1.
Ajmer district
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Ajmer District is a district of the state of Rajasthan in western India. The city of Ajmer is the district headquarters, Ajmer District has an area of 8,481 km², and a population of 2,180,526. Three main religions are, Hindu 1,869,044, Muslim 244,341, the eastern portion of the district is generally flat, broken only by gentle undulations. The e western parts, from north-west to south-west, are intersected by the Aravalli Range, many of the valleys in this region are sandy deserts, part of Indias Thar Desert, with an occasional oasis of cultivation. Some fertile tracts are present, among these is the plain on which lies the town of Ajmer. This valley has a lake, and is protected by the massive walls of the Nagpathar range or Serpent rock. The only hills in the district are the Aravalli Range and its offshoots, Ajmer is almost totally devoid of rivers. The Banas River touches the boundary of the district so as to irrigate the pargana of Samur. Four small streams—the Sagarmati, Saraswati, Khari and Dai—also intersect the district, according to the 2011 census Ajmer district has a population of 2,581,933. This gives it a ranking of 161st in India, the district has a population density of 305 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 18. 48%, Ajmer has a sex ratio of 950 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 70. 46%. Ajmer The Imperial Gazetteer of India,1909, v.5, p. 137-146, Ajmer District website Ajmer on Marwadis. com eAjmer. co. in Nakkash Ki Devi - Gomti Dham
2.
Mayo College
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Mayo College is a boys-only independent boarding school in Ajmer, Rajasthan, India. It was founded in 1875 by Richard Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo who was the Viceroy of India from 1869 to 1872 and it is one of the oldest public boarding schools in India. The present principal is Lt. Gen. Surinder Kulkarni, who has occupied the post since January 2015 as the 17th principal, the idea for the college was proposed in 1869 by Colonel Walter. It was founded in 1875 and Colonel Sir Oliver St John became its first principal, the founders intention was to create an Eton of India. In that very sensible report Colonel Walter pointed out that what was then most needed for the education of Indias young rulers, Mayo is Indias Eton and you are Indias Eton boys. It had a view to providing the leaders of the states with an education similar to that given by Eton College. The British built Mayo for the sons of the Indian upper classes, the school houses 850 pupils aged between 9 and 18. The coat of arms was composed from the design furnished by Lockwood Kipling, in the upper centre of the shield are Mayo Arms and Quarterings, a Lion Rampant and an open hand. On the right and left are the sun and the moon, typical of Suryawanshi and Chandrawanshi, below are the Panch Rang, the five sacred colours of the Rajputs, Red, Gold, Blue, White and Green. In the centre is a Rajput fort – two towers connected by a curtain, the supports are on the right, a Bhil warrior with string bow and full quiver of arrows. The motto is Let there be Light, the badge is a peacock, the sacred bird of Rajputana, standing on a two-edged, two-handed Rajput sword Khanda. On 12 April 1986, the post and telegraph department of the government of India released a stamp of Mayo College, the multicolour stamp was designed by India Security Press, Nashik Road. The First Day Cover shows the emblem of the Mayo College, the cancellation was designed by Nenu Bagga. Mayo College is home to the Danmal Mathur Museum housed in Jhalawar House, the museum showcases priceless antiques and an armoury section. It is considered to have one of the best collections of any museum in the world. One of the traditions is meeting for tea in the lawns known as Mughal Gardens immediately after the Annual Prizegiving ceremony. Kapur did away with using a rope to divide English guests, the Annual Prizegiving, one of the oldest ceremonies at Mayo, has seen chief guests including Lord Irwin, Viceroy of India, Lord Chelmford, governor general of India, Dr. H. Sayyid Faher Bin Taimur of Oman, HM Birendra Shah, King of Nepal, Sardar Khushwant Singh, HH Madhavrao Scindia, Sir Peter Ustinov, Jaswant Singh, other traditions at Mayo include an annual horseback parade by the students and sporting fixtures between Old Boys and current students
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Rajasthan
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Rajasthan is Indias largest state by area. Elsewhere it is bordered by the other Indian states, Punjab to the north, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh to the northeast, Madhya Pradesh to the southeast, and Gujarat to the southwest. Rajasthan is also home to two national reserves, the Ranthambore National Park in Sawai Madhopur and Sariska Tiger Reserve in Alwar. The state was formed on 30 March 1949 when Rajputana – the name adopted by the British Raj for its dependencies in the region – was merged into the Dominion of India. Its capital and largest city is Jaipur, also known as Pink City, other important cities are Jodhpur, Udaipur, Bikaner, Kota and Ajmer. Parts of what is now Rajasthan were partly part of the Vedic Civilisation, kalibangan, in Hanumangarh district, was a major provincial capital of the Indus Valley Civilization. Matsya Kingdom of the Vedic civilisation of India, is said to roughly corresponded to the state of Jaipur in Rajasthan. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagar, which is said to have named after its founder king Virata. Bhargava identifies the two districts of Jhunjhunu and Sikar and parts of Jaipur district along with Haryana districts of Mahendragarh, bhargava also locates the present day Sahibi River as the Vedic Drishadwati River, which along with Saraswati River formed the borders of the Vedic state of Brahmavarta. Manu and Bhrigu narrated the Manusmriti to a congregation of seers in this area only, the Indo-Scythians invaded the area of Ujjain and established the Saka era, marking the beginning of the long-lived Saka Western Satraps state. Gurjars ruled for many dynasties in this part of the country, up to the tenth century almost the whole of North India, acknowledged the supremacy of the Gurjars with their seat of power at Kannauj. The Gurjar Pratihar Empire acted as a barrier for Arab invaders from the 8th to the 11th century, the chief accomplishment of the Gurjara Pratihara empire lies in its successful resistance to foreign invasions from the west, starting in the days of Junaid. Majumdar says that this was acknowledged by the Arab writers. He further notes that historians of India have wondered at the progress of Muslim invaders in India. Traditionally the Rajputs, Jats, Meenas, REBARI, Gurjars, Bhils, Rajpurohit, Charans, Yadavs, Bishnois, Sermals, PhulMali, all these tribes suffered great difficulties in protecting their culture and the land. Millions of them were killed trying to protect their land, a number of Gurjars had been exterminated in Bhinmal and Ajmer areas fighting with the invaders. Meenas were rulers of Bundi, Hadoti and the Dhundhar region, hem Chandra Vikramaditya, the Hindu Emperor, was born in the village of Machheri in Alwar District in 1501. Hem Chandra was killed in the battlefield at Second Battle of Panipat fighting against Mughals on 5 November 1556, maharana Pratap of Mewar resisted Akbar in the famous Battle of Haldighati and later operated from hilly areas of his kingdom
5.
Hindi
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Hindi, or Modern Standard Hindi is a standardised and Sanskritised register of the Hindustani language. Along with the English language, Hindi written in the Devanagari script, is the language of the Government of India. It is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India, Hindi is the lingua franca of the so-called Hindi belt of India. Outside India, it is a language which is known as Fiji Hindi in Fiji, and is a recognised regional language in Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana. Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, apart from specialized vocabulary, Hindi is mutually intelligible with Standard Urdu, another recognized register of Hindustani. Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with Official Language, under Article 343, official language of the Union has been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English. Gujarat High Court, in 2010, has observed that there was nothing on record to suggest that any provision has been made or order issued declaring Hindi as a language of India. Article 343 of the Indian constitution states The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script, the form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. It was envisioned that Hindi would become the working language of the Union Government by 1965. Each may also designate a co-official language, in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the formation in power. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of language in the following Union Territories, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu. National-language status for Hindi is a long-debated theme, an Indian court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such. Outside Asia, Hindi is a language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji. It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji, Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis of Nepal. Hindi is quite easy to understand for some Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the Hindi Belt of India. Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is considered to be a descendant of an early form of Sanskrit, through Sauraseni Prakrit. It has been influenced by Dravidian languages, Turkic languages, Persian, Arabic, Portuguese, Hindi emerged as Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century A. D. By the 10th century A. D. it became stable, Braj Bhasha, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Khari Boli etc. are the dialects of Hindi
6.
Marwari language
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Marwari is a Rajasthani language spoken in the Indian state of Rajasthan. Marwari is also found in the state of Gujarat and Haryana. With some 20 million or so speakers, it is one of the largest varieties of Rajasthani, most speakers live in Rajasthan, with a quarter million in Sindh and a tenth that number in Nepal. There are two dialects of Marwari. Marwari is popularly written in Devanagari script, as is Hindi, Marathi, Nepali and Sanskrit, Marwari currently has no official status as a language of education and government. There has been a push in the recent past for the government to recognize this language. The state of Rajasthan recognizes Rajasthani as a language, in Pakistan, there are two varieties of Marwari. They may or may not be enough to Indian Marwari to be considered the same language. Marwari speakers are concentrated in Sindh, in Pakistan, Marwari is generally written using a modified version of the Arabic Alphabet. Marwari is still widely in and around Bikaner. There are ongoing efforts to identify and classify this language cluster and it is said that Marwari and Gujarati evolved from Gujjar Bhakha or Maru-Gurjar, language of the Gurjars. Formal grammar of Rajasthani was written by Jain monk and eminent Gujarati scholar Hemachandra Suri, Marwari is primarily spoken in the Indian state of Rajasthan. Marwari speakers have dispersed widely throughout India and other countries but are found most notably in the state of Gujarat. Speakers are also found in Bhopal, with some 13.2 million speakers it is the largest of the Marwari subgroup of the Rajasthani cluster of western dialects of Hindi. There are several dialects, Thaḷī, Bāgṛī, Bhitrauti, Sirohī and it shares a 50%-65% lexical similarity with Hindi. Marwari has many words with Hindi. Notable phonetic correspondences include /s/ in Hindi with /h/ in Marwari, for example, /sona/ gold and /hono/ gold. There are also a variety of vowel changes, most of the pronouns and interrogatives are, however, distinct from those of Hindi
7.
Postal Index Number
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A Postal Index Number or PIN or Pincode is a code in the post office numbering or post code system used by India Post, the Indian postal administration. The code is six digits long, the PIN Code system was introduced on 15 August 1972 by Shriram Bhikaji Velankar, an additional secretary in the Union Ministry of Communications. The system was introduced to simplify the manual sorting and delivery of mail by eliminating confusion over incorrect addresses, similar place names, there are nine PIN zones in India, including eight regional zones and one functional zone. The first digit of the PIN code indicates the region, the second digit indicates the sub-region, and the third digit indicates the sorting district within the region. The final three digits are assigned to individual post offices, a state may have one or more sorting districts depending on the volumes of mail handled. The fourth digit represents the route on which a Delivery office is located in the sorting district and this is 0 for offices in the core area of the sorting district. The last two represent the delivery office within the sorting district starting from 01 which would be the GPO or HO. The numbering of the office is done chronologically with higher numbers assigned to newer delivery offices. If the volume of mails handled at an office is too large, a new delivery office is created. Thus two delivery offices situated next to each other only have the first four digits in common. Each PIN code is mapped to exactly one delivery post office which receives all the mail to be delivered to one or more lower offices within its jurisdiction, all of which share the same code. The delivery office can either be a General Post Office, a Head Office or Sub Office which are located in urban areas. The post from the office is sorted and routed to other delivery offices for a different PIN or to one of the relevant sub offices or branch offices for the same PIN. Branch offices are located in areas and have limited postal services
8.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
9.
Jaipur
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Jaipur is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Rajasthan in Northern India. It was founded on 18 November 1726 by Maharaja Jai Singh II, as of 2011, the city has a population of 3.1 million, making it the tenth most populous city in the country. Jaipur is also known as the Pink City of India, Jaipur is located 260 km from the Indian capital New Delhi. Jaipur forms a part of the west Golden Triangle tourist circuit along with Agra, Jaipur is a popular tourist destination in India and serves as a gateway to other tourist destinations in Rajasthan such as Jodhpur, Jaisalmer Udaipur. and Mount Abu. The city of Jaipur was founded in 1726 by Jai Singh II and he planned to shift his capital from Amer,11 km from Jaipur to accommodate the growing population and increasing scarcity of water. Jai Singh consulted several books on architecture and architects while planning the layout of Jaipur, under the architectural guidance of Vidyadhar Bhattacharya, Jaipur was planned based on the principles of Vastu shastra and Shilpa Shastra. The construction of the city began in 1726 and took four years to complete the major roads, the city was divided into nine blocks, two of which contained the state buildings and palaces, with the remaining seven allotted to the public. Huge ramparts were built, pierced by seven fortified gates, during the rule of Sawai Ram Singh, the city was painted pink to welcome the Prince of Wales, later Edward VII, in 1876. Many of the avenues remained painted in pink, giving Jaipur a distinctive appearance, in the 19th century, the city grew rapidly and by 1900 it had a population of 160,000. The wide boulevards were paved and its industries were the working of metals and marble. The city had three colleges, including a Sanskrit college and a school opened during the reign of the Maharaja Ram Singh II. Temperatures remain relatively high during summer from April to early July having average daily temperatures of around 30 °C, during the monsoon there are frequent, heavy rains and thunderstorms, but flooding is not common. The winter months of November to February are mild and pleasant, with temperatures ranging from 10–15 °C and with little or no humidity. The city was planned according to Indian Vastu shastra by Vidyadhar Bhattacharya in 1727, there are three gates facing east, west, and north. The eastern gate is called Suraj pol, the gate is called Chand pol. The city is unusual among pre-modern Indian cities in the regularity of its streets, the urban quarters are further divided by networks of gridded streets. Five quarters wrap around the east, south, and west sides of a central palace quarter, the Palace quarter encloses the Hawa Mahal palace complex, formal gardens, and a small lake. Nahargarh Fort, which was the residence of the King Sawai Jai Singh II, according to provisional report of 2011 census, Jaipur city had a population of 3,073,350
10.
Udaipur
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Udaipur is a major city, municipal corporation and the administrative headquarters of the Udaipur district in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It is the capital of the kingdom of Mewar in the former Rajputana Agency. Maharana Udai Singh of the Sisodia clan of Rajput founded the city 1553 and it remained as the capital city till 1818 when it became a British princely state, and thereafter the Mewar province became a part of Rajasthan when India gained independence in 1947. Udaipur is a popular tourist destination. Known for its history, culture, scenic locations and the Rajput-era palaces, Udaipur was founded in 1559, by Maharana Udai Singh II in the fertile circular Girwa Valley to the southwest of Nagda, on the Banas River. The city was established as the new capital of the Mewar kingdom and this area already had a thriving trading town, Ayad, which had served as capital of Mewar in the 10th through 12th centuries. The Girwa region was thus already well-known to Chittaud rulers who moved to it whenever the vulnerable tableland Chittaurgarh was threatened with enemy attacks. Maharana Udai Singh II, in the wake of 16th century emergence of artillery warfare, Ayad was flood-prone, hence he chose the ridge east of Pichola Lake to start his new capital city, where he came upon a hermit while hunting in the foothills of the Aravalli Range. The hermit blessed the king and guided him to build a palace on the spot, Udai Singh II consequently established a residence on the site. In November 1567, the Mughal emperor Akbar laid siege to the fort of Chittor. To protect Udaipur from External attacks, Maharana Udai Singh built a six kilometre long city wall, with seven gates, namely Surajpole, Chandpole, Udiapole, Hathipole, Ambapole, Brahmpole and so on. The area within these walls and gates is known as the old city or the walled city. As the Mughal empire weakened, the Sisodia rulers, reasserted their independence, Udaipur remained the capital of the state, which became a princely state of British India in 1818. Being a mountainous region and unsuitable for heavily armoured Mughal horses, at present, Arvind Singh Mewar is the 76th custodian of the Mewar dynasty. Topography Udaipur is located at 24. 525049°N73. 677116°E /24.525049,73.677116, the city covers an area of 37 km2 and lies at an altitude of 598.00 m above sea level. It is located in the region of Rajasthan, near the Gujarat border. The city lies 403 kilometres southwest of the capital, Jaipur and 250 km northeast from Ahmedabad. Udaipur with its lakes lies on the slope of the Aravalli Range in Rajasthan
11.
Jodhpur
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Jodhpur is a City and district in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It is the second largest metropolitan city of the state and the thirty-fifth largest city in India and it was formerly the seat of a princely state of the same name. The capital of the kingdom was known as Marwar, Jodhpur is a popular tourist destination, featuring many palaces, forts and temples, set in the stark landscape of the Thar Desert. The city is known as the Sun City for the bright, the old city circles the fort and is bounded by a wall with several gates. Jodhpur is also known as the Blue City because of the colours that decorate many of the houses in the old city area. However, the city has expanded greatly outside the wall over the past several decades, Jodhpur lies near the geographic centre of the Rajasthan state, which makes it a convenient base for travel in a region much frequented by tourists. According to the Rajasthan District Gazetteers of Jodhpur and the Hindu epic Ramayana, Abhiras were the inhabitants of Jodhpur. Jodhpur was also part of the Gurjara–Pratihara Empire and until 1100 AD was ruled by a powerful Gurjar King, Jodhpur was founded in 1459 by Rao Jodha, a Rajput chief of the Rathore clan. Jodha succeeded in conquering the territory and thus founded a state which came to be known as Marwar. As Jodha hailed from the town of Mandore, that town initially served as the capital of this state, however, Jodhpur soon took over that role. The city was located on the road linking Delhi to Gujarat. This enabled it to profit from a trade in opium, copper, silk, sandals, date palm. In between 1540 and 1556, Afghans were in control of most of North India. Hemu, who took as the commander of the Afghan army in 1553, crushed the first rebellion, killing the Governor of the Ajmer province Juneid Khan. Hemu lost his life in the Second Battle of Panipat on 5 November 1556, early in its history, the state became a fief under the Mughal Empire, owing fealty to them while enjoying some internal autonomy. During this period, the state furnished the Mughals with several notable generals such as Maharaja Jaswant Singh, during the British Raj, the state of Jodhpur had the largest land area of any in the Rajputana. Jodhpur prospered under the peace and stability that was a hallmark of this era, the land area of the state was 23,543 sq mi its population in 1901 was 44,73,759. It enjoyed a revenue of £3,529,000
12.
Aravalli Range
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The Aravalli Range is a range of mountains in western India running approximately 692 km in a northeastern direction across the Indian states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Haryana, ending in Delhi. The Aravalli range are the oldest fold mountains in India, the northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana state, ending in Delhi. The famous Delhi Ridge is the last leg of the Aravalli Range and it is one of the worlds oldest mountain ranges. It dates back to a pre-Indian subcontinental collision with the mainland Eurasian Plate, the southern end is at Palanpur near Ahmedabad, Gujarat. The highest peak is Guru Shikhar in Mount Abu in Sirohi, rising to 5650 feet, it lies near the south-western extremity of the range, close to the border with Gujarat state. The city of Udaipur with its lakes lies on the slope of the range in Rajasthan. Numerous rivers rise amidst the ranges including the Banas River, the Luni River, the Sahibi, the Sakhi, the Aravalli Range is the eroded stub of a range of ancient folded mountains. The range rose in a Precambrian event called the Aravalli-Delhi orogen, the range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast. Old fold mountains are characterized by having stopped growing higher due to the cessation of upward thrust caused by the stopping of movement of the plates in the Earths crust below them. In ancient times they were high but since have worn down almost completely by millions of years of weathering. In contrast, the Himalayas are continuously rising young fold mountains of today, mining of copper and other metals in the Aravalli range dates back to at least 5th century BC, based on carbon dating. Recent research indicates that copper was mined here during Sothi-Siswal period going back to c.4000 BCE. Ancient Kalibangan and Kunal, Haryana settlements obtained copper here, Ganeshwar sunari Cultural Complex is a collection of third millennium BC settlements in the area of the Aravalli Hill Range. Among them, there are similarities in culture, and in the production of copper tools. They are located near the copper mines, the GSCC is east of the Harappan culture, to the north-east of Ahar-Banas Complex, north/north west to the Kayatha Culture and at a later date, west of the OCP-Copper Hoard sites. Archaeological indicators of the GSCC were documented primarily in Jaipur, Jhunjhunu, among their pottery, we find the Incised ware, and Reserved Slip ware. There are two main sites, Ganeshwar, and Sunari, in Tehsil Kot Putli, Jaipur District. In May 1992, some parts of the Aravalli hills in Rajasthan, in 2003, The central government of India prohibited mining operations in these areas
13.
Pushkar
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Pushkar is a town in the Ajmer district in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It is situated 14 km northwest of Ajmer at an elevation of 510 m and is one of the five sacred dhams for devout Hindus. It is from this name that the word Katas is derived and it is often called Tirth Raj – the king of pilgrimage sites – and has in recent years become a popular destination for foreign tourists. Pushkar is one of the oldest existing cities of India and it lies on the shore of Pushkar Lake. The date of its origin is not known, but legend associates Brahma with its creation. Most of the temples are not very old because many temples were destroyed during Muslim conquests in the area, subsequently, the destroyed temples were rebuilt. The most famous among all is the Brahma Temple built during the 14th century CE, very few temples to Lord Brahma exist anywhere in the world. The Pushkar lake has 52 ghats where pilgrims descend to the lake to bathe in the sacred waters, Pushkar is also famous for its annual fair held in November. Pushkar in Sanskrit means blue lotus flower, Hindus believe that the gods released a swan with a lotus in its beak and let it fall on earth where Brahma would perform a grand yagna. The place where the fell was called Pushkar. Pushkar word may be derived from word Pushkarnimeans- lake and it may be derived from word Pushpa means flower and Kar means hand. According to legend, Brahma was in search of a place for Mahayagna, after a long time, Brahma came to known that a demon, Vajranash, was killing people here so the Lord intoned a mantra on a lotus flower and killed the demon. During this process the parts of flower fell on three places which were known as Jyaistha, Madhya and Kanistha Pushkar. After this Brahma performed a yagna to protect this place from demons, the consort of Brahma, Savitri, were needed to offer Ahuti for the yagna but she was not there that time so Gayatri, a Gurjar girl, was married to brahma and performned yagna. This act made first wife of Brahma, Savitri, angry, there are still priests from the Gurjar community in Pushkar temple, known as Bhopas. It is also the venue of the annual Pushkar Camel Fair, in 1901, the town was part of the Rajputana Agency had a population of 3,831. As of 2001 India census, Pushkar had a population of 14,789, males constitute 54% of the population and females 46%. Pushkar has an literacy rate of 69%, higher than the national average of 59. 5%, male literacy is 77%
14.
Brahma
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Brahma is the creator god in the Trimurti of Hinduism. Brahma is also known as Svayambhu, Vāgīśa, and the creator of the four Vedas, Brahma is identified with the Vedic god Prajapati, as well as linked to Kama and Hiranyagarbha, he is more prominently mentioned in the post-Vedic Hindu epics and the mythologies in the Puranas. In the epics, he is conflated with Purusha, Brahma, along with Vishnu and Shiva, is part of a Hindu Trinity, however, ancient Hindu texts mention other trinities of gods or goddesses which do not include Brahma. While Brahma is often credited as the creator of the universe and various beings in it, other Puranas suggest that he is born from Shiva or his aspects, or he is a supreme god in diverse versions of Hindu mythology. Brahma, along with all deities, is viewed as a form of the otherwise formless Brahman. Brahma does not enjoy popular worship in present-age Hinduism and has lesser importance than the members of the Trimurti, Vishnu. Brahma is revered in ancient texts, yet rarely worshipped as a deity in India. Very few temples dedicated to him exist in India, the most famous being the Brahma Temple, Brahma temples are found outside India, such as in Thailand at the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok. The origins of Brahma are uncertain, in part because related words such as one for Ultimate Reality. The existence of a deity named Brahma is evidenced in late Vedic text. The spiritual concept of Brahman is far older, and some scholars suggest deity Brahma may have emerged as a personal conception and visible icon of the impersonal universal principle called Brahman. In Sanskrit grammar, the noun stem brahman forms two distinct nouns, one is a neuter noun bráhman, whose singular form is brahma. Contrasted to the noun is the masculine noun brahmán, whose nominative singular form is Brahma. This noun is used to refer to a person, and as the name of a deity Brahma it is the subject matter of the present article. One of the earliest mentions of Brahma with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth Prapathaka of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad, Brahma is discussed in verse 5,1 also called the Kutsayana Hymn first, and expounded in verse 5,2. In the pantheistic Kutsayana Hymn, the Upanishad asserts that ones Soul is Brahman, and this Ultimate Reality, Cosmic Universal or God is within each living being. In verse 5,2 Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are mapped into the theory of Guṇa, the post-Vedic texts of Hinduism offer multiple theories of cosmogony, many involving Brahma. Brahma is a creator as described in the Mahabharata and Puranas
15.
Sufism
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Sufism or Taṣawwuf, which is often defined as Islamic mysticism, the inward dimension of Islam, or the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam, is a mystical trend in Islam characterized. These orders meet for sessions in meeting places known as zawiyas, khanqahs. They strive for ihsan as detailed in a hadith, Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him, if you cant see Him, Rumi stated, The Sufi is hanging on to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr. Sufis regard Muhammad as al-Insān al-Kāmil, the perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God. The orders largely follow one of the four madhhabs of Sunni Islam, classical Sufis were characterized by their asceticism, especially by their attachment to dhikr, the practice of repeating the names of God, often performed after prayers. According to William Chittick, In a broad sense, Sufism can be described as the interiorization, historically, Muslims have used the Arabic word taṣawwuf to identify the practice of Sufis. In this view, it is necessary to be a Muslim to be a true Sufi. However, Islamic scholars themselves are not by any means in agreement about the meaning of the word sufi, Sufis themselves claim that Tasawwuf is an aspect of Islam similar to Sharia, inseparable from Islam and an integral part of Islamic belief and practice. Classical Sufi scholars have defined Tasawwuf as a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else, two origins of the word sufi have been suggested. Commonly, the root of the word is traced to ṣafā. Another origin is ṣūf, wool in Arabic, referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore, the two were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari, who said, The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity. Scholars generally agree that ṣūf or wool is probably the word of Sufi. This term was given to them because they wore woollen garments, the term labisal-suf meant he clad himself in wool and applied to a person who renounced the world and became an ascetic. Others have suggested that the word comes from the term ahl aṣ-ṣuffah and these men and women who sat at al-Masjid an-Nabawi are considered by some to be the first Sufis. Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds. Sufi orders are based on the bayah that was given to the Prophet Muhammad by his Sahaba, by pledging allegiance to the Prophet Muhammad, the Sahaba had committed themselves to the service of God. According to Islamic belief, by pledging allegiance to Prophet Muhammad and it is through the Prophet Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with God. Such a concept may be understood by the hadith, which Sufis regard to be authentic, in which Prophet Muhammad said, I am the city of knowledge, eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in Tasawwuf
16.
Moinuddin Chishti
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Moinuddin Chishti also known as Gharib Nawaz, was an imam, Islamic scholar and philosopher from Indian Subcontinent. Chishti introduced and established the Chishti Order of Sufism in the Indian subcontinent, various Mughal emperors were followers of Chishti. No reliable information is available regarding his life before he settled in Ajmer and his parents died when he was fifteen years old. He inherited a windmill and an orchard from his father, during his childhood, Chishti was different from other children and kept himself busy in prayer and meditation. He later disposed of his property and other belongings and distributed the money to the poor and he renounced the world and left for Bukhara in search of knowledge and higher education. Moinuddin became the murid of Usman Harooni, Chishti visited the seminaries of Samarkand and Bukhara and acquired religious learning from scholars. He visited centers of Muslim culture and acquainted himself with important trends in Muslim religious life and he became a disciple of the Chishti saint Usman Harooni. They travelled the Middle East together, including visits to Mecca, Chishti turned towards India, reputedly after a dream in which the Islamic prophet Muhammad blessed him to do so. After a brief stay in Lahore, he reached Ajmer along with his disciple, in Ajmer, he attracted a substantial following, gaining the respect of the residents of the city. Chishti promoted understanding between Muslims and non-Muslims, the Chishti Order was founded by Abu Ishaq Shami in Chisht some 95 miles east of Herat in present-day western Afghanistan. Moinuddin Chishti established the order in India, in the city of Ajmer in Rajasthan, the central principles that became characteristics of the Chishti order in India are based on his teachings and practices. Moinuddin, in words, interpreted religion in terms of human service and exhorted his disciples to develop river-like generosity, sun-like affection. The highest form of devotion, according to him, was to redress the misery of those in distress – to fulfill the needs of the helpless and it was during the reign of Akbar that Ajmer emerged as one of the most important centers of pilgrimage in India. The Mughal Emperor undertook a journey on foot to Ajmer, the Akbarnāma records that the emperors interest in Ajmer first sparked when he heard some minstrels singing songs about the virtues of the wali who lay asleep in Ajmer. Moinuddin Chishti authored several books including Anīs al-Arwāḥ and Dalīl al-Ārifīn, among Quṭbuddīn Baktiar Kakis prominent disciples was Fariduddin Ganjshakar, whose dargah is at Pakpattan, modern Pakistan. Fariduddins most famous disciple was Nizamuddin Auliya popularly referred to as Mahbūb-e Ilāhī Gods beloved, equally famous was his other disciple Ali Ahmed Alauddin Sabir whose dargah is in Kalyar Sharif. The Sabiri silsila is spread far and wide in India and Pakistan and to this day devotees, from Delhi, disciples branched out, establishing dargahs in several regions of South Asia, from Sindh in the west to Bengal in the east and the Deccan Plateau in the south. But from all the network of Chishti dargahs, the Ajmer dargah took on the distinction of being the mother dargah of them all
17.
Pattavali
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A Pattavali is a record of a spiritual lineage of heads of monastic orders. It is generally presumed that two names are teacher and pupil. The term is applicable for all Indian religions, but is used for Jain monastic orders. Kharatavagachha Pattavali, Pattavali of Kharatara Gachchha Glasenapp notes that although the chronological list mentioned in pattavali are valuable, Pattavali states the lineage of Jain monks. According to 600 AD inscription at Sravanabelagola, Harivansha Purana, Jambuddvita Pannati and Kalpasutra, Bhadrabahu was the last leader of the undivided Sangha. After him there were two branches in the lineage, in both branches, some of the oral tradition was gradually lost. The two branches became the two traditions Digambaras and the Svetambaras, although formal recognition of the separation is encountered in the 5th century CE. Kalpasutra gives a lineage starting with Pushyagiri after Vajrasena ending with Kshamashramna Devarddhi, the canonical books of the Svetambaras were produced in writing in this Council. The Kalpasutra also mentions ganas and shakhas established by other disciples of Bhadrabahu, Sambhutavijaya, the Brihat-Kharataragachchha pattavali gives the name of Chandra after Vajrasena, the lineage continues until Udyotana, the founder of Brihadgachcha. Jayapalaka Pandava Dhruvasena Kansa Subhadra,1 angis begins here, yashobhadra Bhadrabahu II Lohacarya II Arhadvali, ekangis with partial knowledge of one anga. Maghanandi Dharasena, see Satkhandagama Pushpadanta Bhutabali Arhadvali is said to have been the founder for the divisions of the Mula Sangha
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Vikram Samvat
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Vikram Samvat Nepali, नेपाली पात्रो, Listen ) is an era used in India and Nepal, just like the Christian era started in 1 CE. The Vikram Samvat started in 58/57 BCE in southern and 57/56 BCE in northern systems of Hindu calendar, the era is named after king Vikramaditya. The Vikram Samvat calendar is 56.7 years ahead of the solar Gregorian calendar, for example, the year 2073 BS began in 2016 CE and will end in 2017 CE. The new year begins with the first day of month Baishakh, the first day of the new year is passionately celebrated in a historical carnival that takes place every year in Bhaktapur, called Bisket Jatra. The Rana rulers of Nepal made it their official calendar, there have been calls for the Vikram Samvat to replace Saka as Indias official calendar. The classical Vikram Samvat uses lunar months and solar sidereal years, because 12 months do not match a sidereal year exactly, correctional months are added or occasionally subtracted. A Tithi or lunar day is defined as the time it takes for the angle between the moon and the Sun to increase by 12°. Tithis begin at varying times of day and vary in duration from approximately 19 to approximately 26 hours, a Paksa or lunar fortnight consists of 15 tithis. According to popular tradition, the legendary king Vikramaditya of Ujjain established the Vikrama Samvat era after defeating the Śakas. Kalakacharya Kathanaka by the Jain sage Mahesarasuri gives the account, Gandharvasena, the then-powerful king of Ujjain, abducted a nun called Sarasvati. The enraged monk sought the help of the Śaka ruler King Sahi in Sistan, despite heavy odds but aided by miracles, the Śaka king defeated Gandharvasena and made him a captive. Sarasvati was repatriated, although Gandharvasena himself was forgiven, the defeated king retired to the forest, where he was killed by a tiger. His son, Vikramaditya, being brought up in the forest, had to rule from Pratishthana, later on, Vikramaditya invaded Ujjain and drove away the Śakas. To commemorate this event, he started a new era called the Vikrama era, the Ujjain calendar started around 56-58 BCE, and the subsequent Shaka era calendar was started in 78 CE at Pratishthana. The association of the era beginning in 57 BCE with Vikramaditya is not found in any source before the 9th century CE, the earlier sources call this era by various names, including Kṛṭa, Kritaa, the era of the Malava tribe, or simply, Samvat. The earliest known inscription that calls the era Vikrama is from 842 CE and this inscription of Chauhana ruler Chandamahasena was found at Dholpur, and is dated Vikrama Samvat 898, Vaishakha Shukla 2, Chanda. The earliest known inscription that associates this era with a king called Vikramaditya is dated 971 CE, the earliest literary work that connects the era to Vikramaditya is Subhashita-Ratna-Sandoha by the Jain author Amitagati. V. A. Smith and D. R. Bhandarkar believed that Chandragupta II adopted the title Vikramaditya, earlier, some scholars believed that the Vikrama Samavat corresponded to the Azes era of the Indo-Scythian king King Azes
19.
Dhar
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Dhār is a city located in the Malwa region of western Madhya Pradesh state in central India. It is the headquarters of Dhar District, and was the capital of the Rajput Dhar State as Dharanagar from 1732. The town is located 33 miles west of Mhow,559 m above sea level, the most ancient parts of Dhār visible are the massive earthen ramparts which are best preserved on the western and southern sides of the town. These were probably built beginning in the century and show that the city was circular in plan and surrounded by a series of tanks. The layout is similar to the city of Warangal in the Deccan. The circular ramparts of Dhār, unique in north India and an important legacy of the Paramāras, is being destroyed by brick-makers and others using the material for construction purposes. On the north-east side of the town, the rampart and moat have disappeared beneath modern homes, the historic parts of the town are dominated by an impressive sandstone fortress on a small hill. It is thought to have built by Muhammad bin Tughluq. One of the gateways, added at a time, dates to 1684-85 in the time of Ālamgīr. In the palace area is a museum with a small collection of temple fragments. On the overgrown ramparts of the city, overlooking the old moat, is the tomb of Shaykh ‘Abdullah Shāh Changāl. The tomb has been rebuilt, but the inscription, now incorporated into the gate, is written in Persian. The Lat Masjid or Pillar Mosque, to the south of the town like the tomb of Shaykh Changāl, was built as the Jami Mosque by Dilawar Khan in 1405. It derives its name from the pillar of Dhar, which is believed to have been set up in the 11th century. The pillar, which was nearly 13.2 m high according to the most recent assessment, is fallen and broken and it carries a later inscription recording a visit of the Mughal emperor Akbar in 1598 while on campaign towards the Deccan. The pillars original stone footing is also displayed nearby, the Kamāl Maula is a spacious enclosure containing four tombs, the most notable being that of Shaykh Kamāl Maulavi or Kamāl al-Dīn. He was a follower of Farīd al-Dīn Gaṅj-i Shakar and the famous Chishti saint Nizamuddin Auliya, some details about Kamāl al-Dīn are recorded in Muḥammad Ghauthis Azkar-i Abrar, a reliable hagiography of Sufi saints composed in 1613. The cloak presented to Kamāl al-Dīn by Nizam al-Dīn is still displayed inside the tomb, the custodians of Kamāl al-Dīn’s tomb have served in an unbroken lineage for 700 years and are still resident
20.
Dara Shukoh
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Dara Shikoh, also known as Dara Shukoh M20 March 1615 –30 August 1659 Julian/9 September 1659 Gregorian) was the eldest son and the heir-apparent of the fifth Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. His name ″دارا شكوه″ in Persian means as magnificent as Dara, the course of the history of the Indian subcontinent, had Dara Shikoh prevailed over Aurangzeb, has been a matter of some conjecture among historians. Dara Shikoh was born Taragarh fort Ajmer on 28 October 1615, when he was 12, his grandfather, Emperor Jahangir, died, and his father succeeded as emperor. Daras siblings included his elder sister Jahanara Begum and their youngers siblings Shah Shuja, Roshanara Begum, Aurangzeb, Murad Bakhsh, Aurangzeb became the sixth Mughal Emperor. On 1 February 1633, Dara Shikoh married his first cousin, Nadira Banu Begum, by all accounts, it was an extremely happy and successful marriage. Both Dara Shikoh and Nadira were devoted to other, so much so that Dara Shikoh never contracted any other marriage after marrying Nadira. The couple had eight children, of two sons and two daughters survived to adulthood. As was common for all Mughal sons, Dara Shikoh was appointed as a commander at an early age, receiving an appointment as commander of 12. On 10 September 1642, Shah Jahan formally confirmed Dara Shikoh as his heir, granting him the title of Shahzada-e-Buland Iqbal and promoting him to command of 20, in 1645, he was appointed as subahdar of Allahabad. He was promoted to a command of 30, 000-foot and 20,000 horse on 18 April 1648, as his fathers health began to decline, Dara Shikoh received a series of increasingly prominent commands. He was appointed Governor of Multan and Kabul on 16 August 1652 and he was promoted to command of 40, 000-foot and 20,000 horse on 21 January 1656, and to command of 50, 000-foot and 40,000 horse on 16 September 1657. Shah Shuja was the first to make his move, declaring himself Mughal Emperor in Bengal, Murad Baksh allied himself with Aurangzeb. At the end of 1657, Dara Shikoh was appointed Governor of the province of Bihar, subsequently Aurangzeb took over Agra fort and deposed emperor Shah Jahan on 8 June 1658. After the defeat, Dara Shikoh retreated from Agra to Delhi and his next destination was Multan and then to Thatta. He occupied Surat and advanced towards Ajmer, after this defeat he fled to Sindh and sought refuge under Malik Jiwan, an Afghan chieftain, whose life had on more than one occasion been saved by the Mughal prince from the wrath of Shah Jahan. However, the treacherous Junaid betrayed Dara Shikoh and turned him over to Aurangzebs army on 10 June 1659, after death the remains of Dara Shikoh were buried in an unindentified grave in Humayans tomb in Delhi. Dara Shikoh is widely renowned as a paragon of the harmonious coexistence of heterodox traditions on the Indian subcontinent. He was a champion of mystical religious speculation and a poetic diviner of syncretic cultural interaction among people of all faiths
21.
Jahanara Begum
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Jahanara Begum Sahib was a Mughal princess and the eldest daughter of Emperor Shah Jahan from his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. She was also the sister of her fathers successor and the sixth Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Jahanaras early education was entrusted to Sati al-Nisa Khanam, the sister to Jahangirs poet laureate, Sati al-Nisa Khanam was known for her knowledge of the Quran and Persian literature as well as for her knowledge of etiquette, housekeeping and medicine. She also served as principal lady-in-waiting for Mumtaz Mahal, Jahanaras mother, many of the women in the royal household were accomplished at reading and writing poetry and painting. They also played chess, polo and hunted outdoors. The women had access to Akbars library, full of books on world religions and Persian, Turkish and she was engaged in her daily game of chess with her father Shah Jahan when they first learned of Mumtaz Mahals difficulty with labor. Jaharnara rushed to her mothers side but could do nothing to save her, upon the death of Mumtaz in 1631, Jahanara, aged 17, took the place of her mother as First Lady of the Empire, despite her father having three other wives. Her father frequently took her advice and entrusted her with charge of the Imperial Seal, in 1644 when Aurangzeb angered his father Shah Jahan, d office Jahanara interceded on Aurangzebs behalf and convinced Shah Jahan to pardon him and restore his rank. Shah Jahans fondness for his daughter was reflected in the titles that he bestowed upon her. Her power was such that, unlike the imperial princesses, she was allowed to live in her own palace. In March 1644, just days after her birthday, Jahanara suffered serious burns to her body. Shah Jahan ordered that vast sums of alms be given to the poor, prisoners be released, Aurangzeb, Murad, and Shiastah Khan returned to Delhi to see her. Accounts differ as to what happened, some say Jahanaras garments, doused in fragrant perfume oils, caught fire. Others accounts assert that the princesss favorite dancing-womans dress caught fire, during her illness, Shah Jahan, was so concerned for the welfare of his favourite daughter, that he made only brief appearances at his daily durbar in the diwan-i-am. Royal physicians failed to heal Jahanaras burns, a year after the accident, Jahanara had fully recovered. After the accident, the princess went on a pilgrimage to Moinuddin Chishti’s shrine in Ajmer, after her recovery, Shah Jahan gave Jahanara rare gems and jewellery and bestowed upon her the revenues of the port of Surat. She later visited Ajmer, following the set by her great-grandfather Akbar. In honor of his coronation,6 February 1628, Shah Jahan awarded his wife Mumtaz Mahal, Jahanaras mother,100,000 ashrafis,600,000 rupees, Jahanara received 100,000 ashrafis,400,000 rupees and an annual grant of 600,000. Upon Mumtaz Mahals death her personal fortune was divided by Shah Jahan between Jahanara Begum and the rest of Mumtaz Mahals surviving children, the pargana of Panipat was also granted to her
22.
Thar Desert
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The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is a large, arid region in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent that forms a natural boundary between India and Pakistan. It is the worlds 17th largest desert, and the worlds 9th largest subtropical desert, about 85% of the Thar Desert is in India, and the remaining part in Pakistan. In India, it covers about 320,000 km2, forming approximately 10% of the geographic area of India. More than 60% of the lies in the state of Rajasthan and extends into Gujarat, Punjab. This desert comprises a very dry part, the Marusthali region in the west, the Thar Desert extends between the Aravalli Hills in the north-east, the Great Rann of Kutch along the coast and the alluvial plains of the Indus River in the west and north-west. Most of the desert is covered by shifting sand dunes that receive sediments from the alluvial plains. The sand is highly due to strong winds occurring before the onset of the monsoon. The Luni River is the only integrated into the desert. Rainfall is limited to 100–500 mm per year, mostly falling from July to September, salt water lakes in the Thar Desert include the Sambhar, Kuchaman, Didwana in Rajasthan and Kharaghoda in Gujarat. These lakes receive rain water during monsoon and evaporate during the dry season, the salt is derived by the weathering of rocks in the region. Lithic tools belonging to the prehistoric Aterian culture of the Maghreb have been discovered in Middle Paleolithic deposits in the Thar Desert, the soil of the Thar Desert remains dry for much of the year and is prone to wind erosion. High velocity winds blow soil from the desert, depositing some on neighboring fertile lands, the 649 km long Indira Gandhi Canal brings fresh water to the Thar Desert. It was conceived to halt spreading of the desert to fertile areas, there are few local tree species suitable for planting in the desert, which are slow growing. Therefore, exotic species were introduced for plantation. Many species of Eucalyptus, Acacia, Cassia and other genera from Israel, Australia, US, Russia, Zimbabwe, Chile, Peru and Sudan have been tried in Thar Desert. Acacia tortilis has proved to be the most promising species for desert afforestation, there are several protected areas in the Thar Desert. In India, the Desert National Park covers 3,162 km2 and represents the Thar Desert ecosystem and its diverse fauna includes the great Indian bustard, blackbuck, chinkara, fox, Bengal fox, wolf, and caracal. Seashells and massive fossilized tree trunks in this record the geological history of the desert
23.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
24.
Monsoon
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Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is sometimes used for locally heavy but short-term rains. The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia-Australian monsoons, the inclusion of the North and South American monsoons with incomplete wind reversal has been debated. The south-west monsoon winds are called Nairutya Maarut in India, the English monsoon came from Portuguese monção, ultimately from Arabic mawsim and/or Hindi mausam, perhaps partly via early modern Dutch monsun. Strengthening of the Asian monsoon has been linked to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau after the collision of the Indian sub-continent and Asia around 50 million years ago. Because of studies of records from the Arabian Sea and that of the wind-blown dust in the Loess Plateau of China, testing of this hypothesis awaits deep ocean sampling by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program. The monsoon has varied significantly in strength since this time, largely linked to climate change. A study of marine plankton suggested that the Indian Monsoon strengthened around 5 million years ago, then, during ice periods, the sea level fell and the Indonesian Seaway closed. When this happened, cold waters in the Pacific were impeded from flowing into the Indian Ocean and it is believed that the resulting increase in sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean increased the intensity of monsoons. Five episodes during the Quaternary at 2.22 Ma,1.83 Ma,0.68 Ma,0.45 Ma and 0.04 Ma were identified which showed a weakening of Leeuwin Current. The weakening of the LC would have an effect on the sea surface temperature field in the Indian Ocean, thus these five intervals could probably be those of considerable lowering of SST in the Indian Ocean and would have influenced Indian monsoon intensity. The impact of monsoon on the weather is different from place to place. In some places there is just a likelihood of having a more or less rain. In other places, quasi semi-deserts are turned into green grasslands where all sorts of plants. The Indian Monsoon turns large parts of India from a kind of semi-desert into green lands, see photos only taken 3 months apart in the Western Ghats. In places like this it is crucial for farmers to have the right timing for putting the seeds on the fields, Monsoons are large-scale sea breezes which occur when the temperature on land is significantly warmer or cooler than the temperature of the ocean. These temperature imbalances happen because oceans and land absorb heat in different ways, in contrast, dirt, sand, and rocks have lower heat capacities, and they can only transmit heat into the earth by conduction and not by convection. Therefore, bodies of water stay at an even temperature
25.
Prime Minister of India
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The Prime Minister of India is the Head of Government and leader of the executive branch of the Government of India. The Prime Minister is also the adviser to the President of India. He or she can be a member of any of the two houses of Parliament, but has to be the leader of the party, having a majority in the Lok Sabha. The Prime Minister is the member of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. The Prime Minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet, allocates posts to members within the Government, is the presiding member and chairman of the cabinet. The federal or union cabinet headed by the Prime Minister is appointed by the President of India to assist the latter in the administration of the affairs of the executive, Union cabinet is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha as per Article 75. The Prime Minister shall always enjoy the confidence of Lok Sabha, India follows a parliamentary system in which the prime minister is the presiding, actual head of the government and chief of the executive branch. In such systems, the head of state or the head of states official representative usually holds a ceremonial position. The Prime Minister shall become a member of parliament within six months of beginning his/her tenure, he/She is expected to work with other central ministers to ensure the passage of bills by the Parliament. There shall be a Council of Ministers with the minister at the head to aid and advise the president who shall, in the exercise of his functions. The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. Like most parliamentary democracies, a Presidents duties are mostly ceremonial as long as the constitution and the rule of law is obeyed by the Union Cabinet, the Prime Minister of India is the head of union government and has the responsibility for executive power. The prime minister leads the functioning and exercise of authority of the government of India. President of India invites a person who is commanding support of majority members of Lok Sabha to form government at the federal level, in practice the prime minister nominates the members of their Council of Ministers to the president. They also work upon to decide a core group of Ministers as in-charge of the important functions, some specific ministries/department are not allocated to anyone in the cabinet but the prime minister himself. Per Article 78 of the constitution, the communication between the union cabinet and the president are through the prime minister. Other wise constitution recognises the prime minister as a member of the cabinet only outside the sphere of union cabinet. Be a member of the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha
26.
Manmohan Singh
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Manmohan Singh is an Indian economist and politician who served as the Prime Minister of India from 2004 to 2014. The first Sikh in office, Singh was also the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru to be re-elected after completing a full five-year term, born in Gah, Singhs family migrated to India during its partition in 1947. After obtaining his doctorate in economics from Oxford, Singh worked for the United Nations during 1966–69 and he subsequently began his bureaucratic career when Lalit Narayan Mishra hired him as an advisor in the Ministry of Foreign Trade. Over the 70s and 80s, Singh held several key posts in the Government of India, such as Chief Economic Advisor, Reserve Bank governor and Planning Commission head. In 1991, as India faced an economic crisis, newly elected Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao surprisingly inducted the apolitical Singh into his cabinet as Finance Minister. Over the next few years, despite opposition, he as a Finance Minister carried out several structural reforms that liberalised Indias economy. Subsequently, Singh served as Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha during the Atal Bihari Vajpayee government of 1998–2004, in 2004, when the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance came to power, its chairperson Sonia Gandhi unexpectedly relinquished the premiership to Manmohan Singh. In 2008, opposition to a civil nuclear agreement with the United States nearly caused Singhs government to fall after Left Front parties withdrew their support. Although Indias economy grew rapidly under UPA I, its security was threatened by several terrorist incidents, the 2009 general election saw the UPA return with an increased mandate, with Singh retaining the office of Prime Minister. After his term ended in 2014 he opted out from the race to the office of the Prime Minister of India during 2014 Indian general election. Singh was never a member of the Lok Sabha but continues to serve as a member of the Indian Parliament, Singh was born to Gurmukh Singh and Amrit Kaur on 26 September 1932, in Gah, Punjab, British India, into a Sikh family. He lost his mother when he was young and was raised by his paternal grandmother. After the Partition of India, his family migrated to Amritsar, India and he completed his Economics Tripos at University of Cambridge as he was a member of St Johns College in 1957. Joan Robinson was a brilliant teacher, but she sought to awaken the inner conscience of her students in a manner that very few others were able to achieve. She questioned me a deal and made me think the unthinkable. She propounded the left wing interpretation of Keynes, maintaining that the state has to play more of a if you really want to combine development with social equity. Kaldor influenced me more, I found him pragmatic, scintillating, stimulating. Joan Robinson was an admirer of what was going on in China
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Ajmer Junction railway station
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Ajmer Junction railway station is located in Ajmer district in the Indian state of Rajasthan. Ajmer Junction is an important railway junction having 5 platforms and situated in the heart of the city and it is at an elevation of 464 metres and was assigned the code – AII. Other Suburban Station of Ajmer are Daurai, Madar and Adarsh Nagar and it has a railway complex, which includes a major workshop. Initially it was built a metre gauge station with lines from Chittorgarh, Ahmedabad, Phulera. In the 1990s. The Delhi-Ahmedabad line was converted to broad gauge, finally, somewhere in 2007, the line to Chittaurgarh was converted to BG. It has 4 branchings of broad gauge lines to Beawar in South-west, Chittorgarh Junction in South, Phulera Junction in North, Ajmer Junction railway station at the India Rail Info
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Ajmer Jain temple
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The Ajmer Jain temple, also known as Soniji Ki Nasiyan, is an architecturally rich Jain temple. It was built in the nineteenth century. The main chamber, known as the Swarna Nagari City of Gold, has several gold-plated wooden figures, both the temple and the museum were built and are still owned by the Sony family of Ajmer. The thought to have such a model for educational purposes occurred to Seth Moolchand Soni. His death in 1891 prevented him seeing his ambitious work in its finished state. In many Jaina temples one sees painted or figurative representations of the five events in the life of every Tirthankara, conception, birth, renunciation, enlightenment. The one at Ajmer, now over a years old, is by far the largest and most artistic plastic representation of that much-loved mythological narrative. A specially designed hall of 24.3 m by 12.2 m had to be built to display it effectively and it is open to visitors of all religions every day all the year round for a very small entry fee. Greatly revered by the Digambar sect of the Jains, the Nasiyan temple is dedicated to Lord Rishabhdev and it is situated on Prithvi Raj Marg in Ajmer, the heart of Rajasthan state in India. The foundation of this magnificent Jain temple was laid on 10 October 1864 and this work was carried out under the able guidance of the great scholar Pandit Sadasukhdasji of Jaipur. The name of the temple is Siddhkoot Chaityalaya and it is also known as Red Temple as it is built of red sand stone or Nasiyan of Seth Moolchand Soni signifying the founder’s name. After the Svarna Nagri was added to the temple in 1895 A. D. it popularly began to be called as Sone ka Mandir or Soni Mandir emphasizing the golden structure as well as the family name. The halls of this temple are adorned with fascinating series of large, gilt wooden figures, Main Temple, The entrance gate of the temple is made of red sand stone brought from Karauli. In front of the gateway is the staircase, leading to the main temple. In the year 2005, the 3 Vedis were renovated and all the idols of Tirthankaras were re-installed amidst religious rituals, in this portion only Jains are allowed to perform their religious rituals. Manastambha, On entering this historical temple one gets the view of the beautifully and artistically designed 82 feet high Manastambha, R. B. Seth Tikamchand Soni laid the foundation and R. B. Seth Sir Bhagchand Soni built this Manastambha. He, along with his sons Prabhachand, Nirmalchand & Sushilchand consecrated and installed the images of the Jain Tirthankars in it, a big function was held for ten days in June 1953, where along with the members of the Soni family, thousands of others participated. Library, In the year 1974, in the presence of 108 Acharya VidhyasagarJi Maharaj
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Pushkar Lake
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Pushkar Lake or Pushkar Sarovar is located in the town of Pushkar in Ajmer district of the Rajasthan state of western India. Pushkar Lake is a lake of the Hindus. The Pushkar Lake finds mention on coins as early as the 4th century BC, Pushkar Lake is surrounded by 52 bathing ghats, where pilgrims throng in large numbers to take a sacred bath, especially around Kartik Poornima when the Pushkar Fair is held. A dip in the lake is believed to cleanse sins. Over 500 Hindu temples are situated around the lake precincts, Tourism and deforestation in the surroundings have taken a heavy toll on the lake, adversely affecting its water quality, reducing the water levels and destroying the fish population. As part of measures, the government is undertaking de-silting, de-weeding, water treatment. Pushkar Lake around which the Pushkar town has developed is in the Ajmer district in the state of Rajasthan, the mountain range known as Nag Parbat separates the lake from the city of Ajmer. The valley is formed between the two ranges of the Aravalli hills (in elevation range of 650–856 metres running south-west to north-east. Situated at 14 kilometres northwest from Ajmer, the artificial Pushkar Lake created by building a dam is surrounded by deserts, the lake is categorized as a Sacred Lake under the list of Classification of Lakes in India. The soil and topography in the catchment are predominantly sandy with very low water retention capacity. The land use pattern in the Pushkar valley that drains into the lake comprises 30% of the area under shifting sand dunes, 30% under hills and streams, the region experiences semi-arid climatic conditions with dry and hot summers and cool winters. The summer months of May and June are the hottest, with a temperature of around 45 °C. During the winter months, the mean temperature is in the range of 25–10 °C. Rain mainly occurs during a spell of two months during July and August. The recorded average rainfall is in the range of 400–600 millimetres, rainfall is also recorded some times during winter months of January and February. From April to September, strong winds blowing in the southwest to northeast direction add to the formation of sand dunes, the Pushkar Lake drains a catchment of the Aravalli hills covering an area of 22 square kilometres. The lake has a surface area of 22 hectares. It is a perennial lake sourced by the rainfall over the catchment
listen)) is one of the major cities in the Indian state of Rajasthan and the centre of the eponymous Ajmer District. According to the 2011 census, Ajmer had a population of 542,321 in the city, 551,101 including its suburbs.[2]
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ajmere". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 452–453.
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the 
