1.
Prime Minister of France
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The French Prime Minister in the Fifth Republic is the head of government and of the Council of Ministers of France. During the Third and Fourth Republics, the head of government position was called President of the Council of Ministers, the Prime Minister proposes a list of ministers to the President of the Republic. Decrees and decisions of the Prime Minister, like almost all decisions, are subject to the oversight of the administrative court system. Few decrees are taken after advice from the Council of State, all prime ministers defend the programs of their ministry, and make budgetary choices. The extent to which those decisions lie with the Prime Minister or President depends upon whether they are of the same party, manuel Valls was appointed to lead the government in a cabinet reshuffle in March 2014, after the ruling Socialists suffered a bruising defeat in local elections. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic, the President can choose whomever they want. On the other hand, because the National Assembly does have the power to force the resignation of the government, for example, right after the legislative election of 1986, President François Mitterrand appointed Jacques Chirac prime minister. Chirac was a member of the RPR and an opponent of Mitterrand. Despite the fact that Mitterrands own Socialist Party was the largest party in the Assembly, the RPR had an alliance with the UDF, which gave them a majority. Such a situation, where the President is forced to work with a minister who is an opponent, is called a cohabitation. So far, Édith Cresson is the woman to have ever held the position of prime minister. Aristide Briand holds the record for most nomination as Prime Minister with 11 between 1909 and 1929 with some terms as short as 26 days, other members of Government are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister can engage the responsibility of his or her Government before the National Assembly and this process consists of placing a bill before the Assembly, and either the Assembly overthrows the Government, or the bill is passed automatically. In addition to ensuring that the Government still has support in the House, the Prime Minister may also submit a bill that has not been yet signed into law to the Constitutional Council. Before he is allowed to dissolve the Assembly, the President has to consult the Prime Minister, the office of the prime minister, in its current form, dates from the formation of the French Third Republic. Under the French Constitutional Laws of 1875, he was imbued with the powers as his British counterpart. In practice, however, the minister was a fairly weak figure. Most notably, the legislature had the power to force the cabinet out of office by a vote of censure
2.
Jacques Chirac
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Jacques René Chirac is a French politician, who served as the President of France and ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra from 1995 to 2007. Chirac served as Prime Minister of France from 1974 to 1976, from 1986 to 1988, Chirac occupied various senior positions, including Minister of Agriculture, Minister of the Interior, Prime Minister, Mayor of Paris, and President of the French Republic. Chiracs internal policies initially included lower tax rates, the removal of controls, strong punishment for crime and terrorism. After pursuing these policies as Prime Minister, Chirac changed his method, Jacques Chirac has emerged as an improbable icon of retro taste and a figure of public affection. On 15 December 2011, the Paris court declared him guilty of diverting public funds and abusing public confidence, and gave Chirac a two-year suspended prison sentence. Chirac, born in the Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire clinic, is the son of Abel François Marie Chirac, an executive for an aircraft company, and Marie-Louise Valette. His great grandparents on both sides were peasants, but his two grandfathers were teachers from Sainte-Féréole in Corrèze, according to Chirac, his name originates from the langue doc, that of the troubadours, therefore that of poetry. He was educated in Paris at the Cours Hattemer, a private school and he then attended the Lycée Carnot and at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand. After his baccalauréat, he served for three months as a sailor on a coal-transporter, Chirac played rugby union for Brives youth team, and also played at university level. He played no.8 and second row, in 1956, he married Bernadette Chodron de Courcel, with whom he had two daughters, Laurence and Claude. Chirac is the grandfather of Martin Rey-Chirac by the relationship of Claude with French judoka Thierry Rey, Jacques and Bernadette Chirac also have a foster daughter, Anh Dao Traxel. Inspired by General Charles de Gaulle, Chirac started to pursue a civil career in the 1950s. During this period, he joined the French Communist Party, sold copies of LHumanité, in 1950, he signed the Soviet-inspired Stockholm Appeal for the abolition of nuclear weapons – which led him to be questioned when he applied for his first visa to the United States. Chirac trained as a military officer in armoured cavalry at Saumur. He then volunteered to fight in the Algerian War, using connections to be sent despite the reservations of his superiors. His superiors did not want to make him an officer because they suspected he had communist leanings, after leaving the ENA in 1959, he became a civil servant in the Court of Auditors. In April 1962, Chirac was appointed head of the staff of Prime Minister Georges Pompidou. This appointment launched Chiracs political career, Pompidou considered Chirac his protégé, and referred to him as my bulldozer for his skill at getting things done
3.
Lionel Jospin
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Lionel Jospin is a French politician, who served as Prime Minister of France from 1997 to 2002. Jospin was the Socialist Party candidate for President of France in the elections of 1995 and 2002 and he was narrowly defeated in the final runoff election by Jacques Chirac in 1995. Lionel Jospin was born to a Protestant family in Meudon, a suburb of Paris and he is the son of Robert Jospin. He attended the Lycée Janson-de-Sailly before studying at the Institut détudes politiques de Paris and he was active in the UNEF students union, protesting against the war in Algeria. He completed his service as an officer in charge of armoured training in Trier. After his graduation from the ENA in 1965, he entered the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as secretary of Foreign Affairs and he became in charge of economic cooperation there, and worked with Ernest-Antoine Seillière, future leader of the MEDEF employers union. Integrating François Mitterrands circle, he became the second highest-ranking member of the party in 1979, in 1984, when Laurent Fabius was chosen as Prime minister, a rivalry appeared between these two political heirs of Mitterrand. It broke out when they competed for the leadership of the 1986 legislative campaign, in 1988, after Mitterrands re-election, he left the PS leadership, and, though the President considered naming him Prime Minister, he was nominated Minister of Education. His rivalry with Fabius intensified and caused a crisis, notably during the Rennes Congress. Indeed, the mitterrandist group in the party split because Jospin followers allied with the factions to prevent the election of Fabius as First Secretary. As a member of the National Assembly, Jospin served first as a representative of Paris, Jospin lost his seat in the National Assembly in the Socialists landslide defeat in the 1993 legislative election and announced his political retirement. In 1993, Lionel Jospin was appointed ministre plénipotentiaire, 2nd class and he was, however, not appointed to any embassy. Finally, he came back and claimed the necessity to take stock of the mitterrandist inheritance so as to restore the credibility of the Socialist Party, in this, he was selected to be the Socialist candidate for President in 1995, against the PS leader Henri Emmanuelli. Following the Socialists landslide defeats of 1992–1994, Jospin was considered to have little chance of victory, but he did surprisingly well, leading the first round and losing only very narrowly to Jacques Chirac in the final runnoff election. Despite defeat, his performance was seen to mark a revival of the Socialists as a force in French politics. He built a new coalition with the other left-wing parties, the French Communist Party, the Greens, the Left Radical Party, two years later, Chirac decided to call an early election for the National Assembly, hoping for a personal endorsement. But the move backfired as the Plural Left obtained a parliamentary majority, Jospin is a Member of the Club of Madrid. Jospin served as Prime Minister during Frances third cohabitation government under President Jacques Chirac from 1997 to 2002, despite his previous image as a rigid socialist, Jospin went on selling state-owned enterprises, lowered the VAT rate, income tax and company tax
4.
Ministry of Europe and Foreign Affairs
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The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, is the ministry in the government of France that handles Frances foreign relations. Its headquarters are located on the Quai dOrsay in Paris, close to the National Assembly of France and its cabinet minister, the Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Development is responsible for the foreign relations of France. The current minister, Jean-Marc Ayrault, was appointed in February 2016, in 1547, secretaries to the King became specialized, writing correspondence to foreign governments, and negotiating peace treaties. The four French secretaries of state where foreign relations were divided by region, in 1589, the Ancien Régime position of Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs became Foreign Minister around 1723, and was renamed Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1791 after the French Revolution. All ministerial positions were abolished in 1794 by the National Convention, for a brief period in the 1980s, the office was retitled Minister for External Relations
5.
Laurent Fabius
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Laurent Fabius is a French Socialist politician who served as Prime Minister of France from 17 July 1984 to 20 March 1986. Fabius was 37 years old when he was appointed and is, so far, later, Fabius was President of the National Assembly from 1988 to 1992, and again from 1997 to 2000. Fabius served in the government as Minister of Finance from 2000 to 2002, Fabius was born in the wealthy 16th arrondissement of Paris, the son of Louise and André Fabius. He is the brother of Catherine Leterrier and François Fabius. Fabius parents were from Ashkenazi Jewish families, and converted to Catholicism and he has three sons, David with his partner Ch dIzarny Gargas, Thomas and Victor with his spouse Francoise Castro. Fabiuss secondary education was at the Lycée Janson de Sailly and Lycée Louis-le-Grand, Fabius was a graduate of institutions that are training grounds for academics, and senior civil servants and executives. After his studies, Fabius became an auditor for the Council of State, a member of the Socialist Party since 1974, Fabius was first elected to the National Assembly in 1978 for the fourth constituency of Seine-Maritime. Fabius quickly gained entry to the circle of François Mitterrand, the leader of the party, when Mitterrand was elected as President of France in 1981, Fabius was nominated as Minister of the Budget. Two years later, Fabius became Minister of Industry, and pursued the policy of industrial restructuration, in 1984, a government shake up by Mitterrand led Fabius to be appointed as Prime Minister at the age of 37. Fabius advocated a new kind of French socialism, which accepted the market economy, the allowable income for recipients of the young child allowance was increased for families with three or more children. The Fabius Government also sought to reduce penalties on families with working mothers by substantially increasing the income ceiling for dual-income families receiving the young child allowance. In 1985, as a means of upholding the rights of homosexuals, in November 1984, an allowance was introduced if the parent concerned had been employed for two or more years. Known as the “allocation parentale d’education, ” this allowance provided 1,000 francs per month for parents who decided to take two years of leave after the birth of their first child. Payment was to continue after this period for 8 out of 10 families for a further 32 months on a means-tested basis, in effect, this created a benefit for the first child in lower income families. The government, however, reduced the daily maternity allowance from 90% to 84% of the basic wage, in June 1985, a law was passed allowing first offenders who had committed petty crimes to serve sentences of six months or less in public-service jobs. A July 1985 law tripled the amount of aid for victims of crimes, legislation was introduced later that year to restrict the use of preventive detention, and ensure that the rights of suspects were better protected. A special 1985 holiday programme was introduced, directed particularly at young people outside the traditional circuits of organised leisure activities, the right to maternity leave was also extended to the father, in the event of the death of the mother in child-birth. The father was entitled to leave and could claim an allowance under the maternity insurance scheme
6.
Roland Dumas
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Roland Dumas is a lawyer and French Socialist politician who served notably as Foreign Minister under President François Mitterrand from 1984 to 1986 and from 1988 to 1993. He was also President of the Constitutional Council from 1995 to 1999, son of Georges Dumas, a civil servant in Limogess region and Socialist resistant to the German Occupation during the Second World War, shot at by the Gestapo, he conveyed weapons for the Resistance. He was arrested after the boycott of the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra by French students, after the war, he completed his law and political science studies in the Ecole libre des sciences politiques and the London School of Economics. In this, he became close to François Mitterrand, president of the Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance party and he came back into the French National Assembly between 1967 and 1968 as representative of Corrèze département. Member of the renewed Socialist Party led by Mitterrand, he became deputy for Gironde département in 1973, in 1974 he acted as defense lawyer for Hilarion Capucci who was prosecuted in Israel with charges of smuggling weapons into Israel, for the PLO. When President Mitterrand appointed Laurent Fabius as Prime Minister in July 1984, five months later, he replaced Foreign Minister Claude Cheysson. He remained in function until the Socialist defeat in the March 1986 legislative election. Nevertheless, he returned to the Quai dOrsay after the re-election of Mitterrand in May 1988, indeed, he was the French Foreign Minister during the collapse of the Soviet Block, the Gulf War, and the negotiations of the Maastricht Treaty. Not re-elected to the French National Assembly in 1993, he was nominated President of the Constitutional Council in 1995 and this was one of the last decisions of President Mitterrand. Under his presidency, the body argued in favour of judicial immunity for the French President. M. Dumas is a member of the Emergency Committee for Iraq, accused in the Elf affair, he resigned from the Presidency of the Constitutional Council in January 1999. Dumas conviction for criticising a public prosecutor in his book was found unlawful by the European Court of Human Rights in 2010, in May 2007, Dumas received a 12-month jail sentence for funds he mis-appropriated acting as executor of the will of the widow of Alberto Giacometti. In February 2015, Dumas suggested Prime Minister Manuel Valls was probably acting under Jewish influence, when directly asked by a reporter if Valls under a Jewish influence. Dumas responded, Probably, I would think so, the French Socialist party subsequently released a statement declaring that Dumas claims were unworthy of a Socialist decorated by the Republic. Valls declined to comment on Dumass claims, except to say that Dumas was a man with a known past, governmental functions President of the Constitutional Council of France, 1995–2000. Governmental functions Minister for European Affairs, 1983–1984, electoral mandates National Assembly of France Member of the National Assembly of France for Haute-Vienne, 1956–1958. Member of the National Assembly of France for Corrèze, 1967–1968, Member of the National Assembly of France for Dordogne, 1981–1983 / 1986–1988. Elected in 1981, reelected in 1986,1988
7.
Minister of the Armed Forces (France)
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The Ministry of Defence is the French cabinet member charged with running the military of France. The minister in charge of the French military has evolved within the epoque, the minister is always attached to a ministry or state secretary bureau, today attached to the Ministry of Defense. The Secretary of State of War was one of the four specialised secretaries of state established in France in 1589 and this State Secretary was responsible for the French Army. In 1791, the secretary of state of war becomes Minister of War, with this function being abolished in 1794. In 1930, the position was referred to as Minister of War. The current Minister of Defence and Veterans Affairs is Jean-Yves Le Drian. org
8.
Ministry of Ecology
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The Ministry of the Environment, Energy and Marine Affairs is an agency of the Government of France, centred on a cabinet member who is often referred to as the Minister of Ecology. Since April 2014, the position is occupied by socialist Ségolène Royal, the ministry is headquartered in La Grande Arche in La Défense and also, in the Tour Pascal and Tour Sequoia, in Puteaux/ La Défense, near Paris. There is also a Delegate Minister for Transport, Sea and Fishing located in the same place and this position is currently occupied by Frédéric Cuvillier. From 1974 to 1977, the position was renamed Minister of Quality of Life, in 1978 this became Minister of the Environment and Way of Life. The current position title features the expression sustainable development, in due to the influence of the Green party. An Environmental Charter was included in the French Constitution in 2004 and this Ministry is responsible for State Environmental Policy, Transportation, Sea, and Housing Policy. The Ministry distributes funds to Research Agencies or Councils, in 2009, the Minister of Housing and City reported to the Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development, Transport and Housing. This post became the Minister of Housing, in 2012, the minister was Cécile Duflot. In May 2012 the Ayrault government established the Le Ministère de lÉgalité des Territoires et du Logement managed by the ecologist Cécile Duflot, previously it was called the Ministry of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and Sea. It also had called the Ministry of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and Town. It also once operated as the Ministry for Ecology, Sustainable Development, another occasion, it was the Ministry of Ecology and Sustainable Development. It also had been the Ministry of Country Planning and Environment, Ministry of Country Planning and Environment Ministry for Ecology, Sustainable Development and Spatial Planning
9.
Jean-Louis Borloo
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On 6 April 2014, he announced in a letter that he would resign from every mandate or responsibility, due to health reasons. Borloo gained his Baccalauréat in 1969, in the Philosophy stream, in 1972 he took a first degree in Law and Philosophy at the Pantheon-Sorbonne University, in 1974 a further degree in History and Economics at Paris X Nanterre, and in 1976 an MBA at HEC Paris. Of Picard origin, Borloo began his career as a lawyer in the 1980s and he became president of the Valenciennes Football Club in 1986. In 1989, he was elected mayor of Valenciennes as an Independent, in the June 1989 European elections, Borloo was elected to the European Parliament as the second candidate on Simone Veils list. He held this seat until his election as regional councillor for the Nord-Pas-de-Calais in 1992, Borloo was elected to the French National Assembly as a Miscellaneous Right candidate representing the Nords 21st constituency in 1993. Joining the caucus of the UDF, he was re-elected in 1997 and he was a founding member of Ecology Generation in 1990, but he later joined the Union for French Democracy led by François Bayrou. However, in 2002 he joined the Radical Party, associated with the new Union for a Popular Movement and he was co-president of the Radical Party alongside André Rossinot between 2005 and 2007, when he became sole President of the party. It was on the Radical-UMP ticket that Borloo was re-elected as a deputy in 2002 and 2007, in that role, he introduced a five-year plan of social cohesion, which was centered around three axes, equal opportunity, housing and employment. On 21 July 2005 Borloo married news anchorwoman Béatrice Schönberg at Rueil-Malmaison, from 18 May to 19 June 2007, he was Minister of the Economy and Finance in the François Fillon cabinet. Between 19 June 2007 and November 2010, he was the French minister of State for Energy, Ecology, in this capacity, he was a major player in the 2007–2008 Grenelle de lenvironnement. He quit the government allegedly after being passed over for premiership in a cabinet reshuffle, in April 2011, Borloo left the UMP in protest at Sarkozys rightward swing. He announced plans to set up a republican, ecologist, and social alliance, however, he decided not to run as President of France. In September 2012, he created the Union of Democrats and Independents, despite being a leader in the UDI, Borloo wasnt involved in the 2014 local elections, mentioning health reasons, such as frontal acute pneumonia and septicemy. On 6 April 2014, Jean-Louis Borloo announced in a letter to the executives of the UDI that he would resign immediately from every political term, governmental functions Minister of State, Minister for Ecology, Energy and Sustainable Development, 2007–2010. Minister of Economy, Finance and Industry, May–June 2007, Minister for Employment, Social Cohesion and Housing, 2005–2007. Minister of Labour, Employment and Social Cohesion, 2004–2005, Minister of the City and Urban Renewal, 2002–2004. Electoral mandates European Parliament Member of European Parliament, 1989–1992, National Assembly of France President of the Union of Democrats and Independents Group in the National Assembly, 2012-2014. Member of the National Assembly of France for Nord, 1993–2002 / Reelected in 2007, elected in 1993, reelected in 1997,2002,2007, and 2012
10.
Jacques Chaban-Delmas
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Jacques Chaban-Delmas was a French Gaullist politician. He served as Prime Minister under Georges Pompidou from 1969 to 1972 and he was the Mayor of Bordeaux from 1947 to 1995 and a deputy for the Gironde département. Jacques Chaban-Delmas was born Jacques Michel Pierre Delmas in Paris and he studied at the Lycée Lakanal in Sceaux, before attending the École Libre des Sciences Politiques. In the resistance underground, his final nom de guerre was Chaban, after World War II, as a general of brigade in the resistance, he took part in the Parisian insurrection of August 1944, with general de Gaulle. He was the youngest French general since François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers, during the First French Empire, a member of the Radical Party, he finally joined the Gaullist Rally of the French People, which opposed the Fourth Republics governments. In 1947, he became mayor of Bordeaux, which was for 48 years his electoral fief, as a member of the National Assembly, he sat with the RPF. In 1953, when the RPF group split, Chaban-Delmas became head of the Union of Republicans for Social Action and he tied up with centre-left parties and joined Pierre Mendès-Frances cabinet one year later as Minister of Public Works. He took part in the centre-left coalition Republican Front, which won the 1956 legislative election and he was Frances Defence Minister in 1957–1958. His governmental participation during the Fourth Republic inspired the distrust of de Gaulle, following Gen. de Gaulles return to power in 1958, Chaban-Delmas agreed to the advent of the French Fifth Republic and the new Constitution. He took part in the foundation of the Union for the New Republic and was elected, against de Gaulles will and he kept this function until the end of de Gaulles presidency in 1969. Unlike some Gaullists, for instance, Jacques Soustelle, he supported de Gaulles policy to end the Algerian War of Independence, during the 1959 UNR Congress, he was the first politician to evoke a reserved presidential domain, composed chiefly of defence and diplomacy. This interpretation of the Constitution of 1958 has survived, in 1969, when Georges Pompidou acceded to the presidency, he chose Chaban-Delmas, who had concluded that the May 68 crisis was the consequence of a strained and conflicted society, as prime minister. Chaban-Delmas tried to promote what he called a new society, based on dialogue between the different social forces in French society, in addition, regular increases were made to the minimum wage which prevented greater wage disparities. A new legal aid scheme was introduced, along with a number of new social welfare benefits, as a result of his social policies, Chaban-Delmas was viewed as too progressive by the conservative wing of the Gaullist movement. He was suspected of wanting to tie up again with the centre-left, indeed, his advisers who inspired the new society programme were considered as close to the centre-left. Besides, a latent conflict opposed Chaban-Delmas to President Pompidou and the presidential circle and they accused him of trying to weaken the presidency in favour of himself. The satirical paper Le Canard Enchaîné accused him of breaking the law through tax evasion and in 1972 and he did obtain this, but the President still managed to force his resignation. Two years later, following the death in office of President Pompidou and he was supported by the lords of gaullism, but 43 personalities close to the late president, led by Jacques Chirac, published the Call of the 43 in favour of the candidacy of Valéry Giscard dEstaing
11.
Henri Emmanuelli
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Henri Emmanuelli was a French politician. A member of the French Socialist Party, he has been deputy for Landes from 1978 to 1981, from 1986 to 1997, Emmanuelli was born in Eaux-Bonnes in the French department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques. He grew up with a background and lost his father at a very young age. He studied at Sciences Po in Paris and he joined in 1969 the Compagnie Financière Edmond de Rothschild. In 1971, he was appointed to the management of company, becoming a senior banking executive. He continued his career at the Rothschild Bank until he was elected at the French National Assembly at age 32 in 1978. He joined the Socialist Party in 1971, on the request of François Mitterrand he was, at the age of 27, a candidate in the legislative elections of March 1973 in the second circonscription of Lot-et-Garonne. But it was on March 19,1978 that he was elected for the first time as the deputy for the electoral district of Landes. In 1982, he was elected for the first time as the President of the General Council of Landes, between January 1992 and April 1993, he was chairman of the National Assembly. He was then elected First Secretary of the Socialist Party in June 1994, however, he was defeated by Lionel Jospin in the race to represent the Socialist Party in the 1995 presidential election. Jospin also took on the role of First Secretary of the party in October 1995, one year later, Emmanuelli was convicted for the illicit financing of the party when he was its treasurer. He believed that the treaty was an away from the idea of a Federal Europe. He is followed by his supporters, one of which is Michel Vergnier. In 2000, he took part in the Congress of Grenoble of the Socialist Party and was a campaigner for a Socialist Party which was clearly aligned to the left. For the Congress of Mans in November 2005, he associated himself with the New Socialist Party motion of Arnaud Montebourg, elected in 1978, reelected in 1981,1986,1988,1993,1997,2000,2002,2007,2012. Regional Council Regional councillor of Aquitaine, 1986–88 General Council President of the General Council of Landes, reelected in 1985,1988,1992,1994,2001,2004,2008,2011. General councillor of Landes, elected in the canton of Tartas-Ouest, them from 1994 for the canton of Mugron, reelected in 1988,1994,2000,2001,2008. Political function First Secretary of the Socialist Party, 1994–95, elected in 1994, Emmanuelli died on 21 March 2017 at a medical center in Bayonne, Pyrénées-Atlantiques from complications of acute bronchitis at the age of 71
12.
Mont-de-Marsan
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Mont-de-Marsan is a commune and capital of the Landes department in Nouvelle-Aquitaine in southwestern France. The French Air Force operates the Constantin Rozanoff Mont-de-Marsan airbase about 2 kilometres north of the town, the base includes CEAM, an air defense radar command reporting centre and an air defence control training site. Mont-de-Marsan airbase was formerly home to Frances first operational squadron of nuclear bombers, the Donjon Lacataye is the keep of a 14th-century castle Despiau-Wlérick Museum Dubalen Museum Marechal Fochs equestrian statue Stade Montois is the citys rugby and football team. Two historic punk rock festivals were held in Mont-de-Marsans bullring in 1976 and 1977. Festival Arte Flamenco international festival created in 1989 in Mont-de-Marsan by the council of the Landes department
13.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
14.
Rally for the Republic
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The Rally for the Republic, was a Gaullist and conservative political party in France. Originating from the Union of Democrats for the Republic, it was founded by Jacques Chirac in 1976, on 21 September 2002, the RPR was merged into the Union for the Presidential Majority, later renamed the Union for a Popular Movement. In 1974, the divisions in the Gaullist movement permitted the election of Valéry Giscard dEstaing to the Presidency of the French Republic. Representing the pro-European and Orleanist centre-right, he was the first non-Gaullist rising to the head of the state since the beginning of the Fifth Republic in 1958, however, the Gaullist Party remained the main force in parliament and Jacques Chirac was appointed Prime Minister. Chirac resigned in August 1976 and in December 1976 the RPR was created in order to restore the Gaullist domination over the republican institutions, though retaining its support for the presidents government, the RPR criticized the executive duo composed of President Giscard dEstaing and Prime Minister Raymond Barre. Its first master stroke was in March 1977 the election of Chirac as Mayor of Paris against Michel dOrnano, a close friend of President Giscard dEstaing. Consequently, the stake of the 1978 legislative election was not only the victory of the right over the left, given the increasing unpopularity of the executive duo, and with a view to the next presidential election, the RPR became more and more critical. This accusation clearly targeted Giscard dEstaing, RPR leaders contrasted this as coming from the social doctrine of Gaullism as opposed to a perceived liberalism on the part of the President. As RPR candidate at the 1981 presidential election, Chirac formulated vigorous condemnations of President Giscard dEstaing, eliminated in the first round, Chirac refused to give an endorsement for the second round, though he did say privately that he would vote for Giscard dEstaing. In fact, the RPR was expected to work for the defeat of the incumbent president, after 1981, the RPR opposed with energy the policy of the Socialist Party President François Mitterrand and the left-wing governments. The RPR denounced the plan of nationalizations as the setting up of a collectivist society, during its 1983 congress, it advocated a liberal economic programme and the pursuit of the European construction, accepting the supranationality. This new political line contributed to the reconciliation between the RPR and the UDF, in this, they presented a common list at the 1984 European Parliament election and a platform to prepare the winning 1986 legislative election. However, a rivalry appeared between Jacques Chirac and Raymond Barre who competed for the leadership with a view to the next presidential election. Furthermore, if the right-wing coalition benefited from the failures of the Socialist power, the RPR was divided about the possibility of alliance with this party. In 1986, being the leader of the party of the new parliamentary majority and accepting the principle of the cohabitation with President Mitterrand. He led an economic policy inspired by Anglo-Saxon examples, selling a lot of public companies. His Interior Minister Charles Pasqua led a policy of restriction of immigration, if Chirac acceded in the second round of the 1988 presidential election despite Raymond Barres candidacy, he was defeated by Mitterrand. While the RPR returned in the opposition, the leadership of Chirac was challenged by younger politicians who wished to renew the right, furthermore, the abandonment of the Gaullist doctrine was criticized by Charles Pasqua and Philippe Séguin
15.
Union for a Popular Movement
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The Union for a Popular Movement was a centre-right political party in France that was one of the two major contemporary political parties in France along with the centre-left Socialist Party. The UMP was formed in 2002 as a merger of several parties under the leadership of President Jacques Chirac. In May 2015, the party was renamed and succeeded by the Republicans, Nicolas Sarkozy, then the president of the UMP, was elected President of France in the 2007 presidential election, but was defeated by PS candidate François Hollande in a run-off five years later. After the November 2012 party congress, the UMP experienced internal fractioning and was plagued by scandals which forced its president, Jean-François Copé. After his re-election as UMP president in November 2014, Sarkozy put forward an amendment to change the name of the party into The Republicans, since the 1980s, the political groups of the parliamentary right have joined forces around the values of economic liberalism and the building of Europe. Their rivalries had contributed to their defeat in the 1981 and 1988 legislative elections, before the 1993 legislative election, the Gaullist Rally for the Republic and the centrist Union for French Democracy formed an electoral alliance, the Union for France. However, in the 1995 presidential campaign they were divided between followers of Jacques Chirac, who was eventually elected, and supporters of Prime Minister Edouard Balladur. After their defeat in the 1997 legislative election, the RPR, before the 2002 presidential campaign, the supporters of President Jacques Chirac, divided in three centre-right parliamentary parties, founded an association named Union on the Move. After Chiracs re-election, in order to contest the election jointly. It was renamed Union for a Popular Movement and as established as a permanent organisation. In the UMP four major French political families were represented, Gaullism, republicanism, Christian democracy. Chiracs close ally Alain Juppé became the partys first president at the founding congress at the Bourget in November 2002. Juppé won 79. 42% of the vote, defeating Nicolas Dupont-Aignan, the leader of the partys Eurosceptic Arise the Republic faction, and three other candidates. During the partys earlier years, it was marked by tensions, in the 2004 European Parliament election on 13 June 2004, the UMP also suffered another heavy blow, winning 16. 6% of the vote, far behind the Socialist Party, and only 16 seats. Juppé resigned the presidency on 15 July 2004 after being found guilty in a corruption scandal in January of the same year. Nicolas Sarkozy rapidly announced that he would take over the presidency of the UMP and resign his position as finance minister, ending months of speculation. On 28 November 2004, Sarkozy was elected to the presidency with 85. 09% of the votes against 9. 1% for Dupont-Aignan and 5. 82% for Christine Boutin. Having gained control of what had been Chiracs party, Sarkozy focused the party machinery, however, during this time, the UMP under Sarkozy gained a record number of new members and rejuvenated itself in preparation of the 2007 election
16.
The Republicans (France)
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The Republicans is a centre-right political party in France. The party was formed on 30 May 2015 by renaming the Union for a Popular Movement party, the party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in France along with the centre-left Socialist Party. The Republicans are a member of the European Peoples Party, Centrist Democrat International, with the name already chosen, vice-president of the UMP Nathalie Kosciusko-Morizet presented Sarkozy and the partys political bureau the proposed new statutes. The new name was adopted by the party bureau on 5 May 2015, the new party statutes were adopted by 96. 3% of voters and the composition of the new political bureau by 94. 8%. The change to the name The Republicans was confirmed at the founding congress on 30 May 2015 at the Paris Event Centre in Paris. Angela Merkel, chairwoman of the conservative CDU, sent a message to the congress. The Republicans thus became the successor of the UMP and the leading centre-right party in France. The organisation has been declared in the préfecture de Saône-et-Loire on 9 April 2015 and this party foundation was published in the Journal officiel de la République française on 25 April 2015. On 3 July 2016, Sarkozy announced that he would resign as leader that year in order to compete to be the candidate in the 2017 presidential election. On 27 November 2016, Francois Fillon, the former Prime Minister of France, politics of France List of political parties in France Official web site of Les Républicains
17.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
18.
Sciences Po
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Sciences Po, or Paris Institute of Political Studies is a selective university located in Paris, France, and is widely considered to be one of the most prestigious in France. Sciences Po is a university focused on the social sciences and its main campus encircles Boulevard Saint Germain in the 7th arrondissement. Undergraduate students can choose to study in one of its six campuses in Reims, Dijon, Le Havre, Nancy, Poitiers or Menton, each focusing on a different cultural. The institution is a member of several academic consortia, Sciences Po was created in 1872 to improve the training of public servants and politicians in the aftermath of the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1871. Many notable public figures are among its alumni, including most French presidents and it has also been strongly criticized for creating an oligarchy in French society and being at the centre of several scandals. Following defeat in the 1870 war, the demise of Napoleon III, and the Paris Commune, politically and economically, people feared Frances international stature was waning due to inadequate teaching of its political and diplomatic corps. ELSP was meant to serve as breeding ground where nearly all the major, non-technical state commissioners were trained. ”New disciplines such as International Relations, International Law, Political Economy. In August 1894, the British Association for the Advancement of Science spoke out for the need to advance the study of politics along the lines of ELSP. Sidney and Beatrice Webb used the purpose and curriculum of Sciences Po as part of their inspiration for creating the London School of Economics in 1895. As per ordinance 45-2284 issued on 9 October 1945, two entities were created from ELSP, Fondation nationale des sciences politiques or FNSP, and Institut détudes politiques de Paris or IEP Paris. Both entities were tasked by the French government to ensure “the progress, the epithet Sciences Po was applied to both entities, which inherited the reputation previously vested in ELSP. Frances Legislature entrusted FNSP with managing IEP Paris, its library, and budget, and they are not to be confounded with Sciences Pos satellite campuses. FNSP further strengthened its role as a publication center with significant donations from the Rockefeller Foundation. Sciences Po underwent various reforms under the directorship of Richard Descoings, in these years, Sciences Po introduced a compulsory year abroad component to its undergraduate degree, and began to offer a multilingual curriculum in French, English, and other languages. It was during this period that Sciences Po added its regional campuses, Sciences Po also implemented reforms in its admissions process. Previously, Sciences Po recruited its students exclusively on the basis of a competitive examination and this system was seen to favor students from prestigious preparatory high schools or those who could afford year-long preparatory courses. In March 2001, the governing council widened its admissions policy. Sciences Po is located in Paris, in the 6th and 7th districts,27 rue Saint-Guillaume houses the office since 1879
19.
Politics of France
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The politics of France take place with the framework of a semi-presidential system determined by the French Constitution of the French Fifth Republic. The nation declares itself to be an indivisible, secular, democratic, the constitution provides for a separation of powers and proclaims Frances attachment to the Rights of Man and the principles of national sovereignty as defined by the Declaration of 1789. The political system of France consists of a branch, a legislative branch. Executive power is exercised by the President of the Republic and the Government, the Government consists of the Prime Minister and ministers. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President, and is responsible to Parliament, Parliament comprises the National Assembly and the Senate. It passes statutes and votes on the budget, it controls the action of the executive through formal questioning on the floor of the houses of Parliament, former presidents of the Republic also are members of the Council. The independent judiciary is based upon civil law system which evolved from the Napoleonic codes, the French government includes various bodies that check abuses of power and independent agencies. However, its administrative subdivisions—regions, departments and communes—have various legal functions, France was a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community, later the European Union. As such, France has transferred part of its sovereignty to European institutions, the French government therefore has to abide by European treaties, directives and regulations. A popular referendum approved the constitution of the French Fifth Republic in 1958, greatly strengthening the authority of the presidency, France has a semi-presidential system of government. As a consequence, the President is the pre-eminent figure in French politics and he appoints the Prime Minister, though he may not de jure dismiss him, if the Prime Minister is from the same political side, he can, in practice, have him resign on demand. He appoints the ministers, ministers-delegate and secretaries, when parties from opposite ends of the political spectrum control parliament and the presidency, the power-sharing arrangement is known as cohabitation. Before 2002, Cohabitation was more common, because the term of the President was seven years, now that the term of the President has been shortened to five years, and that the elections are separated by only a few months, this is less likely to happen. Nicolas Sarkozy became President on 16 May 2007, succeeding Jacques Chirac, francois Hollande became President in 2012, succeeding Nicolas Sarkozy. The government is led by the Prime Minister, and is made up of junior and senior ministers and it has at its disposal the civil service, government agencies, and the armed forces. The government is responsible to Parliament, and the National Assembly may pass a motion of censure and this, in practice, forces the government to be from the same political party or coalition as the majority in the Assembly. Ministers have to answer questions from members of Parliament, both written and oral, this is known as the questions au gouvernement, in addition, ministers attend meetings of the houses of Parliament when laws pertaining to their areas of responsibility are being discussed. Ministers, however, can propose legislation to Parliament, since the Assembly is usually politically allied to the ministers, such legislation is, in general, the Prime Minister can engage the responsibility of his government on a law, under article 49-3 of the Constitution
20.
President of France
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The President of the French Republic, is the executive head of state of the French Fifth Republic. The powers, functions and duties of prior presidential offices, and their relation with the prime minister, the current President of France is François Hollande, who took office on 15 May 2012. Hollande has announced that he stand down in the upcoming 2017 French presidential election. President Chirac was first elected in 1995 and again in 2002, at that time, there was no limit on the number of terms, so Chirac could have run again, but chose not to. He was succeeded by Nicolas Sarkozy on 16 May 2007, following a further change, the Constitutional law on the Modernisation of the Institutions of the Fifth Republic,2008, a president cannot serve more than two consecutive terms. François Mitterrand and Jacques Chirac are the only Presidents to date who have served a two terms. In order to be admitted as a candidate, potential candidates must receive signed nominations from more than 500 elected officials. These officials must be from at least 30 départements or overseas collectivities, furthermore, each official may nominate only one candidate. There are exactly 45,543 elected officials, including 33,872 mayors, spending and financing of campaigns and political parties are highly regulated. There is a cap on spending, at approximately 20 million euros, if the candidate receives less than 5% of the vote, the government funds €8,000,000 to the party. Advertising on TV is forbidden but official time is given to candidates on public TV, an independent agency regulates election and party financing. After the president is elected, he or she goes through an investiture ceremony called a passation des pouvoirs. The French Fifth Republic is a semi-presidential system, unlike many other European presidents, the French President is quite powerful. The president holds the nations most senior office, and outranks all other politicians, the presidents greatest power is his/her ability to choose the prime minister. When the majority of the Assembly has opposite political views to that of the president, when the majority of the Assembly sides with them, the President can take a more active role and may, in effect, direct government policy. The prime minister is then the choice of the President. This device has been used in recent years by François Mitterrand, Jacques Chirac, since 2002, the mandate of the president and the Assembly are both 5 years and the two elections are close to each other. Therefore, the likelihood of a cohabitation is lower, among the powers of the government, The president promulgates laws
21.
French legislative election, 1997
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A French legislative election took place on 25 May and 1 June 1997 to elect the 11th National Assembly of the Fifth Republic. It was the consequence of President Jacques Chiracs decision to call the election one year before the deadline. In March 1993, the right won a victory in the legislative election. Two years later, the RPR leader Jacques Chirac was elected President of France promising to reduce the social fracture, however, the programme of welfare reforms proposed by his Prime Minister Alain Juppé caused a social crisis in November and December 1995. The popularity of the executive duo decreased, in spring 1997, President Chirac tried to take the left-wing opposition by surprise by dissolving the National Assembly. The first opinion polls indicated a re-election of the right-wing majority, Prime Minister Juppés unpopularity may have made the lefts win easier. In the first round, the coalition obtained more votes than the incumbent parliamentary majority. After he was blamed for the situation, Juppé announced he would even if the right kept their majority in the runoff vote. For all that, the Plural left obtained the majority of the seats, however the Socialist Party needed its allies to form a majority. For the first time, the ecologists were represented in the Parliament, the participation of the National Fronts candidates in the second round increased the defeat of the Presidential majority. This was the first time since 1877 that a President of France lost an election which he had called. The Socialist leader Lionel Jospin became Prime Minister of the third cohabitation and it finished with the 2002 French presidential election
22.
French legislative election, 2007
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The French legislative elections took place on 10 June and 17 June 2007 to elect the 13th National Assembly of the Fifth Republic, a few weeks after the French presidential election run-off on 6 May. 7,639 candidates stood for 577 seats, including Frances overseas possessions, early first-round results projected a large majority for President Nicolas Sarkozys UMP and its allies, however, second-round results showed a closer race and a stronger left. Nevertheless, the right retained its majority from 2002 despite losing some 40 seats to the Socialists and it is the first time since the 1978 elections that the governing coalition has been returned after a second consecutive election. The majority, however, was slimmer than the blue wave predicted by opinion polls, the procedure by which deputies are elected is a mixture of first past the post and run-off systems. A candidate must take a majority in their constituency to win in the first round. In most cases, there are two candidates remaining for the second round, one left-wing and one right-wing. Triangulaires happen when a candidate reaches the second round and refuses to either abandon his candidacy or to enter any form of electoral alliance. In 2007, only one constituency experienced a triangulaire in the second round, the Constitutional Council had beforehand warned the government of the necessity to renew the electoral map, as the 577 electoral districts are made on the basis of the 1982 census of the population. The Constitutional Council noted that this contradicted article 6 of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man, opinion polls and seat projections gave President Nicolas Sarkozys UMP-led coalition a wide lead, sometimes nearing three-quarters of all 577 seats. The UMP polled marginally above 40%, around a 10-point increase over its score of 33% in the first round of the 2002 elections, Prime Minister François Fillon, also a candidate in Sarthe, led the UMP campaign. The Socialist Partys defeated 2007 presidential candidate, Ségolène Royal, also campaigned on behalf of her party, the Socialists sought to prevent the UMP from winning too wide a majority that would give Sarkozy full powers. This strategy was dangerous for the centrist MPs, one month before the legislative election, indeed, the ballot system for the election of the deputies favoured the coalitions to the detriment of the isolated parties. Incumbent president of the UDF group in the National Assembly, Hervé Morin, for the first time, François Bayrou was challenged by a right-wing candidate in his constituency. Interest in one local election race surrounded Gérard Vignoble of the UDF, Vignoble announced that he would not stand again since this would put him against cardiologist Salem Kacet of the UMP, who had operated on him in 1999 and saved his life. The two candidates had become close friends, Vignoble said that it was impossible for him to come to any other decision. Nevertheless, Kacet still failed to take the seat, the winner being the Socialist Dominique Baert, the Communists hoped that their vote would hold up following their lowest percentage vote ever in the presidential race in May. While polls seemed unfriendly to the Communists, with some predicting less than 10 seats for the party, although losing seats, they were able to gain or hold 15 seats. However, the PCF lost previously safe seats, Borloo confirmed it was examined by the government
23.
French presidential election, 2017
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The first round of the 2017 French presidential election is set to be held on 23 April 2017. Should no candidate win a majority, an election between the top two candidates will be held on 7 May 2017. Incumbent president François Hollande of the Socialist Party is eligible to run for a second term and he is the first incumbent president of the Fifth Republic not to run for a second term. This is also the first French presidential election in which nominees of both the main centre-left and centre-right parties were selected through open primaries, a total of 11 candidates will contest the first round. The presidential election will be followed by an election to elect members of the National Assembly on 11 and 18 June. François Fillon of the Republicans and Marine Le Pen of the National Front led in opinion polls between November 2016 and mid-January 2017. Macron overtook Fillon to be placed second in first-round polling and. Polls for the second round of voting further suggest that either Fillon or Macron would beat Le Pen. In 2017, the first and second rounds are planned for 23 April and 7 May, the official signature collection period followed the publication of the Journal officiel on 25 February to 17 March. French prefectures mailed sponsorship forms to the 42,000 elected officials eligible to give their signature to a candidate, the end of the signature collection period also marked the deadline for the declaration of personal assets required of prospective candidates. The final list of candidates was proclaimed on 21 March, the Conseil supérieur de laudiovisuel ensures that all candidates receive equal time in broadcast media under comparable programming conditions from 19 March onward. The CSA warned on 8 March that the amount of speaking time broadcasters had given Fillon and his supporters was unusually high, after the official start of the campaign on 10 April, the CSA will strictly enforce equal time in broadcast media. Campaigning for the first round of the ends at midnight on 21 April. The new President of the French Republic will be proclaimed on 11 May, on 18 March 2017, the Constitutional Council published the names of the 11 candidates who received 500 valid sponsorships, with the order of the list determined by drawing lots. The presidential race featured two prominent potential candidates who declined to run, an online vote among EELV primary voters from 24 and 26 February was required to confirm the agreement, an earlier vote to open talks with Hamon and Mélenchon was approved by 89. 7% of those electors. This marks the first election since 1969 without a green candidate, on 9 July 2016, Europe Ecology – The Greens announced that it would hold a primary election before the 2017 presidential election. Those wishing to be nominated required the support of 36 of its federal councilors out of 240, the vote was open to both party members as well as sympathizers who could register to vote in the primary. The announcement came just days after prominent environmentalist Nicolas Hulots surprise declaration that he would not offer himself as a candidate on 5 July
24.
Aquitaine
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Aquitaine, archaic Guyenne/Guienne was a traditional region of France, and was an administrative region of France until 1 January 2016. It is now part of the new region Nouvelle-Aquitaine and it is situated in the south-western part of Metropolitan France, along the Atlantic Ocean and the Pyrenees mountain range on the border with Spain. It is composed of the five departments of Dordogne, Lot-et-Garonne, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, Landes, in the Middle Ages, Aquitaine was a kingdom and a duchy, whose boundaries fluctuated considerably. This has been demonstrated by various Aquitanian names and words that were recorded by the Romans, whether this Aquitanian language was a remnant of a Vasconic language group that once extended much farther, or whether it was generally limited to the Aquitaine/Basque region is not known. The original Aquitania at the time of Caesars conquest of Gaul included the area bounded by the Garonne River, the Pyrenees, the name may stem from Latin aqua, maybe derived from the town Aquae Augustae, Aquae Tarbellicae or just Aquis or as a more general geographical feature. In 392, the Roman imperial provinces were restructured and Aquitania Prima, Aquitania Secunda, accounts of Aquitania during the Early Middle Ages are a blur, lacking precision, but there was much unrest. The Visigoths were called into Gaul as foederati, legalizing their status within the Empire, eventually they established themselves as the de facto rulers in south-west Gaul as central Roman rule collapsed. Visigoths established their capital in Toulouse, but their tenure on Aquitaine was feeble, in 507, they were expelled south to Hispania after their defeat in the Battle of Vouillé by the Franks, who became the new rulers in the area to the south of the Loire. The Roman Aquitania Tertia remained in place as Novempopulania, where a duke was appointed to hold a grip over the Basques and these dukes were quite detached from central Frankish overlordship, sometimes governing as independent rulers with strong ties to their kinsmen south of the Pyrenees. As of 660, the foundations for an independent Aquitaine/Vasconia polity were established by the duke Felix of Aquitaine, a united Basque-Aquitanian realm reached its heyday under Odo the Greats rule. Odo was required to pledge allegiance to the Frankish Charles Martel in exchange for help against the advancing Arabic forces, Basque-Aquitanian self-rule temporarily came to a halt, definitely in 768 after the assassination of Waifer. Seguin, count of Bordeaux and Duke of Vasconia, seemed to have attempted a detachment from the Frankish central authority on Charlemagnes death, the new emperor Louis the Pious reacted by removing him from his capacity, which stirred the Basques into rebellion. Before Pepins death, emperor Louis had appointed a new king in 832, his son Charles the Bald, however scarce, some Frankish population and nobles settled down in regions like Albigeois, Carcassone, Toulouse, and Provence and Lower Rhone. After the death of the king Dagobert I, the Merovingian tenure south of the Loire became largely nominal, with the power being in the hands of autonomous regional leaders. The Franks may have largely assimilated to the preponderant Gallo-Roman culture by the 8th century. Still, in the Battle of Toulouse, the Aquitanian duke Odo is said to be leading an army of Aquitanians, on the other hand, the Franks didnt mix with the Basques, keeping separate paths. Recorded evidence points to their deployment across Aquitaine in a capacity as a mainstay of the Dukes forces. Romans are cited as living in the cities of Aquitaine, as opposed to the Franks, in 1058, the Duchy of Vasconia and Aquitaine merged under the rule of William VIII, Duke of Aquitaine
25.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
26.
Landes (department)
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Landes is a department in southwestern France. Landes is one of the original 83 departments that were created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790 and it was created from parts of the provinces of Guyenne and Gascony. During the first part of the century large parts of the department were covered with poorly drained heathland which is the origin of its name. The vegetation covered rich soil and was burned off, leaving excellent pasturage for sheep. The sheep were managed by shepherds who moved around on stilts, most of the sheep departed during the second half of the nineteenth century when systematic development of large pine plantations transformed the landscape and the local economy. The Nobel Prize–winning novelist François Mauriac set his novels in the Landes, Landes is part of the current region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine and is surrounded by the departments of Gironde, Lot-et-Garonne, Gers, and Pyrénées-Atlantiques, as well as the Atlantic Ocean on the west. With an area stretching over more than 9000 km², Landes is, after Gironde and it is well known for the Côte dArgent beach which is Europes longest, and attracts many surfers to Mimizan and Hossegor each year. The President of the General Council is Henri Emmanuelli of the Socialist Party, in terms of agriculture, Landes is known for its large pine forests which are the raw material for a timber and resin industries in the region. The forests were planted in the nineteenth century to prevent erosion of the regions sandy soil by the sea. Cantons of the Landes department Communes of the Landes department Arrondissements of the Landes department Prefecture website Conseil Général website Landes at DMOZ
27.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
28.
French legislative election, 1978
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The French legislative elections took place on 12 March and 19 March 1978 to elect the sixth National Assembly of the Fifth Republic. On 2 April 1974 President Georges Pompidou died, the non-Gaullist center-right leader Valéry Giscard dEstaing was elected to succeed him. Because the Gaullist UDR was the largest party in the majority in the Assembly. This period was one of renovation for Gaullism, the presidential will to govern towards the center and to promote a modern liberal society disconcerted the Gaullist party. The Abortion Act and the reduction of the age of majority to 18 years worried a part of the conservative electorate, furthermore, a personal conflict opposed the two heads of the executive. In August 1976, Chirac resigned because he considered that he not the means to carry on function of Prime Minister, three months later, the UDR was replaced by the Rally for the Republic. The executive duo reacted by federating the non-Gaullist center-right in the Union for French Democracy, while the right-wing majority was divided, and the economic situation deteriorated, the Union of Left won the mid-term local elections. According to the polls, it was favourite to win the legislative election, in his Verdun-sur-le-Doubs speech, President Giscard dEstaing warned the French voters that he could not prevent the enforcement of the left-wing Common programme if the Union of Left won. However, Socialists and Communists did not update their Common programme due to increasing tension between the two resulting from the PS gaining in electoral success at the PCFs expense. Contrary to what polls indicated, the Presidential Majority won but it obtained only 2,284 votes more than the Union of Left, for the first time since 1936, the Socialists obtained more votes than the Communists. Furthermore, the French electorate appeared evenly shared between four equivalent political parties, raymond Barre was confirmed as Prime Minister. Until the French legislative election,2007, it was the last time either the right or the left had won back-to-back legislative elections
29.
French cantonal elections, 1979
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Cantonale elections to renew canton general councillors were held in France on 18 and 15 March 1979. The left gained 9 presidencies but lost 2, the cantonales elections use the same system as the regional or legislative elections. There is a 10% threshold needed to proceed to the second round, runoff results missing Alain Lancelot, Les élections sous la Ve République, PUF, Paris,1988
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French presidential election, 1981
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The French presidential election of 1981 took place on 10 May 1981, giving the presidency of France to François Mitterrand, the first Socialist president of the Fifth Republic. Mitterrand and his Socialist Party received 51. 76% of the vote, while Giscard and his Union for French Democracy trailed with about 48. 24%, the Socialist Partys electoral program was called 110 Propositions for France. Mitterrand served as President of France for the full seven-year term, the most important set of circumstances that gave François Mitterrand the advantage over President Valéry Giscard dEstaing was Giscard’s incumbency itself. Usually, being an incumbent is an advantage and this was not the case, however, during the 1981 French elections. Internal political shortcomings seem to have been at least as responsible as the factors in causing Giscards electoral loss. Though a pragmatic leader, Giscard had a haughty and disparaging personality and this made him appear inaccessible not only to the French people themselves but also to other cabinet members whose support he needed to reinforce his political legitimacy. Frustrated, Chirac resigned in 1976, built his own party and proceeded to lambast Giscards policies, starting with the December 1978 Call of Cochin. The scene was set for the 1981 election when Chirac, having lost the primary, failed to fully support Giscard in the second round, clearing the path for Mitterrand to take power. Besides Giscard’s almost obsessive control over policy implementation, another internal political shortcoming of the incumbent appeared to be his ineffective tactics for deciding policy strategy, to the public at least, Giscard’s policies seemed to be sporadic, hasty, and ill-timed. His reforms proved unpopular with both the left and the right, in addition, Giscard abandoned other platforms that he had campaigned on in 1974. These policies were often couched as conspicuous pledges that ended up never quite being undertaken, (As an indication of Giscards failing popularity, a poll taken in June 1980 showed that even some people on the Left had liked and endorsed Giscard previously because of his reformist attitude. By April 1981, however, his support on the left had dropped dramatically, and there was no offsetting rise in his support on the Right. As the election wore on and Chirac joined the race, Giscard had to appeal to his rightist constituency, as a result, his popularity fell and he was thought of as an opportunist. Finally, Giscard had promised to be open to the opposition in Parliament, if Giscard’s internal political handicaps had effectively crippled him in the initial race, the external factors that decided the 1981 election were a deadly blow. The electoral and party system in France had, indeed, undergone many changes during the previous years. In particular the introduction of the two-round, majority vote requirement played a role in the election of 1981. The new electoral system divided the right and left factions within themselves during the first round. This forced the right and left to strategize for both the first and second parts of the election, in the second round, however, total unity must be achieved
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