1.
Wives of Muhammad
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Muhammads wives or Wives of Muhammad were the eleven women married to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Muslims refer to them as Mothers of the Believers, Muslims use the term prominently before or after referring to them as a sign of respect. The term is derived from Quran 33,6, The Prophet is closer to the believers than their selves, and his wives are their mothers. Muhammads life is traditionally delineated as two epochs, pre-hijra in Mecca, a city in western Arabia, from the year 570 to 622, all but two of his marriages were contracted after the Hijra. Of his thirteen wives and/or concubines only two bore him children, a fact which has described as curious by Cornell University Professor of Near Eastern Studies David S. Powers. In Arabian culture, marriage was contracted in accordance with the needs of the tribe and was based on the need to form alliances within the tribe. Virginity at the time of marriage was emphasized as a tribal honor, Watt states that all of Muhammads marriages had the political aspect of strengthening friendly relationships and were based on the Arabian custom. Esposito points out some of Muhammads marriages were aimed at providing a livelihood for widows. He noted that remarriage was difficult for widows in a society that emphasized virgin marriages, francis Edwards Peters says that it is hard to make generalizations about Muhammads marriages, many of them were political, some compassionate, and some perhaps affairs of the heart. Muhammads first marriage lasted 25 years, according to Islamic belief, the main objectives of Muhammads marriages can be divided into four. Helping out the widows of his companions, creating family bonds between him and his companions. Spreading the message by uniting different clans through marriage, increasing credibility and sources for conveying his private family life. However, with wives, there were a lot more sources to the knowledge. Therefore, his marriages gave more women the opportunity to learn, Muhammads first marriage was at the age of 25 to the 40-year-old Khadijah. He was married to one woman until the age of 50, with the exception of Aisha, Muhammad only married widows and divorced women or captives. At age 25, Muhammad wed his wealthy employer, the 40-year-old merchant Khadija and this marriage, his first, would be both happy and monogamous, Muhammad would rely on Khadija in many ways, until her death 25 years later. They had two sons, Qasim and Abd-Allah, both died young, and four daughters—Zaynab, Ruqaiya, Umm Kulthum and Fatimah. Shia scholars dispute the paternity of Khadijas daughters, as they view the first three of them as the daughters from previous marriages and only Fatimah as the daughter of Muhammad and Khadija
2.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
3.
Mecca
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Mecca or Makkah is a city in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia that is also capital of the Makkah Region. The city is located 70 km inland from Jeddah in a valley at a height of 277 m above sea level. Its resident population in 2012 was roughly 2 million, although more than triple this number every year during the hajj period held in the twelfth Muslim lunar month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Mecca is home to the Kaaba, by majority description Islams holiest site, Mecca was long ruled by Muhammads descendants, the sharifs, acting either as independent rulers or as vassals to larger polities. It was conquered by Ibn Saud in 1925, during this expansion, Mecca has lost some historical structures and archaeological sites, such as the Ajyad Fortress. Today, more than 15 million Muslims visit Mecca annually, including several million during the few days of the Hajj, as a result, Mecca has become one of the most cosmopolitan cities in the Muslim world, despite the fact that non-Muslims are prohibited from entering the city. The Saudi government adopted Makkah as the spelling in the 1980s. The full official name is Makkah al-Mukarramah or Makkatu l-Mukarramah, which means Mecca the Honored, the ancient or early name for the site of Mecca is Bakkah. An Arabic language word, its etymology, like that of Mecca, is obscure, the form Bakkah is used for the name Mecca in the Quran in 3,96, while the form Mecca is used in 48,24. In South Arabic, the language in use in the portion of the Arabian Peninsula at the time of Muhammad. Other references to Mecca in the Quran call it Umm al-Qurā, another name of Mecca is Tihamah. Arab and Islamic tradition holds that the wilderness of Paran, broadly speaking, is the Tihamah, yaqut al-Hamawi, the 12th century Syrian geographer, wrote that Fārān was an arabized Hebrew word. One of the names of Mecca mentioned in the Torah, Mecca is governed by the Municipality of Mecca, a municipal council of fourteen locally elected members headed by a mayor appointed by the Saudi government. As of May 2015, the mayor of the city was Dr. Osama bin Fadhel Al-Bar, Mecca is the capital of the Makkah Region, which includes neighboring Jeddah. The provincial governor was prince Abdul Majeed bin Abdulaziz Al Saud from 2000 until his death in 2007, on 16 May 2007, prince Khalid bin Faisal Al Saud was appointed as the new governor. The early history of Mecca is still disputed, as there are no unambiguous references to it in ancient literature prior to the rise of Islam. The Roman Empire took control of part of the Hejaz in 106 AD, ruling cities such as Hegra, even though detailed descriptions were established of Western Arabia by Rome, such as by Procopius, there are no references of a pilgrimage and trading outpost such as Mecca. The first direct mention of Mecca in external literature occurs in 741 AD in the Byzantine-Arab Chronicle, claims have been made this could be a reference to the Kaaba in Mecca
4.
Hejaz
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The Hejaz, also Al-Hijaz, is a region in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia. The region is so called as it separates the land of the Najd in the east from the land of Tihamah in the west and it is also known as the Western Province. It is bordered on the west by the Red Sea, on the north by Jordan, on the east by the Najd and its main city is Jeddah, but it is probably better known for the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina. As the site of Islams holiest places, the Hejaz has significance in the Arab, historically, the Hejaz has always seen itself as separate from the rest of Saudi Arabia. The Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia,35 % of all Saudis live in Hejaz, hejazi Arabic is the most widely spoken dialect in the region. Saudi Hejazis are of diverse origins. The Hejaz is the most cosmopolitan region in the Arabian Peninsula, people of Hejaz have the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia. Their place of origin alienates them from the Saudi state, which invokes different narratives of the history of the Arabian Peninsula, thus, Hejazis experienced tensions with people of Najd. One or possibly two megalithic dolmen have been found in Al-Hijaz, the Hejaz includes both the Mahd adh-Dhahab and a water source, now dried out, that used to flow 600 miles north east to the Persian Gulf via the Wadi Al-Rummah and Wadi Al-Batin system. Archaeological research led by of Boston University and the University of Qassim indicates that the system was active in 8000 BCE. The northern part of the Hejaz was part of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea, Saudi Arabias first World Heritage Site that was recognized by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is that of Al-Hjir. The name Al-Hijr occurs in the Qur’an, and the site is known for having structures carved into rocks, construction of the structures is credited to the people of Thamud. Despite their rather Polytheistic nature, a member of folk was a Monotheistic preacher called Salih. After the disappearance of Thamud from Mada’in Saleh, it came under the influence of people, such as the Nabataeans. Later, it would lie in a used by Muslim Pilgrims going to Mecca. According to Islamic sources, the civilization of Mecca started after Ibrahim brought his son Isma‘il and wife Hajar here and it was during such an occasion that Muhammad met some Medinans who would allow him to migrate to Medina, to escape persecution by his opponents in Mecca. Given that he had followers and enemies here, a number of battles or expeditions were carried out in this area, like those of Badr. They involved both Meccan companions, such as Hamzah ibn ‘Abdul-Muttalib, Ubaydah ibn al-Harith and Sad ibn Abi Waqqas, the Hijaz fell under Muhammads influence as he emerged victorious over his opponents, and was thus a part of his empire
5.
Saudi Arabia
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Saudi Arabia is bordered by Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the northeast, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast and Yemen to the south. It is separated from Israel and Egypt by the Gulf of Aqaba and it is the only nation with both a Red Sea coast and a Persian Gulf coast and most of its terrain consists of arid desert and mountains. The area of modern-day Saudi Arabia formerly consisted of four regions, Hejaz, Najd and parts of Eastern Arabia. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Ibn Saud and he united the four regions into a single state through a series of conquests beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud. Saudi Arabia has since been a monarchy, effectively a hereditary dictatorship governed along Islamic lines. The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam has been called the predominant feature of Saudi culture, with its global spread largely financed by the oil and gas trade. Saudi Arabia is sometimes called the Land of the Two Holy Mosques in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, the state has a total population of 28.7 million, of which 20 million are Saudi nationals and 8 million are foreigners. The states official language is Arabic, petroleum was discovered on 3 March 1938 and followed up by several other finds in the Eastern Province. Saudi Arabia has since become the worlds largest oil producer and exporter, controlling the second largest oil reserves. The kingdom is categorized as a World Bank high-income economy with a high Human Development Index and is the only Arab country to be part of the G-20 major economies. However, the economy of Saudi Arabia is the least diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, the state has attracted criticism for its treatment of women and use of capital punishment. Saudi Arabia is an autocracy, has the fourth highest military expenditure in the world. Saudi Arabia is considered a regional and middle power, in addition to the GCC, it is an active member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and OPEC. Following the unification of the Hejaz and Nejd kingdoms, the new state was named al-Mamlakah al-ʻArabīyah as-Suʻūdīyah by royal decree on 23 September 1932 by its founder, Abdulaziz Al Saud. Although this is translated as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in English it literally means the Saudi Arab kingdom. Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the possession of the royal family. Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning family of or House of, in the case of the Al Saud, this is the father of the dynastys 18th century founder, Muhammad bin Saud. There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 125,000 years ago
6.
Medina
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Medina, also transliterated as Madīnah, is a city in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia that is also the capital of the Al Madinah Region. The city contains al-Masjid an-Nabawi, which is the place of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It served as the base of Islam in its first century where the early Muslim community developed. Medina is home to the three oldest mosques, namely the Quba Mosque, al-Masjid an-Nabawi, and Masjid al-Qiblatayn, Muslims believe that the chronologically final surahs of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad in Medina, and are called Medinan surahs in contrast to the earlier Meccan surahs. Similar to Mecca, non-Muslims are forbidden from entering the core of Medina or the city centre by the national government. The Arabic word al-Madīnah simply means the city, before the advent of Islam, the city was known as Yathrib. The word Yathrib has been recorded in Surat al-Ahzab of the Quran, an alternative name is al-Madīnah an-Nabawīyah or al-Madīna-tu an-Nabī. As of 2010, the city of Medina has a population of 1,183,205, in addition to its Arab inhabitants, during the pre-Islamic era Yathrib was inhabited by Jewish tribes. Later the citys name was changed to al-Madīna-tu n-Nabī or al-Madīnatu l-Munawwarah, Medina is celebrated for containing al-Masjid an-Nabawi and also as the city which gave refuge to him and his followers, and so ranks as the second holiest city of Islam, after Mecca. Muhammad was buried in Medina, under the Green Dome, as were the first two Rashidun caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar, who were buried next to him in what used to be Muhammads house. Medina is 210 miles north of Mecca and about 120 miles from the Red Sea coast and it is situated in the most fertile part of all the Hejaz territory, the streams of the vicinity tending to converge in this locality. An immense plain extends to the south, in every direction the view is bounded by hills and mountains. The historic city formed an oval, surrounded by a wall,30 to 40 feet high, dating from the 12th century CE. Of its four gates, the Bab-al-Salam, or Egyptian gate, was remarkable for its beauty, beyond the walls of the city, west and south were suburbs consisting of low houses, yards, gardens and plantations. These suburbs also had walls and gates, almost all of the historic city has been demolished in the Saudi era. The rebuilt city is centred on the vastly expanded al-Masjid an-Nabawi, the graves of Fatimah and Hasan, across from the mosque at Jannat al-Baqi, and Abu Bakr, and of Umar, the second caliph, are also here. The mosque dates back to the time of Muhammad, but has been twice reconstructed, because of the Saudi governments religious policy and concern that historic sites could become the focus for idolatry, much of Medinas Islamic physical heritage has been altered. Medinas importance as a religious site derives from the presence of al-Masjid an-Nabawi, the mosque was expanded by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I
7.
Jannat al-Baqi
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Jannat al-Baqi‘ is a cemetery in Medina, present-day Saudi Arabia, located to the southeast of the Masjid al-Nabawi. The mosque is built where the Islamic prophet Muhammad used to live and it is also known as Baqi al-Gharqad, which means Baqi of the Boxthorn. It contains many of Muhammads relatives and companions, many traditions relate Muhammad issuing a prayer every time he passed it. A Jewish graveyard was located behind Jannat al-Baqi. The Umayyad rulers took down the wall of the Jewish cemetery, when Muhammad arrived at Medina from Mecca in September 622, al-Baqi was a land covered with Lycium shawii boxthorn trees. Muhammad chose the spot to be a cemetery and Asaad was the first individual to be buried in al-Baqi among the Ansar, while Muhammad was outside Medina for the Battle of Badr, his daughter Ruqayyah fell sick and died in 624. Shortly after Muhammad arrived from Badr, Uthman bin Mazoon died and was buried in al-Baqi and he was considered the first companion of Muhammad from the Muhajirun to be buried in the cemetery. Earlier Caliph Uthman ibn Affan was buried in the huge neighbouring Jewish grave yard, the first enlargement of al-Baqi in history was made by Muawiyah I, the first Umayyad Caliph. In order to honour Uthman ibn Affan, Muawiyah included the huge Jewish graveyard into al-Baqi cemetery, the Umayyad Caliphate built the first dome in al-Baqi over his grave. During different times of history, many domes and structures were built or rebuilt over famous graves in al-Baqi. The cemetery has been demolished by forces loyal to the Wahhabi-Saudi alliance in 1806 and 1925 and these were razed to the ground and plundered for their decorations and goods. The Al-Saud clan regained control of Hijaz in 1924, the demolition included destroying even the simplest of the gravestones. The second demolition was discussed in Majles-e Shora-ye Melli and a group of representatives was sent to Hijaz to investigate, in recent years, efforts were made by Iranian religious scholars and political figures to restore the cemetery and its shrines. Both Sunni and Shia protested against the destruction and rallies are held annually, the day is regarded as Yaum-e Gham. Halimah the milk-mother and nurse of Muhammad, Fatima bint al-Asad, aunt of Muhammad and mother of Caliph and Imam Ali. ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, uncle of Muhammad, umm ul-Banin, who married Caliph Ali after the death of Fatimah and Safiyyah, Atika aunts of Muhammad. Imam Hasan ibn Ali, grandson of Muhammad, son of Fatimah, Imam Zayn al-Abidin, grandson of Fatima Zahra who is the only adult male that survived the Battle of Karbala because he was sick and could not fight. Imam Muhammad al-Baqir, son of ‘Alī ibn Ḥusayn, Imam Ja’far as-Sadiq, son of Muhammad al-Baqir
8.
Muhammad
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Muhammad is the prophet of Islam. From a secular historical perspective he was a religious, political, from an Islamic perspective, he was Gods Messenger sent to confirm the essential teachings of monotheism preached previously by Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. He is viewed as the prophet of God in all branches of Islam. Muhammad united Arabia into a single Muslim polity and ensured that his teachings, practices, born approximately 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca, Muhammad was orphaned at an early age, he was raised under the care of his paternal uncle Abu Talib. Muhammad gained few early followers, and met hostility from some Meccan tribes, to escape persecution, Muhammad sent some followers to Abyssinia before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina in the year 622. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, in Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent conflict with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts, the attack went largely uncontested and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed. In 632, a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill, before his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. The revelations, which Muhammad reported receiving until his death, form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the Word of God and around which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammads teachings and practices, found in the Hadith and sira literature, are upheld by Muslims. The name Muhammad means praiseworthy and appears four times in the Quran, Muhammad is sometimes addressed by designations deriving from his state at the time of the address, thus he is referred to as the enwrapped in Quran 73,1 and the shrouded in Quran 74,1. In Sura Al-Ahzab 33,40 God singles out Muhammad as the Seal of the Prophets, the Quran also refers to Muhammad as Aḥmad more praiseworthy. The name Abū al-Qāsim Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib ibn Hāshim, begins with the kunya Abū, the Quran is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe it represents the words of God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammad, the Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for Muhammads chronological biography, most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context. An important source may be found in the works by writers of the 2nd. These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, which additional information about Muhammads life. The earliest surviving written sira is Ibn Ishaqs Life of Gods Messenger written c.767 CE, although the work was lost, this sira was used verbatim at great length by Ibn Hisham and Al-Tabari. Another early history source is the history of Muhammads campaigns by al-Waqidi, many scholars accept the earliest biographies as accurate, though their accuracy is unascertainable
9.
Abu Bakr
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Abū Bakr ‘Abdallāh bin Abī Quḥāfah aṣ-Ṣiddīq popularly known as Abu Bakr, was a senior companion and—through his daughter Aisha—the father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Abu Bakr became the first openly declared Muslim outside Muhammads family, Abu Bakr served as a trusted advisor to Muhammad. During Muhammads lifetime, he was involved in campaigns and treaties. He ruled over the Rashidun Caliphate from 632 to 634 CE when he became the first Muslim Caliph following Muhammads death, as caliph, Abu Bakr succeeded to the political and administrative functions previously exercised by Muhammad. He was commonly known as The Truthful, Abu Bakrs reign lasted for 2 years,2 months and 14 days ending with his death after an illness. Abu Bakrs full name was Abd Allah ibn Uthman ibn Aamir ibn Amr ibn Kaab ibn Saad ibn Taym ibn Murrah ibn Kaab ibn Luai ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr al-Quraishi, the lineage of Abu Bakr joined that of Muhammad in the eighth degree in their common ancestor Murrah ibn Kab. The patrilineal lineage of Abu Bakr was, Abu Bakr, the son of Uthman Abu Quhafa, the son of Amar, the son of Umru, the son of Kaab, the son of Saad, the son of Taym, the son of Murrah. In Arabic, the name Abd Allah means servant of Allah, one of his early titles, preceding his conversion to Islam, was atiqe, the saved one. Muhammad later reaffirmed this title when he said that Abu Bakr is the atiqe and he was called Al-Siddiq by Muhammad after he believed him in the event of Isra and Miraj when other people didnt, and Ali confirmed that title several times. There is a dispute over his name being Abdullah,4, p.146 and many other narrations, narrates from Qasim Ibn Muhammad Ibn Abi Bakr, I asked Ayesha the name of Abu Bakr. I said people are saying Ateeq and she said Abu Quhafa had three children, one was Ateeq, second Mu’taq and third, Otaiq. All three names are similar and derived from the same root, Imam Jafar al Sadiq famously narrated how the title Siddiq was given to Abu Bakr from Muhammad. Jafar was a descendant of Abu Bakr from his maternal side. Jafar al-Sadiq was also the successor of the Naqshbandi Sufi order believed to be originating from Abu Bakr himself, Imam Muhammad al Baqir, the father of Imam Jafar Sadiq, also called Abu Bakr with the title Siddiq. Much of the knowledge about Muhammad comes through Abu Bakrs daughter. After the death of Abu Bakr, her brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was raised by Ali, after Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was killed by the Umayyads, Aisha raised and taught her nephew al-Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. Aisha also taught another nephew Urwah ibn Zubayr and he then taught his son Hisham ibn Urwah, who was the main teacher of Malik ibn Anas whose views many Sunni follow. Qasims mother was of ‘Alis family and his daughter Farwah bint al-Qasim, therefore al-Qasim was the grandson of the first caliph Abu Bakr and the grandfather of Jafar al-Sadiq
10.
First Fitna
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The First Fitna or First confusion was a civil war within the Rashidun Caliphate which resulted in the overthrowing of the Rashidun caliphs and the establishment of the Umayyad dynasty. It began when the caliph Uthman ibn Affan was assassinated by Egyptian rebels in 656 and it ended in 661 when Alis heir Hasan ibn Ali concluded a treaty acknowledging the rule of Muawiyah, the first Umayyad caliph. The Islamic state expanded very quickly under Muhammad and the first three caliphs, in 639 Muawiyah I was appointed the Governor of Syria by Umar after his elder brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan died in a plague, along with Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah and 25,000 other people. The rapid Muslim conquest of Syria and Egypt and the consequent Byzantine losses in manpower, the Sassanid Dynasty in Persia had already collapsed. The Islamic empire expanded at a rate, but there was a cost associated with it. Before Islam, the Roman-Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sasanian wars had occurred every few years for hundreds of years between 69 BC and 629 AD, high taxes were imposed on the populations in both the Byzantine Roman and Sassanid Persian empires to finance these wars. There was also continuous bloodshed of the people during these wars, the Arab tribes in Iraq were paid by the Persian Sassanids to act as mercenaries, while the Arab tribes in Syria were paid by the Byzantines to act as their mercenaries. The Persians maintained an Arab satellite state of Lakhm and the Byzantine Empire maintained the Arab satellite state of Ghassan, the Syrians and the Iraqis had been fighting each other for centuries. Therefore, each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic state to be in their area. As Uthman ibn Affan became very old, Marwan I, a relative of Muawiyah I, slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary, slowly assuming more control, Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the son of Abu Bakr and the son of Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa. Sects started to form, among them the Sabaites named after Abdullah Ibn Saba There is also Jewish literature from that time, much of the Jewish literature on him from that time regards him as an apostate from Judaism and asks Jews to keep away from him. There was also the movement towards more autonomous tribal groupings, which was strong in Kufa, in Iraq. Among them developed a group called the Qurra, which became known as the Kharijites. Afterwards they were granted trusteeship over some of the lands in Sawad in Iraq and were now called Ahl al Ayyam, brunnow held that the Kharijites were Bedouin Arabs or full blooded Arabs. The Qurra received the highest stipend of the Muslim army, the sharaf al ata, the Qurra received stipends varying between 2,000 and 3,000 dirhams, while the majority of the rest of the troops received only 250 to 300 dirhams. The other Ridda tribesmen in Kufa, in Iraq, resented the position given to the Qurra. The tension between the Ridda tribesmen and the Qurra threatened the Qurras newly acquired prestige, the Qurra therefore felt obliged to defend their position in the new but rapidly changing society
11.
Battle of the Camel
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The Battle of the Camel, sometimes called the Battle of Jamal or the Battle of Bassorah, took place at Basra, Iraq on 7 November 656. Aisha heard about the killing of Uthman, the third Caliph, at the time she was on a pilgrimage to Mecca. It was on this journey that she became so angered by his death, and the naming of Ali as the fourth caliph. She gained support of the big city of Basra and, for the first time and this battle is now known as the First Fitna, or Muslim civil war. Talhah and Zubeir asked Ali for permission to make the pilgrimage and he granted it and they departed. The Medina people wanted to know Ali’s point of view about war against Muslims, by asking his view about Muawiyah I and his refusal to give Ali his allegiance. So they sent Ziyad Bin Hanzalah of Tamim who was set on getting the caliphate of Ali because Uthman had died, however, they went to Basra, and not Medina where the crime happened. He went back and told the people in Medina that Ali wanted to confront Muawiyah, in Iraq many people hated the Syrians following the Byzantine-Sassanid Wars. Aisha, Talhah and Zubayr ibn al-Awam set off from Makah on their way to Iraq to ask Ali to arrest Uthman ibn Affans killers, everyone then went to Basra, which was the beginning of the first civil war in Islam. Some historians put the number at around 3000 people, Zubair and Talha then went out to meet Ali. Not all Basra was with them, bani Bakr, the tribe once led by the second Caliph, joined the army of Ali. Bani Temim decided to remain neutral, some chieftains of the Kufa tribes contacted their tribes living in Basra. A chieftain contacted Ali to settle the matter, Ali did not want to fight and agreed to negotiate. He then contacted Aisha and spoke to her, Is it not wise to shed the blood of five thousand for the punishment of five hundred and she agreed to settle the matter. Ali then met Talha and Zubair and told them about the prophecy of Muhammad, Alis cousin Zubair said to him, What a tragedy that the Muslims who had acquired the strength of a rock are going to be smashed by colliding with one another. Talha and Zubair did not want to fight and left the field, everyone was happy except the people who had killed Uthman and the supporters of the Qurra, who later became the Khawarij. They thought that if a settlement was reached, they would not be safe, the Qurra launched a night attack and started burning the tents. Ali tried to restrain his men but no one was listening, everyone thought that the other party had committed breach of trust
12.
Arabic language
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
13.
Mu'min
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For the books and comic strips by Tove Jansson, see Moomin. Mumin is an Arabic Islamic term, frequently referenced in the Quran and it denotes a person who has complete submission to the Will of Allah and has faith firmly established in his heart, i. e. a faithful Muslim. The term Mumina is used to identify a female that has the highest degree of faith in Islam, the Quran states, O you who believe. This verse addresses the believers, exhorting them to believe, implying multiple stages of belief, the term Mumin is the preferred term used in the Quran to describe monotheistic believers. The following verse makes a distinction between a Muslim and a believer, The Arabs of the say, We believe. Say thou, Ye believe not, but rather say, We profess Islam, but if ye obey God and His Apostle, He will not allow you to lose any of your actions, for God is Forgiving, Merciful. Iman Kafir Al-Mu’minoon Muhammads wives Amir al-Muminin http, //www. inminds. co. uk/imam-cassiem-talk. html http, //quran. com/23 Surat ul Muminoon
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Muhammad's wives
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Muhammads wives or Wives of Muhammad were the eleven women married to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Muslims refer to them as Mothers of the Believers, Muslims use the term prominently before or after referring to them as a sign of respect. The term is derived from Quran 33,6, The Prophet is closer to the believers than their selves, and his wives are their mothers. Muhammads life is traditionally delineated as two epochs, pre-hijra in Mecca, a city in western Arabia, from the year 570 to 622, all but two of his marriages were contracted after the Hijra. Of his thirteen wives and/or concubines only two bore him children, a fact which has described as curious by Cornell University Professor of Near Eastern Studies David S. Powers. In Arabian culture, marriage was contracted in accordance with the needs of the tribe and was based on the need to form alliances within the tribe. Virginity at the time of marriage was emphasized as a tribal honor, Watt states that all of Muhammads marriages had the political aspect of strengthening friendly relationships and were based on the Arabian custom. Esposito points out some of Muhammads marriages were aimed at providing a livelihood for widows. He noted that remarriage was difficult for widows in a society that emphasized virgin marriages, francis Edwards Peters says that it is hard to make generalizations about Muhammads marriages, many of them were political, some compassionate, and some perhaps affairs of the heart. Muhammads first marriage lasted 25 years, according to Islamic belief, the main objectives of Muhammads marriages can be divided into four. Helping out the widows of his companions, creating family bonds between him and his companions. Spreading the message by uniting different clans through marriage, increasing credibility and sources for conveying his private family life. However, with wives, there were a lot more sources to the knowledge. Therefore, his marriages gave more women the opportunity to learn, Muhammads first marriage was at the age of 25 to the 40-year-old Khadijah. He was married to one woman until the age of 50, with the exception of Aisha, Muhammad only married widows and divorced women or captives. At age 25, Muhammad wed his wealthy employer, the 40-year-old merchant Khadija and this marriage, his first, would be both happy and monogamous, Muhammad would rely on Khadija in many ways, until her death 25 years later. They had two sons, Qasim and Abd-Allah, both died young, and four daughters—Zaynab, Ruqaiya, Umm Kulthum and Fatimah. Shia scholars dispute the paternity of Khadijas daughters, as they view the first three of them as the daughters from previous marriages and only Fatimah as the daughter of Muhammad and Khadija
15.
Qur'an
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The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God. It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature, the Quran is divided into chapters, which are then divided into verses. The word Quran occurs some 70 times in the text of the Quran, although different names, according to the traditional narrative, several companions of Muhammad served as scribes and were responsible for writing down the revelations. Shortly after Muhammads death, the Quran was compiled by his companions who wrote down and these codices had differences that motivated the Caliph Uthman to establish a standard version now known as Uthmans codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with minor differences in meaning. The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical scriptures and it summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance and it sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. The Quran is used along with the hadith to interpret sharia law, during prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz, some Muslims read Quranic ayah with elocution, which is often called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers, in order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, most Muslims rely on the tafsir. The word qurʼān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself and it is a verbal noun of the Arabic verb qaraʼa, meaning he read or he recited. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā, which refers to reading or lesson. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammads lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the act of reciting, as reflected in an early Quranic passage, It is for Us to collect it, in other verses, the word refers to an individual passage recited. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example, So when al-qurʼān is recited, listen to it, the word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel. The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran, each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qurʼān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb, āyah, and sūrah, the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with an article, the word is referred to as the revelation
16.
Sunni Islam
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Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and they have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts, as of 2009, Sunni Muslims constituted 87–90% of the worlds Muslim population. Sunni Islam is the worlds largest religious denomination, followed by Catholicism and its adherents are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah or ahl as-sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites, Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as orthodox Islam. The Quran, together with hadith and binding juristic consensus form the basis of all traditional jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, sunnī, also commonly referred to as Sunnīism, is a term derived from sunnah meaning habit, usual practice, custom, tradition. The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad, in Arabic, this branch of Islam is referred to as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah, the people of the sunnah and the community, which is commonly shortened to ahl as-sunnah. One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammads death, and that Sufism and Shiism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines, the first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rashidun or Rightly-Guided Ones. Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar who established the Islamic calendar as the second, Uthman as the third, Sunnis believe that the companions of Muhammad were the best of Muslims. Support for this view is found in the Quran, according to Sunnis. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Quran, furthermore, narrations that were narrated by the companions are considered by Sunnis to be a second source of knowledge of the Muslim faith. A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, Islam does not have a formal hierarchy or clergy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law, according to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a person to lead the service
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Islamic eschatology
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Islamic eschatology is the branch of Islamic scholarship that studies Yawm al-Qiyāmah or Yawm ad-Dīn. This is believed to be the final assessment of humanity by God, consisting of the annihilation of all life, resurrection, the time of the event is not specified, although there are major and minor signs which have been foretold to happen at al-Qiyamah. Many verses of the Quran contain the motif of the impending Last Judgment, surat al-Qiyama has as its main subject the resurrection. The Great Tribulation is also described in the hadith, and commentaries of the such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari. The Day of Judgment is also known as the Day of Reckoning, the hadith describe the end time with more specificity than the Quran, describing the events of al-Qiyamah through twelve major signs. At the time of judgment, terrible corruption and chaos will rule, the Mahdi will be sent and with the help of Jesus, will battle Masih ad-Dajjal. They will triumph, liberating Islam from cruelty, and this will be followed by a time of serenity with people living true to religious values, however, there is no mention of the advent of Mahdi and Isa in one era in any of the hadith. Some Muslim scholars translate the Arabic word Imam as Mahdi to prove the advent of Mahdi, like other Abrahamic religions, Islam also teaches resurrection of the dead, a final tribulation and eternal division of the righteous and wicked. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing Armageddon is often known as fitna, malāḥim, the righteous are rewarded with pleasures of Jannah Paradise, while the unrighteous are punished in Jahannam Hell. The Day of Judgment or Resurrection, al-Qiyāmah, is one of the six articles of faith in Islam. The tribulation associated with it is described in the Quran and hadith, and commentaries of ulama like al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari, the Day of Judgment is also known as the Day of Reckoning, the Hour, and the Last Day. The Day of Judgment or Resurrection, al-Qiyāmah, relates to one of the six articles in Sunni Islam and seven articles in Shia Islam. There are two sources in Islamic scripture that discuss the Last Judgment, the Quran, which is viewed in Islam as infallible. Hadith are viewed with more flexibility due to the compilation of the traditions in written form. The concept has also discussed in commentaries of ulama such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir. The Quran describes the Last Judgment with a number of interpretations of its verses, there are specific aspects, The time is known only to God. Those who have been dead will believe that a time has passed between birth and death. God will resurrect all, even if they have turned to stone or iron and those that have accepted false deities will suffer in the afterlife
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Caliph
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A caliphate is an area containing an Islamic steward known as a caliph —a person considered a religious successor to the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, and a leader of the entire Muslim community. During the history of Islam after the Rashidun period, many Muslim states, the Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, a caliph should be elected by Muslims or their representatives. Followers of Shia Islam, however, believe a caliph should be an Imam chosen by God from the Ahl al-Bayt, before the advent of Islam, Arabian monarchs traditionally used the title malik, or another from the same root. The term caliph, derives from the Arabic word khalīfah, which means successor, steward, however, studies of pre-Islamic texts suggest that the original meaning of the phrase was successor selected by God. There was no specified procedure for this shura or consultation, candidates were usually, but not necessarily, from the same lineage as the deceased leader. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual heir, Sunni Muslims believe that Abu Bakr was chosen by the community and that this was the proper procedure. Sunnis further argue that a caliph should ideally be chosen by election or community consensus, the Shia believe that Ali, the son-in-law and cousin of Muhammad, was chosen by Muhammad as his spiritual and temporal successor as the Mawla of all Muslims in the event of Ghadir Khumm. The caliph was often known as Amir al-Muminin, Muhammad established his capital in Medina, after he died, it remained the capital during the Rashidun Caliphate, before Kufa was reportedly made the capital by Caliph Ali. At times there have been rival claimant caliphs in different parts of the Islamic world, according to Sunni Muslims, the first caliph to be called Amir al-Muminin was Abu Bakr, followed by Umar, the second of the Rashidun. Uthman and Ali also were called by the title, while the Shia consider Ali to have been the only truly legitimate caliph. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk officially abolished the system of Caliphate in Islam as part of his secular reforms, the Kings of Morocco still label themselves with the title Amir al-Muminin for the Moroccans, but lay no claim to the Caliphate. Some Muslim countries, including Somalia, Indonesia and Malaysia, were never subject to the authority of a Caliphate, with the exception of Aceh, consequently, these countries had their own, local, sultans or rulers who did not fully accept the authority of the Caliph. Abu Bakr, the first successor of Muhammad, nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed, Umar, the second caliph, was killed by a Persian named Piruz Nahavandi. His successor, Uthman, was elected by a council of electors, Uthman was killed by members of a disaffected group. Ali then took control but was not universally accepted as caliph by the governors of Egypt and he faced two major rebellions and was assassinated by Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam, a Khawarij. Alis tumultuous rule lasted only five years and this period is known as the Fitna, or the first Islamic civil war. The followers of Ali later became the Shia minority sect of Islam, the followers of all four Rashidun Caliphs became the majority Sunni sect. Under the Rashidun each region of the Caliphate had its own governor, Muawiyah, a relative of Uthman and governor of Syria, succeeded Ali as Caliph
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Umar
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Umar, also spelled Omar, was one of the most powerful and influential Muslim caliphs in history. He was a senior Sahabi of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and he succeeded Abu Bakr as the second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate on 23 August 634. He was an expert Islamic jurist known for his pious and just nature and he is sometimes referred to as Umar I by historians of Islam, since a later Umayyad caliph, Umar II, also bore that name. Under Umar, the caliphate expanded at a rate, ruling the Sasanian Empire and more than two-thirds of the Byzantine Empire. His attacks against the Sasanian Empire resulted in the conquest of Persia in less than two years, according to Jewish tradition, Umar set aside the Christian ban on Jews and allowed them into Jerusalem and to worship. Umar is revered in the Sunni tradition as a ruler and paragon of Islamic virtues. He is viewed adversely in Shia Islam, Umar was born in Mecca to the Banu Adi clan, which was responsible for arbitration among the tribes. His father was Khattab ibn Nufayl and his mother was Hantama bint Hisham and he is said to have belonged to a middle-class family. In his youth he used to tend to his fathers camels in the plains near Mecca and his merchant father was famed for his intelligence among his tribe. Umar himself said, My father, Al-Khattab was a ruthless man and he used to make me work hard, if I didnt work he used to beat me and he used to work me to exhaustion. Despite literacy being uncommon in pre-Islamic Arabia, Umar learned to read, though not a poet himself, he developed a love for poetry and literature. According to the tradition of Quraish, while still in his years, Umar learned martial arts. He was tall, physically powerful and a renowned wrestler and he was also a gifted orator who succeeded his father as an arbitrator among the tribes. Umar became a merchant and made journeys to Rome and Persia. As a merchant he was unsuccessful, like others around him, Umar was fond of drinking in his pre-Islamic days. In 610 Muhammad started preaching the message of Islam, like many others in Mecca, Umar opposed Islam and he even threatened to kill Muhammad. He resolved to defend the traditional religion of Arabia. He was adamant and cruel in opposing Muhammad and very prominent in persecuting Muslims and he firmly believed in the unity of the Quraish and saw the new faith of Islam as a cause of division and discord
20.
Uthman
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Uthman ibn Affan, also known in English by the Turkish and Persian rendering, Osman, was a companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the third of the Rashidun, or Rightly Guided Caliphs. Born into a prominent Meccan clan of the Quraysh tribe, he played a role in early Islamic history. Uthman was married to Ruqayyah, and then upon her death to Umm Kulthum, under the leadership of Uthman, the empire expanded into Farsi in 650, and some areas of Khorasan in 651. The empires conquest of Armenia began by the 640s, seven years after Muhammad, Uthman was born in Taif to the wealthy Umayyad clan of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca. Uthmans father, Affan, died young while travelling abroad but left Uthman a large inheritance, Uthman became a merchant, like his father. His business flourished, making him one of the richest men among the Qurayshi tribe and his mother was Arwa, daughter of Um Hakim bint Abdul Mutalib, the twin sister of Abdullah, father of Muhammad, making Uthman Muhammads first cousin. On returning from a trip to Syria in 611, Uthman found out that Muhammad had declared his mission. After a discussion with his friend Abu Bakr, Uthman decided to convert to Islam, Uthman thus became one of the earliest converts to Islam, following Ali, Zayd, Abu Bakr and a few others. His conversion to Islam angered his clan, the Banu Ummayyah, Uthman and his wife Ruqayya migrated to Abyssinia in 614–15, along with 11 men and 11 women, all Muslims. As Uthman already had business contacts in Abyssinia, he continued to practice his profession as a trader. After two years, the news had spread among the Muslims in Abyssinia that the Quraysh of Mecca had accepted Islam, however, when they reached Mecca, they found that the news about the Qurayshs acceptance of Islam was false. Some of the Muslims who had come from Abyssinia returned, but Uthman, in Mecca, Uthman had to start his business afresh, but the contacts that he had already established in Abyssinia worked in his favour and his business prospered once again. In 622 Uthman and his wife, Ruqayya, migrated to Medina and they were amongst the third batch of Muslims who migrated to Medina. On arrival in Medina, Uthman stayed with Abu Talha ibn Thabit, after a short while, Uthman purchased a house of his own and moved there. In Medina, the Muslims were generally farmers and were not very interested in trade, thus, there was considerable space for the Muslims in promoting trade. Uthman took advantage of position, soon establishing himself as a trader in Medina. He worked hard and honestly, and his business flourished, soon becoming one of the richest men in Medina, when Ali married Fatimah, Uthman bought Alis armor for five hundred dirhams. Four hundred was set aside as mahr for Fatimahs marriage, leaving a hundred for all other expenses, later Uthman presented the armor back to Ali as a wedding present
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Mu'awiya
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Muawiyah I established the Umayyad Dynasty of the caliphate, and was the second caliph from the Umayyad clan, the first being Uthman ibn Affan. During the first and second caliphates of Abu Bakr and Umar, to stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea, Muawiyah developed a navy in the Levant and used it to confront the Byzantine Empire in the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara. The Caliphate conquered several territories including Cyzicus which were used as naval bases. Muawiyah bin Abi-Sufyan was born in Mecca to Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, the Quraysh controlled the city of Mecca and the Banu Abd-Shams were among the most influential of its citizens. The meaning of Muawiyah in Arabic is strength of the arms and his father Abu-Sufyan struggled against Islam until Muhammads army entered Mecca in 630. Muawiyah, Muhammad and Ali shared the same grandfather, ‘Abd Manaf bin Qusay, who had four sons, Hashim, Muttalib, Nawfal. Hashim was the grandfather of Ali and Muhammad. Umayyah bin Abdu Shams was the grandfather of Muawiyah. Muawiyah and remaining members of his family were opponents of the Muslims before the ascendancy of Muhammad, in 630, Muhammad and his followers entered Mecca, and most of the Meccans, including the Abd-Shams clan, formally submitted to Muhammad and accepted Islam. Muawiyah, along with his father Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, became Muslims at the conquest of Mecca, although Muawiyah had been a crypto-Muslim since the 628 Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. Ibn Kathir wrote in his book Al-Bidāya wa-n-nihāya, In terms of his appearance, he was fair and tall, bald with a white head and he was mild-tempered, dignified, dominant and noble amongst the people, generous, just and astute. Muawiyah worked as a scribe for Muhammad, according to al-Baladhuri, Urwa ibn az-Zubayr, relating from his father, Aisha said I went to the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, who was in a room with Umm Habiba on her day. Muawiya knocked on the door and he gave him permission to enter and he had a pen behind his ear which he had not used. The Prophet said, What is this on your ear and he said, A pen which I have made ready for Allah and His Messenger. May Allah repay you well on behalf of your Prophet, during the time of Abu Bakr, Muawiyah used to serve under his brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan. Muawiyah was one of the first to be sent into Syria, in May 636, Emperor Heraclius launched a major expedition against the Muslims, but his army was defeated decisively at the Battle of Yarmouk in August 636. In the battle, Muawiyahs brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan served under Khalid ibn al-Walid and Abu Ubaydah and was in command of one of the wings, Muawiyahs mother Hind also took part in the battle. Amr ibn al-As was sent to take on the Byzantine Army in Egypt, with limited resources his marriage to Maysum was politically motivated, as she was the daughter of the chief of the Kalb tribe, that was a large Jacobite Christian Arab tribe in Syria
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Consummation
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Thus in some legal systems a marriage may be annulled if it has not been consummated. Consummation is also relevant in the case of a common law marriage. In addition to formal and literal usages, the term also exists in informal and less precise usage to refer to a sexual landmark in relationships of varying intensity. The relevance of consummation in a civil marriage varies by jurisdiction, other common law jurisdictions, such as Australia, have abolished the legal concept of consummation. A religious marriage without civil registration may or may not be legally binding, in some countries, however, such as Israel, Egypt, Syria, Jordan, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Libya, Mauritania and Indonesia, religious marriage is the only legally binding marriage. Consummation is in particular relevant in a Catholic marriage, within the Roman Catholic Church, if a matrimonial celebration takes place but the spouses have not yet engaged in intercourse, then the marriage is said to be a marriage ratum sed non consummatum. Such a marriage, regardless of the reason for non-consummation, can be dissolved by the pope, additionally, an inability or an intentional refusal to consummate the marriage is probable grounds for an annulment. Thus some theologians, such as Fr, john A. Hardon, S. J. state that intercourse with contraception does not consummate a marriage. It has been argued that the purpose of this ground is not clear, it is neither procreation, andrew Bainham argues that this law is outdated and must be abolished in a modern society committed to equality and human rights in personal relationships. It is not concerned with the capacity of either or both parties to procreate, still less with the ability of the parties to each other sexually during the marriage. It remains a curious anomaly in the law, a relic perhaps of medieval times. Whatever its origins, it is not entirely clear what purpose this ground serves. Nullity Sexless marriage Catholic Encyclopedia, Sacrament of Marriage
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Shia Islam
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Shia is a branch of Islam which holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Shia Islam primarily contrasts with Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor, instead they consider Abu Bakr to be the correct Caliph. Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shias of Ali, Shias or the Shia as a collective or Shii individually, Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam, in 2009, Shia Muslims constituted 10–13% of the worlds Muslim population. Twelver Shia is the largest branch of Shia Islam, in 2012 it was estimated that perhaps 85 percent of Shias were Twelvers. Shia Islam is based on the Quran and the message of Muhammad attested in hadith, Shia consider Ali to have been divinely appointed as the successor to Muhammad, and as the first Imam. The word Shia means follower and is the form of the historic phrase shīʻatu ʻAlī, meaning followers of Ali, faction of Ali. Shia and Shiism are forms used in English, while Shiite or Shiite, as well as Shia, the term for the first time was used at the time of Muhammad. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the community after Muhammad belongs to Ali, nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims that at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded Ali as the Imam and Caliph. Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that Ali is designated as the Heir, Imam and caliph by Muhammad, for the Shia, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and history of Islam. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing, Shia search for the true meaning of the revelation to get the purpose of the life blood and the human destiny. Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone and they believe God chose Ali to be Muhammads successor, infallible, the first caliph of Islam. The Shias believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by Gods command, Ali was Muhammads first cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammads daughter Fatimah. Ali would eventually become the fourth Muslim caliph, after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad ordered the gathering of Muslims at the pond of Khumm and it was there that Shia Muslims believe Muhammad nominated Ali to be his successor. The hadith of the pond of Khumm was narrated on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar at a place called Ghadir Khumm, located near the city of al-Juhfah, Saudi Arabia. Muhammad there stated, Shia Muslims believe this to be Muhammads appointment of Ali as his successor, when Muhammad died in 632 CE, Ali and Muhammads closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali and his family accepted the appointment for the sake of unity in the early Muslim community. Alis rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, as a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who betrayed him after giving allegiance to his succession, or those who wished to take his position. This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna, which was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate, the Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against Ali ibn Abi Talib, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor, Uthman ibn Affan
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Sahabah
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The term aṣ-ṣaḥābah refers to the companions, disciples, scribes and family of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. This form is definite plural, the singular is masculine sahabi. Later scholars accepted their testimony of the words and deeds of Muhammad, the testimony of the companions, as it was passed down through trusted chains of narrators, was the basis of the developing Islamic tradition. The most widespread definition of a companion is someone who met Muhammad, believed in him and died as a Muslim. ”Anyone who died after rejecting Islam and those who saw him but held off believing in him until after his passing are not considered Sahaba but Tabiin. In their view, the Quran has outlined a high level of faith as one of the qualities of the Sahabah. Hence, they admit to this list only those individuals who had contact with Muhammad, lived with him. This view has implications in Islamic law since narrations of Muhammad transmitted through the Sahabah acquire a status of authenticity. Lists of prominent companions usually run to 50 or 60 names, the book entitled Istîâb fî marifat-il-Ashâb by Hafidh Yusuf bin Muhammad bin Qurtubi consists of 2,770 biographies of male and 381 biographies of female Sahabah. According to an observation in the book entitled Mawâhib-i-ladunniyya, a number of persons had already converted to Islam by the time Muhammad died. There were 10,000 by the time Mecca was conquered and 70,000 during the Battle of Tabouk in 630. Some Muslims assert that they were more than 200,000 in number, indeed, He was to them Kind and Merciful. In Islam, there are three types of Sahabah, The people who were Muslims at the time of Badr, but those who believed and did not emigrate - for you there is no guardianship of them until they emigrate. And if they seek help of you for the religion, then you must help, and Allah is Seeing of what you do. Quran, sura 8, ayah 72 And hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not become divided. And remember the favor of Allah upon you - when you were enemies and He brought your hearts together and you became, by His favor, and you were on the edge of a pit of the Fire, and He saved you from it. Thus does Allah make clear to you His verses that you may be guided, Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, and those with him are forceful against the disbelievers, merciful among themselves. You see them bowing and prostrating, seeking bounty from Allah and their mark is on their faces from the trace of prostration. That is their description in the Torah, Allah has promised those who believe and do righteous deeds among them forgiveness and a great reward. The people who were Muslims before victory at Mecca and went into exile and they are also high in degree, especially those who were present at Hudabiyah
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Criticism of Muhammad
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Criticism of Muhammad has included reference to Muhammads sincerity in claiming to be a prophet, his morality and his marriages. Criticism has existed since the 7th century, when Muhammad was decried by his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching monotheism, during the Middle Ages he was frequently seen in Christendom as a heretic, and/or possessed by demons. In the Middle Ages, it was common for Jewish writers to describe Muhammad as ha-meshuggah, the earliest Christian knowledge of Muhammad stems from Byzantine sources, written shortly after Muhammads death in 632. Another participant in the Doctrina replies about Muhammad, He is deceiving, for do prophets come with sword and chariot. …ou will discover nothing true from the prophet except human bloodshed. One Christian who came under the dominion of the Islamic Caliphate was John of Damascus. The second chapter of his book, The Fount of Wisdom, titled Concerning Heresies, John claimed that an Arian monk influenced Muhammad and the writer viewed the Islamic doctrines as nothing more than a hodgepodge culled from the Bible. Among the first sources representing Muhammad is the polemical work Concerning Heresy of John of Damascus, in this manuscript, the Syrian priest represents Muhammad as a false prophet, and an Antichrist. The phoneme h and the gemination of m do not exist in Greek so it has disappeared from Johns uses, from the 9th century onwards, highly negative biographies of Muhammad were written in Latin, such as the one by Álvaro of Córdoba proclaiming him the Antichrist. Since the 7th century, Muhammad and his name have been connected to several stereotypes, many sources mentioned exaggerated and sometimes wrong stereotypes. These stereotypes are born in the East but adopted by or developed in Western cultures, One common allegation laid against Muhammad was that he was an impostor who, in order to satisfy his ambition and his lust, propagated religious teachings that he knew to be false. Some medieval ecclesiastical writers portrayed Muhammad as possessed by Satan, a precursor of the Antichrist or the Antichrist himself, a more positive interpretation appears in the 13th century Estoire del Saint Grail, the first book in the vast Arthurian cycle, the Lancelot-Grail. This mission however failed when Muhammads pride caused him to alter Gods wishes, nevertheless, Muhammads religion is portrayed as being greatly superior to paganism. The Tultusceptrum de libro domni Metobii, an Andalusian manuscript with unknown dating, the story argues God was concerned about the spiritual fate of the Arabs and wanted to correct their deviation from the faith. He then sends an angel to the monk Osius who orders him to preach to the Arabs, Osius however is in ill-health and orders a young monk, Ozim, to carry out the angels orders instead. Ozim sets out to follow his orders, but gets stopped by an angel on the way. The ignorant Ozim believes him to be the angel that spoke to Osius before. The evil angel modifies and corrupts the original message given to Ozim by Osius, from this followed the erroneous teachings of Islam, according to the Tultusceptrum
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Islam and children
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The topic of Islam and children includes the rights of children in Islam, childrens duties towards their parents, and parents rights over their children, both biological and foster children. Also discussed are some of the differences regarding rights with respect to different schools of thought, the Quran uses various terms for children, but, according to Avner Giladi, the context seldom makes it clear whether it is exclusively referring to non-mature children, or simply offspring. The Quranic statements about children, Giladi states, are concerned with infanticide, adoption, breast-feeding. These statements were of a significance for later Muslim jurists who formed the foundations of Islamic legislation. Muhammad established laws and examples in respect of which is obligatory for the Muslim community to follow, Muhammad had seven children, three boys and four girls. All his sons, including Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, died in infancy, because of this, his experience as a father is sometimes described as sorrowful. Muhammad also had a son, Zayd, who is said to be the object of Muhammads parental affection. He also had two grandsons, Hassan and Hussein, and three granddaughters, Umm Kulthum, Zaynab and Umamah, in one Islamic tradition, Muhammad ran after Hussein in a game until he caught him. Muhammad used to let Umamah sit on his shoulders while he was praying, when Muhammad was chided for kissing his grandchild, he responded, what can I do if God has deprived your heart of all human feeling. Muhammad has been described as being fond of children in general. Watt attributes this to Muhammads yearning for children, as most of his own children died before him and he comforted a child whose pet nightingale had died. Muhammad played many games with children, joked with them and befriended them, Muhammad also showed love to children of other religions. Once he visited his Jewish neighbors son when the child was sick, once, Muhammad was sitting with a child in his lap, and the child urinated over Muhammad. Embarrassed, the father scolded the child, Muhammad restrained the father, and advised him, This is not a big issue. But be careful with how you treat the child, what can restore his self-esteem after you have dealt with him in public like this. Advent of Islam The Quran forbade sexual relations between males and their milk-mothers or milk-sisters, the Quran in 19 verses forbids harsh and oppressive treatment of orphaned children while urging kindness and justice towards them. Six-year-old Muhammad himself became an orphan after his mother died in 577, an early Quranic verse celebrates Gods providence and care towards him. Other Quranic verses identify those who repulse the orphan as unbelievers, rebuke those who do not honor the orphans, the Quran speaks of the reward waiting for those who feed orphans, poor and the prisoner for the love of God
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Child marriage
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Child marriage is defined by global organizations as a formal marriage or informal union entered into by an individual before reaching the age of 18. In certain countries, even when the marriage age is 18. Child marriage affects both boys and girls, though the majority of those affected are girls, most of whom are in poor socioeconomic situations. Child marriage is related to child betrothal, and it includes civil cohabitation, in many cases, only one marriage-partner is a child, usually the female. Child marriages were common throughout history for a variety of reasons, including poverty, insecurity, today, child marriage is still fairly widespread in developing countries, such as parts of Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, West Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. The incidence of marriage has been falling in most parts of the world. The countries with the highest observed rates of child marriages below the age of 18 are Niger, Chad, Mali, Bangladesh, Guinea and the Central African Republic, with a rate above 60%. Niger, Chad, Bangladesh, Mali and Ethiopia were the countries with child marriage rates greater than 20% below the age of 15, historically, child marriage was common around the world. The practice began to be questioned in the 20th century, with the age of individuals first marriage increasing in many countries, in ancient and medieval societies, it was common for girls to be betrothed at or even before puberty. As Friedman claims, arranging and contracting the marriage of a girl were the undisputed prerogatives of her father in ancient Israel. Most girls were married before the age of 15, often at the start of their puberty, in the Middle Ages the age at marriage seems to have been around puberty throughout the Jewish world. Ruth Lamdan writes, “The numerous references to marriage in the 16th- century Responsa literature and other sources, shows that child marriage was so common. In this context, it is important to remember that in halakha, the term refers to a girl under twelve years. A girl aged twelve and a half was already considered an adult in all respects. ”In Ancient Greece, early marriage, even boys were expected to marry in their teens. Early marriages and teenage motherhood was typical, in Ancient Rome, girls married above the age of 12 and boys above 14. In the Middle Ages, under English civil laws that were derived from Roman laws, in Imperial China, child marriage was the norm. Most religions, over history, influenced the marriageable age, for example, Christian ecclesiastical law forbade marriage of a girl before the age of puberty. Hindu vedic scriptures mandated the age of a marriage to be adulthood which they defined as three years after the onset of puberty
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Consummate
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Thus in some legal systems a marriage may be annulled if it has not been consummated. Consummation is also relevant in the case of a common law marriage. In addition to formal and literal usages, the term also exists in informal and less precise usage to refer to a sexual landmark in relationships of varying intensity. The relevance of consummation in a civil marriage varies by jurisdiction, other common law jurisdictions, such as Australia, have abolished the legal concept of consummation. A religious marriage without civil registration may or may not be legally binding, in some countries, however, such as Israel, Egypt, Syria, Jordan, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Libya, Mauritania and Indonesia, religious marriage is the only legally binding marriage. Consummation is in particular relevant in a Catholic marriage, within the Roman Catholic Church, if a matrimonial celebration takes place but the spouses have not yet engaged in intercourse, then the marriage is said to be a marriage ratum sed non consummatum. Such a marriage, regardless of the reason for non-consummation, can be dissolved by the pope, additionally, an inability or an intentional refusal to consummate the marriage is probable grounds for an annulment. Thus some theologians, such as Fr, john A. Hardon, S. J. state that intercourse with contraception does not consummate a marriage. It has been argued that the purpose of this ground is not clear, it is neither procreation, andrew Bainham argues that this law is outdated and must be abolished in a modern society committed to equality and human rights in personal relationships. It is not concerned with the capacity of either or both parties to procreate, still less with the ability of the parties to each other sexually during the marriage. It remains a curious anomaly in the law, a relic perhaps of medieval times. Whatever its origins, it is not entirely clear what purpose this ground serves. Nullity Sexless marriage Catholic Encyclopedia, Sacrament of Marriage
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Sahih al-Bukhari
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Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī is one of the Kutub al-Sittah of Sunni Islam. These prophetic traditions, or hadith, were collected by the Persian Muslim scholar Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sunni Muslims view this as one of the two most trusted collections of hadith along with Sahih Muslim. It is also used as an authentic hadith collection by Zaidi Shia Muslims, in some circles, it is considered the most authentic book after the Quran. The Arabic word sahih translates as authentic or correct, the actual title of the book commonly referred to as Sahih al-Bukhari, according to Ibn al-Salah, is, al-Jaami’ al-Sahih al-Musnad al-Mukhtasar min Umuri Rasooli-llahi wa sunanihi wa Ayyaamihi. A word-for-word translation of the title is, The Abridged Collection of Authentic Hadith with Connected Chains regarding Matters Pertaining to the Prophet, His practices, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani mentioned the same title, replacing the word umur with hadith. Al-Bukhari traveled widely throughout the Abbasid Caliphate from the age of 16 and it is reported that al-Bukhari devoted 16 years to sifting the hadiths he included in his Sahih from a collection of nearly 600,000 narrations. Sources differ on the number of hadiths in Bukharis Sahih. This aroused his interest in compiling hadith whose authenticity was beyond doubt, what further strengthened his resolve was something his teacher, hadith scholar Ishaq ibn Ibrahim al-Hanthalee – better known as Ishaq Ibn Rahwayh – had told him. We were with Ishaq Ibn Rahwayh who said, ‘If only you would compile a book of only authentic narrations of the Prophet. ’ This suggestion remained in my heart so I began compiling the Sahih. Bukhari also said, I saw the Prophet in a dream, in my hand was a fan with which I was protecting him. I asked some dream interpreters, who said to me, ‘You will protect him from lies. ’ This is what compelled me to produce the Sahih. The book covers almost all aspects of life in providing guidance of Islam such as the method of performing prayers. Bukhari finished his work around 846/232 AH, and spent the last twenty-four years of his life visiting other cities and scholars, in every city that Bukhari visited, thousands of people would gather in the main mosque to listen to him recite traditions. During this period of years, al-Bukhari made minor revisions to his book. Each version is named by its narrator, according to Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani in his book Nukat, the number of hadiths in all versions is the same. The most famous one today is the version narrated by al-Firabri, al-Khatib al-Baghdadi in his book History of Baghdad quoted Firabri as saying, About seventy thousand people heard Sahih Bukhari with me. Firabri is not the transmitter of Sahih al-Bukhari. There were many others that narrated that book to later generations, such as Ibrahim ibn Maqal, Hammad ibn Shaker, Mansur Burduzi, there are many books that noted differences between these versions, the best known being Fath al-Bari
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Sadakat Kadri
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Sadakat Kadri is a lawyer, author, travel writer and journalist. One of his foremost roles as a barrister was to assist in the prosecution of former Malawian president Hastings Banda, as a member of the New York Bar he has worked as a volunteer with the American Civil Liberties Union. He has also specialised in freedom of information issues and he stayed on in Prague for two years to pen the groundbreaking Cadogan Guide to that city. His 2005 book, The Trial, A History, from Socrates to O. J. Simpson was written after two and a half years spent in Manhattan, having arrived shortly before September 11,2001. He was inspired to write this 2012 work Heaven on Earth, by the September 11,2001, critics have called that book extremely valuable and entertaining, carefully researched, and thorough and admirable. He currently lives in London and writes law-based articles for the British current affairs magazine New Statesman,1991, Prague, Cadogan city guides, ISBN 978-1-86011-214-02005, The Trial, A History, from Socrates to O. J
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Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement
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Like mainstream Muslims, Lahoris interpret the term Khatam an-Nabiyyin to mean that Muhammad was the last of the prophets sent by God. The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement believes Mirza Ghulam Ahmad to be the Mujaddid of the 14th century Hijra and they assert that, as he himself wrote repeatedly, his use of the terms Nabi and Rasool was metaphorical, when referring to himself. Members of the movement are referred to colloquially as Lahori Ahmadis. Members of the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement however like to refer to themselves as Lahori Ahmadi Muslims and they believe that Mirza Ghulam Ahmad is referred to as a Prophet in the metaphorical sense only, and not in the real and technical meaning of the word as used in Islamic terminology. In contrast, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community hold that Muhammad was the last law-bearing prophet and they hold Mirza Ghulam Ahmad to be a prophet but subordinate and deputy to Muhammad. Great Britain In 1913 a mission station was established in Woking, the Quran was translated into English by Maulana Muhammad Ali. Germany The Berlin Mosque was built in 1924/27, on 3 June 2006 Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands visited the Mobarak Mosque to commemorate the buildings 50th anniversary. Reliable statistics on the worldwide Lahore Ahmadiyya movement does not exist, however, sources do suggest that in comparison to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, the Lahore Ahmadiyya population is relatively very small. Maulana Muhammad Ali, Maulana Sadr-ud-Din, Dr. Saeed Ahmad Khan, Dr. Asghar Hameed, Dr
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Muhammad Ali (writer)
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Muhammad Ali was an Indian writer, scholar, and leading figure of the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement. Ali was born in Murar, Kapurthala State in 1874 and he obtained an M. A. in English and a LL. B. in 1899. He joined the Ahmadiyya Movement in 1897 and dedicated his life to the service of the movement as part of what he saw as a restored, some Muslim scholars and jurists, on the other hand, have considered the Ahmadiyya to be outside of mainstream Islam or even heretical. He died in Karachi on October 13,1951, and is buried in Lahore, history and Doctrines of the Babi Movement. The Holy Quran, Arabic text with English translation and Commentary, bayan-ul-Quran, Urdu translation with extensive commentary. True Conception of the Ahmadiyya Movement, the Split in the Ahmadiyya Movement. Ahmadiyya A Mighty Striving, Detailed biography of Maulana Muhammad Ali Online Quran Project includes the Quran translation by Maulana Muhammad Ali, selection of Maulana Muhammad Ali works available online List of Books by Maulana Muhammad Ali
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Denise Spellberg
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Denise A. Spellberg is an American scholar of Islamic history. She is a professor of history and Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Texas at Austin. Spellberg holds a BA from Smith College and a PhD from Columbia University, Spellberg is the author of Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past, The Legacy of Aisha Bint Abi Bakr, a widely cited work on the portrayal of Aisha in Islamic tradition. In 2008 Spellberg was involved in a controversy over Sherry Jones historical novel The Jewel of Medina, Random House, which intended to publish the novel later that year, had sent Spellberg galley proofs, hoping for a publishable comment. Spellberg sharply criticized the novel from a perspective, and also reportedly told Random House publishing the book might result in violence by radical Muslims. Subsequently, Random House indefinitely postponed publication, citing concerns about violence from extremists, asra Nomani wrote about the events in an opinion piece for The Wall Street Journal, in which she characterized Spellberg as the instigator of the trouble. In the wake of Nomanis article, a number of publications printed pieces criticizing Spellbergs actions as tantamount to advocating censorship, Spellberg responded in the Wall Street Journal, contesting Nomanis characterization of her as the instigator of the books cancellation. Spellberg has advocated the protection of the rights of Americans, telling a seminar audience on Preventing another September 11. United is not simply against violence but for the protection of the religions, in 2013, Spellberg published Thomas Jeffersons Quran, Islam and the Founders. Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past, The Legacy of Aisha Bint Abi Bakr, New York, Columbia University Press,1994. Thomas Jeffersons Quran, Islam and the Founders, New York, Knopf, October 1,2013, ISBN 978-0307268228
