for a fee. Some airlines which do not require a high MTOW choose to have a lower MTOW for that aircraft to reduce costs. In other examples an increased MTOW option is achieved by reinforcement due to additional or stronger materials, for example, the Airbus A330242 tonnes MTOW variant / A330neo uses Scandium–aluminium to avoid an empty weight increase. Smaller aircraft like the Cessna 208 Caravan may have an option for a reinforced undercarriage to permit an increase in MTOW, in many circumstances an aircraft may not be permitted to take off at its MTOW. In these circumstances the maximum permitted for takeoff will be determined taking account of the following, Wing flap setting. See the Spanair Flight 5022 crash Airfield altitude – This affects air pressure which affects maximum engine power or thrust, air temperature – This affects air density which affects maximum engine power or thrust. Length of runway – A short runway means the aircraft has less distance to accelerate to takeoff speed, the length for computation of maximum permitted takeoff weight may be adjusted if the runway has clearways and/or stopways. Runway wind component – The best condition is a strong headwind straight along the runway, the worst condition is a tailwind. If there is a crosswind it is the component along the runway which must be taken into account. Condition of runway – The best runway for taking off is a dry, an unpaved runway or one with traces of snow will provide more rolling friction which will cause the airplane to accelerate more slowly. See the Munich air disaster Obstacles – An airplane must be able to take off and gain height to clear all obstacles
36.
CFM International
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CFM International is a joint venture between GE Aviation, a division of General Electric of the United States and Safran Aircraft Engines, a division of Safran of France. The joint venture was formed to build and support the CFM56 series of turbofan engine, the names of CFM International and the CFM56 product line are derived from the two parent companies’ commercial engine designations, GEs CF6 and Snecmas M56. There were 13,700 engines in backlog,30,700 engines have been delivered to more than 570 operators. In 2016 CFM delivered 1,665 CFM56 and 77 LEAP, CFM will produce more than 2,000 LEAP engines per year by 2020. LEAP backlog is at more than 12,200 for more than $170 billion U. S. at list price, CFM International CFM56 CFM International LEAP, which entered into service in 2016. World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines, 5th Edition, phoenix Mill, Gloucestershire, England, UK, Sutton Publishing Limited
37.
CFM International CFM56
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The CFM International CFM56 series is a family of high-bypass turbofan aircraft engines made by CFM International, with a thrust range of 18,500 to 34,000 pounds-force. CFMI is a 50–50 joint-owned company of Safran Aircraft Engines, France, both companies are responsible for producing components and each has its own final assembly line. The engines are assembled by GE in Evendale, Ohio, and by SNECMA in Villaroche, the completed engines are marketed by CFMI. Despite initial export restrictions, it is one of the most common turbofan aircraft engines in the world, the CFM56 first ran in 1974. In April 1979, the joint venture had not received an order in five years and was two weeks away from being dissolved. S. Air Force – still its biggest customer, the first engines entered service in 1982. Both these issues were resolved with engine modifications, research into the next generation of commercial jet engines, high-bypass ratio turbofans in the 10-ton thrust class, began in the late 1960s. The two companies saw mutual benefit in the collaboration and met several times, fleshing out the basics of the joint project. At the time, Pratt & Whitney dominated the commercial market, GE needed an engine in this market class, and SNECMA had previous experience of working with them, collaborating on the production of the CF6-50 turbofan for the Airbus A300. GE was initially considering only contributing technology from its CF6 engine rather than its more advanced F101 engine. GE applied for the license in 1972 as their primary contribution to the 10-ton engine project. The official decision was made in a National Security Decision Memorandum signed by the National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger on 19 September 1972, while national security concerns were cited as the grounds for rejection, politics played an important role as well. Nixon administration officials feared that this project could be the beginning of the end of American aerospace leadership, in the end, the Swiss did not purchase either aircraft, opting for the Northrop F-5E Tiger II instead. Despite the export license being rejected, both the French and GE continued to push the Nixon Administration for permission to export the F101 technology. Efforts continued throughout the following the rejection, culminating in the engine becoming an agenda topic during the 1973 meeting of Presidents Nixon. Discussions at this meeting resulted in an agreement that allowed the development of the CFM56 to proceed, the joint venture also agreed to pay the U. S. an $80 million royalty fee as repayment for the development money provided by the government for the F101 engine core. Documents declassified in 2007 revealed that a key aspect of the CFM56 export agreement was that the French government agreed not to seek tariffs against American aircraft being imported into Europe, the venture was officially founded in 1974. The two primary roles for CFMI were to manage the program between GE and SNECMA, and to market, sell and service the engine at a point of contact for the customer
38.
International Aero Engines
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IAE International Aero Engines AG is a Zürich-registered joint venture manufacturing company founded in 1983 to develop an aircraft engine to address the 150-seat single aisle aircraft market. FiatAvio withdrew as a shareholder of the early on. The V product nomenclature remains as a legacy of the five original shareholders, in October 2011, Rolls-Royce agreed to sell its 32. 5% stake in the company to Pratt & Whitneys parent company, United Technologies, giving UTC a combined equity ownership share of 49. 5%. The transaction was completed on 29 June 2012, Rolls-Royce remains a major supplier to IAE, and they and Pratt & Whitney proposed a new joint venture to develop engines for future generation mid-size aircraft. IAE had developed the abortive SuperFan for the Airbus A340, iAEs current purpose is the development, production and aftermarket services of the V2500 aero engine family, which powers the Airbus A320 family and McDonnell Douglas MD-90 aircraft. IAE also supplies the V2500-E5 to power the Embraer KC-390 military transport aircraft, the IAE V2500 turbofan is one of the most successful high bypass ratio engines in the world. Its direct competitor is the CFM International CFM56, IAE Rolls Royce plc Pratt & Whitney MTU Aero Engines
39.
Monarch Airlines
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The airlines headquarters are at Luton, with other bases at Birmingham, Leeds/Bradford, Gatwick and Manchester. Monarch is one of the oldest UK airlines to have not changed its original name, Monarch Airlines carried 5.7 million passengers during 2015, a 19% decrease compared with 2014. In June 2010, the airline was ranked 58th in the Sunday Times Top Track 100 listing the biggest privately held British companies in terms of their sales. The company holds a United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority Type A Operating Licence, permitting it to passengers, cargo. Monarch Airlines was formed on 5 June 1967 with financial backing from the Swiss Mantegazza family, at the time of Monarchs inception, the Mantegazza family were the owners of UK-based tour operator Cosmos Tours. Monarch began commercial operations on 5 April 1968 with a charter flight from Luton to Madrid using a former Caledonian Airways Bristol 175 Britannia 300 turboprop. The airlines initial fleet comprised two Bristol Britannias, the airline acquired additional Britannias from the administrators of British Eagle in 1969, its second year of operation. This was the first time the company carried 250,000 passengers within a 12-month period utilising a fleet of six Britannias, Monarch entered the jet age in 1971 when three Boeing 720Bs joined its fleet. The airlines first commercial jet service took to the air on 13 December 1971, the introduction of the companys first jet aircraft type also coincided with the adoption of a revised livery. In 1972, the airline carried 500,000 passengers in one year for the first time, by 1976, Monarch had transitioned to an all-jet fleet following the sale of the airlines last Britannia to Greek cargo charter airline Afrek on 21 May of that year. Two years earlier the airline had retired its last passenger-configured Britannia, at the end of 1980, Monarch Airlines took delivery of its first new jet aircraft, a pair of Boeing 737-200 Advanced, which had been acquired on an operating lease from Bavaria Leasing. One of the newly delivered 737s was stationed at Tegel Airport in then West Berlin at the beginning of the 1981 summer season, Monarch had taken over Flug-Union Berlins charter programme from Laker Airways. The addition of the 737s expanded Monarchs fleet to 11 jet aircraft, comprising one Boeing 707-320C, five Boeing 720Bs, in 1981, new stations were opened at Gatwick, Glasgow, Manchester and Berlin Tegel. This was the first time Monarch Airlines carried a million passengers in a single year,1981 was also the year Monarch became the first charter airline to order the Boeing 757-200, a high-capacity, medium-haul single-aisle plane powered by Rolls-Royce RB211-535C engines. Monarchs 757 order represented a step change for a small airline. Its first 757 was delivered and entered service in the spring of 1983 and this coincided with the introduction of an updated livery, the third in the airlines history. In spring 1985, the CAA awarded Monarch Airlines licences to begin scheduled services to Málaga, Minorca and this enabled the airline to launch its first-ever scheduled service from Luton to Minorca on 5 July 1986, under the brand name Monarch crown service. In 1986 Monarchs acquired their first Boeing 737-300 aircraft, from November 1988, four of Monarchs 737-300s were leased out to Euroberlin France, a Berlin Tegel-based Franco-German joint venture airline that was 51% owned by Air France and 49% by Lufthansa
40.
Boeing 737
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The Boeing 737 is an American short- to medium-range twinjet narrow-body airliner. The 737 is Boeings only narrow-body airliner in production, with the 737 Next Generation variants currently being built, production has also begun on the re-engined and redesigned 737 MAX, which is set to enter service in 2017. Originally envisioned in 1964, the initial 737-100 made its first flight in April 1967, Next, the lengthened 737-200 entered service in April 1968. In the 1980s Boeing launched the -300, -400, and -500 models, the 737 Classics added capacity and incorporated CFM56 turbofan engines along with wing improvements. In the 1990s, Boeing introduced the 737 Next Generation, with changes including a redesigned, increased span laminar flow wing, upgraded glass cockpit. The 737 Next Generation comprises the four -600, -700, -800, Boeing Business Jet versions of the 737 Next Generation are also produced. The 737 series is the best-selling jet commercial airliner in history, the 737 has been continuously manufactured by Boeing since 1967 with 9,401 aircraft delivered and 4,423 orders yet to be fulfilled as of February 2017. Assembly of the 737 is performed at the Boeing Renton Factory in Renton, Washington, many 737s serve markets previously filled by 707,727,757, DC-9, and MD-80/MD-90 airliners, and the aircraft currently competes primarily with the Airbus A320 family. As of 2006, there were an average of 1,250 Boeing 737s airborne at any given time, Boeing had been studying short-haul jet aircraft designs and wanted to produce another aircraft to supplement the 727 on short and thin routes. Preliminary design work began on May 11,1964, and Boeings intense market research yielded plans for a 50- to 60-passenger airliner for routes 50 to 1,000 mi long, consultation with Lufthansa over the previous winter resulted in an increase in capacity to 100 seats. On April 5,1965, Boeing announced an order by United Airlines for 40 737s, United wanted a slightly larger airplane than the original 737. So Boeing stretched the fuselage 91 centimeters ahead of, and 102 cm behind the wing, the longer version was designated 737-200, with the original short-body aircraft becoming the 737-100. Detailed design work continued on both variants at the same time, Boeing was far behind its competitors when the 737 was launched, as rival aircraft BAC-111, Douglas DC-9, and Fokker F28 were already into flight certification. To expedite development, Boeing used 60% of the structure and systems of the existing 727 and this fuselage permitted six-abreast seating compared to the rival BAC-111 and DC-9s five-abreast layout. Design engineers decided to mount the nacelles directly to the underside of the wings to reduce the landing gear length and kept the low to the ground for easy ramp inspection. Originally, the arrangement of the airfoil sections of the 737 wing was planned to be very similar to that of the 707 and 727. However, an improvement in drag at high Mach numbers was achieved by altering these sections near the nacelle. The engine chosen was the Pratt & Whitney JT8D-1 low-bypass ratio turbofan engine, with the wing-mounted engines, Boeing decided to mount the horizontal stabilizer on the fuselage rather than the T-tail style of the Boeing 727
41.
Virgin America
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Virgin America Inc. is an American airline that was founded in 2004 and began operations in 2007. The airlines mission statement entails providing low-fare, high-quality service for service between major cities on the Eastern and West Coast seaboards. Virgin Americas frequent flyer program Elevate provides award flights and other benefits to frequent fliers, Alaska Air Group acquired Virgin America in 2016, at a valuation of $2.6 billion, with additional expenses bringing the cost to approximately $4 billion. With the transaction, Virgin America became a carrier to the other Alaska Air Group subsidiaries Alaska Airlines. Alaska Air Group is set to merge Virgin America with Alaska Airlines, in early 2004, Virgin Group announced its intention to found a United States-based, low-fare airline called Virgin USA. At the time, Virgin USA expected flights to begin by mid-2005, after considering several key areas, the San Francisco Bay Area was chosen as the location of its flight operations center and later as its corporate headquarters. Virgin America secured U. S. investors Black Canyon Capital, once the new owners were on board, Virgin’s General Counsel submitted the required U. S. Department of Transportation certificate application on December 9,2005. Unfortunately, despite significant public support for the new California-based airline, the application was initially denied by the Department of Transportation on December 27,2006. Additionally, Virgin America was open to removing Richard Branson from the board of directors. Virgin America was tentatively cleared to fly by the U. S, the airline protested the stipulation concerning Reids removal to the federal regulators, arguing that the other stipulations ensured that the business would not be ruled by foreign interests. The Department of Transportations final agreement was to allow Reid to remain involved with Virgin America until February 2008, Virgin America began selling tickets in July 2007. On August 8,2007 the airline made its inaugural New York and Los Angeles to San Francisco flights - the aircraft were named Air Colbert, after comedian Stephen Colbert, in December 2007, C. David Cush replaced Reid as CEO of the airline. From the beginning of operations, Virgin America reported losses, beginning with $270 million in its first month, until the quarter of 2010. On May 21,2009, Virgin America became the first U. S. airline to offer Wi-Fi access via Gogo Inflight Internet on every flight, between November 10,2009, and January 15,2010, the airline offered free WiFi with a subsidy from Google. On December 17,2014, Virgin America announced that it would be offering faster fleet-wide ATG-4 inflight WiFi service from Gogo, in March 2010, Virgin America announced its intention to start flying to Toronto from Los Angeles and San Francisco, making it the airlines first international destination. Following the Department of Transportations approval of Virgin Americas proposal to fly to Canada, however, due to high operating costs and higher demand for Dallas/Fort-Worth, Virgin America terminated Toronto service on April 6,2011. As a result, Virgin America transported almost 31,000 passengers through Dallas Love Field in the first month, in April 2011, Virgin Americas hub at San Francisco International Airport relocated to the newly remodeled Terminal 2, sharing the gates with American Airlines. In late October 2011, the migrated to Sabres global distribution system that handles reservations, frequent-flier accounts, flight operations data
42.
Airliner
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An airliner is a type of aircraft for transporting passengers and air cargo. Such aircraft are most often operated by airlines, although the definition of an airliner can vary from country to country, an airliner is typically defined as an aircraft intended for carrying multiple passengers or cargo in commercial service. The largest airliners are wide-body jets and these aircraft are frequently called twin-aisle aircraft because they generally have two separate aisles running from the front to the back of the passenger cabin. These aircraft are used for long-haul flights between airline hubs and major cities with many passengers. A smaller, more class of airliners is the narrow-body or single aisle aircraft. These smaller airliners are used for short to medium-distance flights with fewer passengers than their wide-body counterparts. Regional airliners typically seat fewer than 100 passengers and may be powered by turbofans or turboprops and these airliners are the non-mainline counterparts to the larger aircraft operated by the major carriers, legacy carriers, and flag carriers and are used to feed traffic into the large airline hubs. These regional routes then form the spokes of an air transport model. The Beechcraft 1900, for example, has only 19 seats, when the Wright brothers made the world’s first sustained heavier-than-air flight, they laid the foundation for what would become a major transport industry. Their flight in 1903 was just 11 years before what is defined as the world’s first airliner. These airliners would have a significant impact on society, economics. If an airliner is defined as an aircraft intended for carrying passengers in commercial service. The Ilya Muromets was an aircraft with a separate passenger saloon, wicker chairs, bedroom, lounge. The aircraft also had heating and electrical lighting, the Ilya Muromets first flew on December 10,1913. On February 25,1914, it took off for its first demonstration flight with 16 passengers aboard, from June 21 – June 23, it made a round-trip from Saint Petersburg to Kiev in 14 hours and 38 minutes with one intermediate landing. However, it was never used as a commercial airliner due to the onset of World War I, in 1915 the very first airliner was used by Elliot Air Service. The aircraft was a Curtiss JN4, a biplane which was used mainly in World War I as a trainer. Later, it was used as a tour and familiarization flight aircraft in the early 1920s
43.
Aircraft cabin
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An aircraft cabin is the section of an aircraft in which passengers travel. In commercial air travel, particularly in airliners, cabins may be divided into several parts and these can include travel class sections in medium and large aircraft, areas for flight attendants, the galley and storage for in-flight service. Seats are mostly arranged in rows and alleys, the higher the travel class, the more space is provided. Cabins of the different travel classes are divided by curtains, sometimes called class dividers. Passengers are not usually allowed to visit higher travel class cabins in commercial flights, some aircraft cabins contain passenger entertainment systems. Cabin pressurization is the pumping of compressed air into the cabin of an aircraft in order to ensure the safety. It becomes necessary when the aircraft reaches an altitude, because the natural atmospheric pressure would be too low to supply sufficient oxygen to the passengers. Without pressurization, one could suffer from altitude sickness including hypoxia, if a pressurized aircraft suffers a pressurization failure above 10,000 feet, then it could be deemed as an emergency. Should this situation occur, the aircraft should begin an emergency descent, in the majority of passenger aircraft, the passengers oxygen masks are activated automatically if the cabin pressure falls below the atmospheric pressure equivalent of 14,000 feet. The first class section of an airplane is the class with the best service, the services offered are superior to those in business class, and are available on only a small number of long flights. It is characterized by having a larger amount of space between seats, a personal TV set, high quality food and drink, personalized service, privacy, and providing travelers with complimentary items. Passengers in this class have a separate check-in, access to the airlines first-class lounge, due to its high cost, there are few airlines that offer this service. Business class is more expensive, but also offers more amenities to travelers than the classes below it and these may include better food, wider entertainment options, more comfortable seats with more room to recline and more legroom, among others. Premium Economy class is a class offered by some airlines in order to provide a better flying experience to the economy traveler. It is often limited to a few such as more legroom, as well as complimentary food. Onboard Air Canada, Premium Economy comes with wider seats, more recline, a foot rest, an amenity kit, premium food and drinks on long-haul international flights. Economy class is the travel class with the lowest ticket price. This class is characterized by the short distance between each seat, and a smaller variety of food and entertainment
44.
Hand luggage
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The term hand luggage or cabin baggage refers to the type of luggage that passengers are allowed to carry along in the passenger compartment of a vehicle instead of moving to the cargo compartment. Passengers are allowed to carry a number of smaller bags with them in the vehicle and contain valuables. There is normally storage space provided for hand luggage, either under seating, hand baggage allowance is a topic frequently discussed in context of commercial air travel. On the other hand, safety concerns, takeoff weight limitations and financial incentives cause airlines to impose limits on how much, the International Air Transport Association sets guidelines for cabin baggage/hand luggage/carry-on luggage size. They are not mandatory, however, and individual airlines can, the IATA guideline at one time stated, Cabin baggage should have a maximum length of 56 cm, width of 45 cm and depth of 25 cm including all handles, side pockets, wheels etc. The actual size and weight limits of cabin baggage can differ widely, in some cases they are dependent on the model being used. Due to the lack of standardization a large number of different specifications were created by the airlines on the maximum permitted cabin luggage restrictions, in 2015 the IATA made an effort to introduce a common smaller size for cabin luggage by introducing the IATA Cabin OK logo. Major airlines have expressed their interest to accept luggage of that size on their flights and this is specified as 55 x 35 x 20 cm. There were news that the move was backed by nine airlines including Lufthansa, Emirates, the new size restrictions were criticised widely with the introduction program to be put on hold a few days later. Consequently none of the airlines has introduced the new format. Dimensions are sometimes listed as linear, meaning the height, width, business Class, First class passengers and holders of high level mileage club members are often allowed to carry on a second bag of the same size and weight, or a smaller size and weight. Most UK airports remain to have a limit of one piece of cabin baggage per passenger. A common regulation for cabin baggage restrictions was introduced on 6 November 2006 in European Union and in Switzerland, Norway, food items in the luggage may be mistaken for dangerous material triggering an intensive search. Suitcase Checked baggage Baggage allowance Carry On And Check In Airline Size and Weight Guide
45.
CFM International LEAP
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The CFM International LEAP is a high-bypass turbofan engine. It is produced by CFM International, a 50-50 joint venture company between GE Aviation of the United States and Safran Aircraft Engines of France. It is a replacement for the successful CFM International CFM56. The LEAPs basic architecture includes a version of Safrans low pressure turbine used on the GEnX engine. The fan has flexible blades manufactured by a resin transfer molding process, while the LEAP is designed to operate at a higher pressure than the CFM56, GE plans to set the operating pressure lower than the maximum in order to maximize the engines service life and reliability. Currently proposed for the LEAP is a use of composite materials, a blisk fan in the compressor, a second-generation Twin Annular Pre Swirl combustor. GE is using ceramic matrix composites to build the turbine shrouds and these technological advances are projected to produce 16% lower fuel consumption. Reliability is also supported by use of an oil cooling system similar to that of the GenX. According to Aviation Weeks article, The eductor device produces a venturi effect, the engine has some of the first FAA-approved 3D-printed components. The LEAP incorporates technologies that CFM developed as part of the LEAP56 technology acquisition program, the engine was officially launched as LEAP-X on 13 July 2008. It is intended to be a successor to the CFM56-5B and CFM56-7B, in total,28 test engines will be used by CFM to achieve engine certification, and 32 others will be used by Airbus, Boeing and COMAC for aircraft certification and test programs. The first engine entering the test program successfully reached and sustained 33,000 lbf of thrust, the same engine ultimately reached 35,000 lbf of thrust in test runs. The thrust reverser is deployed by the O-ring sliding aft, reducing the drag that was induced by the older design, in April 2015, it was reported that the LEAP-1B was suffering up to a 5% shortfall on its promised reduction in fuel consumption. The Commercial Aircraft Corporation of China has chosen the LEAP engine for its new COMAC C919 aircraft, the aircraft was due to begin testing in 2016. On July 20,2011, American Airlines announced that it planned to purchase 100 Boeing 737 aircraft featuring the LEAP-1B engine, the project was approved by Boeing on August 30,2011 as the Boeing 737 MAX. Southwest Airlines is the customer of the 737 MAX with a firm order of 150 aircraft. As a number of A320neo engine for ANA group of Japan was also ordered in 2014, in 2016 CFM booked 1,801 orders, LEAP backlog is at more than 12,200 for more than $170 billion U. S. at list price. In 2016, the engine was introduced in August on the Airbus A320neo with Pegasus Airlines, CFM should produce 500 engines in 2017 with the 737 MAX introduction and 1,100 in 2018
46.
Pratt & Whitney PW1000G
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The project was previously known as the Geared Turbofan, and originally the Advanced Technology Fan Integrator. The engine is expected to deliver reductions in fuel use and ground noise when used in next-generation aircraft, the PW1000G engine first entered commercial use in January 2016 with Lufthansas first commercial Airbus A320neo flight. Pratt & Whitney first attempted to build a geared turbofan starting around 1998 and this essentially was an upgrade of the existing PW6000 that replaced the fan section with a gearing system and new single-stage fan. After several years of development the PW8000 essentially disappeared, soon afterwards the ATFI project appeared, using a PW308 core but with a new gearbox and a single-stage fan. It had its first run on March 16,2001 and this led to the Geared Turbofan program, which was based around a newly designed core jointly developed with German MTU Aero Engines. In addition to the geared turbofan, the designs included a variable-area fan nozzle. However, the VAFN has since dropped from production designs due to high system weight. In July 2008, the GTF was renamed PW1000G, the first in a new line of PurePower engines, Pratt & Whitney claims the PW1000G is 16% more fuel efficient than current engines used on regional jets and single-aisle jets, as well as being up to 75% quieter. The engine was first tested on the Pratt & Whitney Boeing 747SP, testing of the CSeries bound PW1524G model began in October 2010. The PW1500G engine successfully achieved Transport Canada type certification on February 20,2013, the A320 engine, the PW1100G, was first tested on the 747SP on 15 May 2013. The first flight test on one of its intended production airframes, the first flight of the Airbus A320neo followed on September 25,2014. The PW1100G engine successfully achieved FAA type certification on December 19,2014, the fourth variant of the engine, the PW1900G, first flew on November 3,2015 from Mirabel in Canada fitted to the Boeing 747SP test aircraft. The first delivery to an operator, an A320neo to Lufthansa. This was instead of Qatar Airways due to rotor bow, or thermal bowing, due to asymmetrical cooling after shut-down on the previous flight. According to P&W President Bob Leduc, by the time we get to June, it will be down to 200 seconds for start time, the start time with the software drops have been pretty well addressed. Airbus group chief Tom Enders said while releasing Airbuss 2016 first half financial results that the first upgraded golden engine would be delivered to Lufthansa in early August 2016. Initially, more than 7 min were needed to start up both engines compared to 1-2 min to start up the CFM56 and up to 2. At the start of its production in 2016, each GTF was costing PW $10m to build, more than the sale price, MTU provides the first four stages of the high-pressure compressor, the low-pressure turbine and other components
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