1.
Alcohol (drug)
–
Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is the principal type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor. Its chemical formula is C 2H 6O, which can be written also as CH 3-CH 2-OH or C 2H 5-OH, ethanol is mostly produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts, or by petrochemical processes. It is a psychoactive drug, causing a characteristic intoxication. It is widely used as a solvent, as fuel, and as a feedstock for synthesis of other chemicals, the eth- prefix and the qualifier ethyl in ethyl alcohol originally come from the name ethyl assigned in 1834 to the group C 2H 5- by Justus Liebig. He coined the word from the German name Aether of the compound C 2H 5-O-C 2H5, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, Ethyl is a contraction of the Ancient Greek αἰθήρ and the Greek word ύλη. The name ethanol was coined as a result of a resolution that was adopted at the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature that was held in April 1892 in Geneva, Switzerland. The term alcohol now refers to a class of substances in chemistry nomenclature. The Oxford English Dictionary claims that it is a loan from Arabic al-kuḥl, a powdered ore of antimony used since aniquity as a cosmetic. The use of alcohol for ethanol is modern, first recorded 1753, the systematic use in chemistry dates to 1850. Ethanol is used in medical wipes and most common antibacterial hand sanitizer gels as an antiseptic, ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their proteins and dissolving their lipids and is effective against most bacteria and fungi, and many viruses. However, ethanol is ineffective against bacterial spores, ethanol may be administered as an antidote to methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning. Ethanol, often in high concentrations, is used to dissolve many water-insoluble medications, as a central nervous system depressant, ethanol is one of the most commonly consumed psychoactive drugs. The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quantified by blood alcohol content, small doses of ethanol, in general, produce euphoria and relaxation, people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgment. Ethanol is commonly consumed as a drug, especially while socializing. The largest single use of ethanol is as a fuel and fuel additive. Brazil in particular relies heavily upon the use of ethanol as an engine fuel, gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous ethanol. Hydrous ethanol can be used as fuel in more than 90% of new gasoline fueled cars sold in the country, Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugar cane and noted for high carbon sequestration
Alcohol (drug)
–
USP grade ethanol for laboratory use.
Alcohol (drug)
Alcohol (drug)
–
Ethanol pump station in
São Paulo, Brazil
Alcohol (drug)
–
A
Ford Taurus fueled by ethanol in
New York City
2.
Red wine
–
Red wine is a type of wine made from dark-colored grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from violet, typical of young wines, through to brick red for mature wines. Much of the production process therefore involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin. The first step in red wine production, after picking, involves physical processing of the grapes, hand-picked or machine-harvested grapes are usually tipped into a receival bin when they arrive at the winery and conveyed by a screw mechanism to the grape-processing equipment. On arrival at the winery there is usually a mixture of berries, whole bunches, stems. The presence of stems during fermentation can lead to a taste in the wine. Mechanical de-stemmers usually consist of a rotating cage perforated with grape-sized holes, within this cage is a concentric axle with arms radiating towards the inner surface of the cage. Grapes pass through the holes in the cage, while stems, after destemming, the grapes are commonly lightly crushed. Crushers usually consist of a pair of rollers, and the gap between them can usually be regulated to allow for light, hard or no crushing, according to the winemakers preference, the mixture of grapes, skins, juice and seeds is now referred to as must. The must is then pumped to a vessel, often a tank made of steel or concrete, or an oak vat. In common with most modern winemaking equipment, destemmers and crushers are normally made of stainless steel The preservative sulfur dioxide is added when grapes arrive at the winery. The addition rate varies from zero, for perfectly healthy grapes, to up to 70 mg/litre, the purpose is to prevent oxidation and sometimes to delay the onset of fermentation. Macerating enzymes may also be added at this stage, to aid extraction of color and fruit flavours from the skins, tannin may be added now, later in the winemaking process, or not at all. Tannin can be added to help stabilize colour, to prevent oxidation, some winemakers prefer to chill the must to around 10°C, to allow a period of pre-fermentation maceration, of between one and four days. The idea is that color and fruit flavours are extracted into the aqueous solution and this practice is by no means universal and is perhaps more common in New World winemaking countries. Many winemakers, however, prefer to control the process more closely by adding specially selected yeasts usually of the species Saccharomyces ellipsoideous. It is also common to add yeast nutrient at this stage, soon after the must is placed in the fermentation vessel, a separation of solid and liquid phases occurs. Skins float to the surface, forming a cap, in order to encourage efficient extraction of colour and flavour components it is important to maximize contact between the cap of skins and the liquid phase
Red wine
–
A glass of red wine
Red wine
–
Pouring a glass of red wine
3.
Lager
–
Lager is a type of beer that is conditioned at low temperatures, normally at the brewery. It may be pale, golden, amber, or dark, although one of the most defining features of lager is its maturation in cold storage, it is also distinguished by the use of a specific yeast. On the other hand, German Altbier and Kölsch, brewed with a top-fermenting yeast at a warm temperature, until the 19th century, the German word Lagerbier referred to all types of bottom-fermented, cool-conditioned beer, in normal strengths. In Germany today however, the term is reserved for the prevalent lager beer styles of southern Germany, Helles. Pilsner, a heavily hopped pale lager, is most often known as Pilsner, Pilsener. Other lagers are Bock, Märzen, and Schwarzbier, in the United Kingdom, the term lager commonly refers specifically to pale lagers, many of which are derived from the Pilsner style. Worldwide, pale lager is the most widely consumed and commercially available style of beer and it is often known primarily by its brand name, and labeled simply as beer. Well-known brands include Miller, Stella Artois, Becks, Brahma, Budweiser, Corona, Snow, Tsingtao, Kirin Company, Heineken, Carling, Fosters, and Carlsberg. In 2011, a team of researchers claimed to have discovered that Saccharomyces eubayanus is responsible for creating the hybrid yeast used to make lager. To further protect the cellars from the heat, they would plant chestnut trees. The practice of serving beer at these sites evolved into the beer garden. The first large-scale refrigerated lagering tanks were developed for Gabriel Sedelmayrs Spaten Brewery in Munich by Carl von Linde in 1870, Lager beer uses a process of cool fermentation, followed by maturation in cold storage. The German word Lager means storeroom or warehouse, the yeast generally used with lager brewing is Saccharomyces pastorianus. It is a relative of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast used for warm fermented ales. While prohibited by the German Reinheitsgebot tradition, lagers in some countries often feature large proportions of adjuncts, adjuncts entered United States brewing as a means of thinning out the body of U. S. beers, balancing the large quantities of protein introduced by six-row barley. Adjuncts are often used now in beermaking to introduce a large quantity of sugar, there are however cases in which adjunct usage actually increases the cost of manufacture. The examples of lager beers produced worldwide vary greatly in flavour, colour, composition, pale lager Helles Pilsner — Pilsner Urquell, Stella Artois Märzen Bock Dark lager Dunkel Dopplebock Schwarzbier The most common lager beers in worldwide production are pale lagers. The flavor of these lighter lagers is usually mild, and the producers often recommend that the beers be served refrigerated, pale lager is a very pale to golden-coloured lager with a well attenuated body and noble hop bitterness
Lager
–
A glass of
Bitburger, a German lager
Lager
–
Czech Pilsener beer
Lager
–
German Dunkel beer
4.
Sparkling wine
–
Sparkling wine is a wine with significant levels of carbon dioxide in it, making it fizzy. The best known example of a wine is champagne, which is exclusively produced in the Champagne region of France. The sweetness of sparkling wine can range from very dry brut styles to sweeter doux varieties, in most countries the word champagne is reserved only for the specific type of sparkling wine from the Champagne region of France. The French terms Mousseux or Crémant are used to refer to sparkling wine not made in the Champagne region, Sparkling wines are also produced in other regions of France as well as other countries around the world. Sparkling wine have also produced in Central and Eastern Europe since the early 19th-century. Champagne was further popularised in the region, late in the century, Törley has since become one of the largest European producers of sparkling wine. The United States is also a significant producer of sparkling wine today, recently production of sparkling wine have started in the United Kingdom again, after a long hiatus since some of the earliest examples of sparkling wine was produced there. Effervescence has been observed in wine throughout history and has been noted by Ancient Greek and Roman writers, over time it has been attributed to phases of the moon as well as both good and evil spirits. Dom Pérignon was originally charged by his superiors at the Abbey of Hautvillers to get rid of the bubbles since the pressure in the bottles caused many of them to burst in the cellar. The disturbance caused by one bottles disintegration could cause a chain reaction, the mysterious circumstance surrounding the then unknown process of fermentation and carbonic gas caused some critics to call the sparkling creations The Devils Wine. The British were the first to see the tendency of wines from Champagne to sparkle as a desirable trait, Wine was often transported to England in wooden wine barrels where merchant houses would then bottle the wine for sale. During the 17th century, English glass production used coal-fueled ovens and produced stronger, the English also rediscovered the use of cork stoppers, once used by the Romans but forgotten for centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. During the cold winters of the Champagne region, temperatures would drop so low that the process was prematurely halted—leaving some residual sugar. When the wine was shipped to and bottled in England, the process would restart when the weather warmed. When the wine was opened, it would be bubbly, fully sparkling wines, such as Champagne, are generally sold with 5 to 6 atmospheres of pressure in the bottle. This is nearly twice the pressure found in an automobile tire, European Union regulations define a sparkling wine as any wine with an excess of 3 atmospheres in pressure. These include German Sekt, Spanish Espumoso, Italian Spumante and French Crémant or Mousseux wines, semi-sparkling wines are defined as those with between 1 and 2.5 atmospheres of pressures and include German spritzig, Italian frizzante and French pétillant wines. While the majority of sparkling wines are white or rosé, Australia, Italy, of these Italy have the longest tradition of red sparkling wine, such as Brachetto and semi sparkling Lambrusco
Sparkling wine
–
A glass of Champagne
Sparkling wine
–
While Dom Perignon is often credited with inventing Champagne, he actually spent most of his life trying to prevent the wine from developing bubbles.
Sparkling wine
–
While harvesting grapes destined for sparkling wine, premium producers will take extra care to handle the grapes as gently as possible in order to minimize the extraction of harsh phenolic compounds from the skin.
Sparkling wine
–
The transversage method is used to make small and large format bottles of sparkling wine, such as this split (quarter bottle) of Champagne.
5.
Liqueur
–
A liqueur is an alcoholic beverage made from a distilled spirit that has been flavored with fruit, cream, herbs, spices, flowers or nuts and bottled with added sugar or other sweetener. Liqueurs are typically sweet, they are usually not aged for long after the ingredients are mixed. In the United States and Canada, where spirits are often called liquor, there is confusion over liqueurs and liquors. You can distinguish them from each other because liqueurs are quite sweet and often syrupy in consistency, most liqueurs have a lower alcohol content than spirits, but some contain as much as 55% ABV. Liqueurs are historical descendants of herbal medicines, they were made in Italy as early as the 13th century and were prepared by monks. Nowadays, liqueurs are made worldwide and are served in many ways, by themselves, poured over ice, with coffee, mixed with cream or other mixers to create cocktails and they are often served with or after a dessert. Liqueurs are also used in cooking, some liqueurs are prepared by infusing certain woods, fruits, or flowers in either water or alcohol and adding sugar or other items. Others are distilled from aromatic or flavoring agents, layered drinks are made by floating different-colored liqueurs in separate layers. Each liqueur is poured slowly into a glass over the back of a spoon or down a glass rod, so that the liquids of different densities remain unmixed, the word liqueur comes from the Latin liquifacere via French. Liqueurs Liqueurs at The Cooks Thesaurus
Liqueur
–
Kumquat liqueurs from
Corfu
Liqueur
–
Bottles of homemade
strawberry liqueur
Liqueur
–
Vana Tallinn is an
Estonian liqueur, which is based on
rum
Liqueur
–
Herbal liqueur produced in Austria and bottled at 38%
ABV
6.
Liquor store
–
A liquor store is a retail shop that sells prepackaged alcoholic beverages — typically in bottles — intended to be consumed off the stores premises. Depending on region and local idiom, they may also be called bottle store, off licence, bottle shop, bottle-o, package store, ABC store, state store, in Michigan they are known as Party Store. Many states and jurisdictions have an alcohol monopoly, in South Africa, Namibia and Zimbabwe, these stores are generally called bottle stores. In the United Kingdom and Ireland the corresponding term is off licence, which refers to the fact that alcohol may be bought on the licensed premises, a commonly used slang term for the off licence is offie or offy. Almost all supermarkets and grocery stores, and many stations, have an off-licence. The price of alcohol in off licence establishments is substantially lower than in on-licence establishments, australia – Regulation of alcoholic beverage sales is a state responsibility. Generally, beer, wine and spirits must be purchased at a bottle shop and these may be a separate section of a supermarket or an individual store – major retail corporations usually have their own bottle shop franchises located close to their supermarket operations. Drinking establishments may sell liquor for off-site consumption. Drive-through alcoholic retail outlets are common, the state of Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory permit the sale of alcoholic beverages from supermarkets and convenience stores. New Zealand – Supermarkets may sell beer, cider and wine with no more than 15% ABV only, spirits, including ready to drink mixed spirits, must be purchased at bottle shops. Note, All Nordic countries, except Denmark, have government-owned alcohol monopolies, Denmark – Alcoholic beverages can be bought at any grocery store or kiosk. All other alcohol must be purchased in the Alko store, iceland – Can only be bought at hard-liquor stores. Norway – Alcoholic beverages above 4. 8% ABV can only be bought at Vinmonopolet stores, sweden – Grocery stores may sell beer and cider no higher than 3. 5% ABV. All other alcohol must be purchased in the state-run Systembolaget stores, the consumption of alcohol on premises is not forbidden, but is frowned upon. In the Netherlands supermarkets are allowed to sell alcoholic beverages up to 15% ABV, the Twenty-first Amendment of the United States Constitution allows states to regulate the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages. The majority of the U. S. states have laws specifying which alcoholic beverages must be sold in specialty liquor stores, aBC-run stores may be called ABC stores or state stores. In five states, only low-point beer may be sold in supermarkets or gas stations, in Utah, stores not owned and operated by the state are known as Package Agencies. Package Agencies are located in communities too small to warrant the establishment of a state store, in some states, all alcoholic beverages can be sold practically anywhere, including drug stores and gas stations
Liquor store
–
The interior of a liquor store in
Breckenridge, Colorado.
Liquor store
–
Some states in the United States operate their own
retail stores for the sale of certain types of alcohol, such as this state-run liquor store in
Cottonwood Heights, Utah.
Liquor store
–
The Bunghole, a liquor store in
Salem, Massachusetts, a non-ABC state.
7.
Drink
–
A drink or beverage is a liquid intended for human consumption. In addition to their function of satisfying thirst, drinks play important roles in human culture. Common types of drinks include plain water, milk, juices, coffee, tea, in addition, alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer, and liquor, which contain the drug ethanol, have been part of human culture and development for 8,000 years. Non-alcoholic drinks often signify drinks that would normally contain alcohol, such as beer, the category includes drinks that have undergone an alcohol removal process such as non-alcoholic beers and de-alcoholized wines. When the human body becomes dehydrated it experiences the sensation of thirst and this craving of fluids results in an instinctive need to drink. Thirst is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to changes in the bodys electrolyte levels. The complete elimination of drinks, i. e. water, Water and milk have been basic drinks throughout history. As water is essential for life, it has also been the carrier of many diseases, as mankind evolved, new techniques were discovered to create drinks from the plants that were native to their areas. The earliest archaeological evidence of wine production yet found has been at sites in Georgia, beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 3000 BCE, and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The invention of beer has been argued to be responsible for humanitys ability to develop technology, tea likely originated in Yunnan, China during the Shang Dynasty as a medicinal drink. Drinking has been a part of socialising throughout the centuries. In Ancient Greece, a gathering for the purpose of drinking was known as a symposium. The purpose of these gatherings could be anything from serious discussions to direct indulgence, in Ancient Rome, a similar concept of a convivium took place regularly. Many early societies considered alcohol a gift from the gods, leading to the creation of such as Dionysus. Other religions forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic drinks for various reasons, in some regions with a dominant religion the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic drinks is forbidden to everybody, regardless of religion. Toasting is a method of honouring a person or wishing good will by taking a drink, another tradition is that of the loving cup, at weddings or other celebrations such as sports victories a group will share a drink in a large receptacle, shared by everyone until empty. In East Africa and Yemen, coffee was used in religious ceremonies. As these ceremonies conflicted with the beliefs of the Christian church, the drink was also banned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe
Drink
–
The world's second-most-consumed drink, tea
Drink
–
Caravagio 's interpretation of Bacchus
Drink
–
First developed in the Middle Ages, basket presses have a long history of use in winemaking.
Drink
–
An old
whiskey still.
8.
Ethanol
–
Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is the principal type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor. Its chemical formula is C 2H 6O, which can be written also as CH 3-CH 2-OH or C 2H 5-OH, ethanol is mostly produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts, or by petrochemical processes. It is a psychoactive drug, causing a characteristic intoxication. It is widely used as a solvent, as fuel, and as a feedstock for synthesis of other chemicals, the eth- prefix and the qualifier ethyl in ethyl alcohol originally come from the name ethyl assigned in 1834 to the group C 2H 5- by Justus Liebig. He coined the word from the German name Aether of the compound C 2H 5-O-C 2H5, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, Ethyl is a contraction of the Ancient Greek αἰθήρ and the Greek word ύλη. The name ethanol was coined as a result of a resolution that was adopted at the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature that was held in April 1892 in Geneva, Switzerland. The term alcohol now refers to a class of substances in chemistry nomenclature. The Oxford English Dictionary claims that it is a loan from Arabic al-kuḥl, a powdered ore of antimony used since aniquity as a cosmetic. The use of alcohol for ethanol is modern, first recorded 1753, the systematic use in chemistry dates to 1850. Ethanol is used in medical wipes and most common antibacterial hand sanitizer gels as an antiseptic, ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their proteins and dissolving their lipids and is effective against most bacteria and fungi, and many viruses. However, ethanol is ineffective against bacterial spores, ethanol may be administered as an antidote to methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning. Ethanol, often in high concentrations, is used to dissolve many water-insoluble medications, as a central nervous system depressant, ethanol is one of the most commonly consumed psychoactive drugs. The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quantified by blood alcohol content, small doses of ethanol, in general, produce euphoria and relaxation, people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgment. Ethanol is commonly consumed as a drug, especially while socializing. The largest single use of ethanol is as a fuel and fuel additive. Brazil in particular relies heavily upon the use of ethanol as an engine fuel, gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous ethanol. Hydrous ethanol can be used as fuel in more than 90% of new gasoline fueled cars sold in the country, Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugar cane and noted for high carbon sequestration
Ethanol
–
USP grade ethanol for laboratory use.
Ethanol
–
Ethanol pump station in
São Paulo, Brazil
Ethanol
–
A
Ford Taurus fueled by ethanol in
New York City
Ethanol
–
USPS truck running on
E85 in
Minnesota
9.
Depressant
–
A depressant, or central depressant, is a drug that lowers neurotransmission levels, which is to depress or reduce arousal or stimulation, in various areas of the brain. Depressants are also referred to as downers as they lower the level of arousal when taken. Stimulants or uppers increase mental and/or physical function, hence the opposite drug class of depressants is stimulants, Depressants are widely used throughout the world as prescription medicines and as illicit substances. Alcohol is a very prominent depressant, alcohol can be and is more likely to be a large problem between teenagers and young adults. Other examples are chemicals that modify the electrical signaling inside the body, the most prominent of these being bromides and channel blockers. Ethanol is the oldest recreational drug still used by humans, ethanol can cause alcohol intoxication when consumed. Alcoholic beverages are divided into three classes for taxation and regulation of production, beers, wines, and spirits. They are legally consumed in most countries around the world, more than 100 countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption. The most common way to measure intoxication for legal or medical purposes is through blood alcohol content. It is usually expressed as a percentage of alcohol in the blood in units of mass of alcohol per volume of blood, or mass of alcohol per mass of blood, depending on the country. For instance, in North America a blood alcohol content of 0.10 means that there are 0.10 g of alcohol for every dL of blood, barbiturates are effective in relieving the conditions that they are designed to address. They are also used for unapproved purposes, physically addictive. When, in the late 1950s, many thought that the social cost of barbiturates was beginning to outweigh the medical benefits, most people still using barbiturates today do so in the prevention of seizures or in mild form for relief from the symptoms of migraines. A benzodiazepine is a drug whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring. These properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating anxiety, insomnia, agitation, seizures, muscle spasms, alcohol withdrawal, benzodiazepines are categorized as either short-, intermediate-, or long-acting. Short- and intermediate-acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of insomnia, in general, benzodiazepines are safe and effective in the short term, although cognitive impairments and paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition occasionally occur. A minority react reverse and contrary to what would normally be expected, for example, a state of panic may worsen considerably following intake of a benzodiazepine. Due to adverse effects associated with the use of benzodiazepines, withdrawal from benzodiazepines, in general
Depressant
–
Distilled (concentrated)
alcoholic beverages, often called "
hard liquor ", roughly eight times more alcoholic than beer
Depressant
–
Xanax (
alprazolam) 2 mg tri-score tablets
10.
Euphoria
–
Euphoria is an affective state in which a person experiences pleasure or excitement and intense feelings of well-being and happiness. Certain drugs, many of which are addictive, can cause euphoria, similarly, certain natural rewards and social activities, such as aerobic exercise, laughter, listening to emotionally arousing music, music-making, and dancing, can induce a state of euphoria. Euphoria is also a symptom of certain neurological or neuropsychiatric disorders, romantic love and components of the human sexual response cycle are also associated with the induction of euphoria. According to Kent Berridge, an affective neuroscientist, intense euphoria occurs from the activation of every hedonic hotspot within the brains reward system. The word euphoria is derived from the Ancient Greek terms εὐφορία, εὖ eu meaning well and it is semantically opposite to dysphoria. A1706 English dictionary defined euphoria as the bearing of the Operation of a Medicine. A1903 article in The Boston Daily Globe refers to euphoria as pleasant excitement, in 1920 Popular Science magazine described euphoria as a high sounding name meaning feeling fit, normally making life worth living, motivating drug use, and ill formed in certain mental illnesses. In 1940 The Journal of Psychology defined euphoria as a state of well being. However, in 1957 British pharmacologist D. A. Cahal did not regard opioid euphoria as medically undesirable, the 1977 edition of A Concise Encyclopaedia of Psychiatry called euphoria a mood of contentment and well-being, with pathologic associations when used in a psychiatric context. As a sign of disease, it was described as bland and out of context. Many different types of stimuli can induce euphoria, including drugs, natural rewards. Affective disorders such as mania or bipolar disorder can involve euphoria as a symptom. Euphoria can occur as a result of dancing to music, music-making, neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that the reward system plays a central role in mediating music-induced pleasure. Pleasurable emotionally arousing music strongly increases dopamine neurotransmission in the pathways that project to the striatum. A euphoriant is a type of drug which tends to induce euphoria. Most euphoriants are addictive drugs due to their properties and ability to activate the brains reward system. Dopaminergic stimulants like amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine, MDMA, nicotine is a parasympathetic stimulant that acts as a mild euphoriant in some people. Certain depressants can produce euphoria, some of the euphoriant drugs in this class include drinking alcohol in moderate doses, γ-hydroxybutyric acid, some barbiturates and benzodiazepines may cause euphoria
Euphoria
–
Playing can induce an intense state of happiness and contentment.
Euphoria
–
Runners can experience a euphoric state often called a "runner's high".
Euphoria
–
A large dose of
methamphetamine causes a drug-induced euphoria.
11.
Drinking culture
–
Drinking culture refers to the customs and practices associated with the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Alcohol and its effects have been present in societies throughout history, drinking is documented in the Hebrew and Christian Bibles, in the Quran, in art history, in Greek and Roman literature as old as Homer, and in Confucius’s Analects. Social drinking refers to drinking in a social setting without an intent to get drunk. Good news is often celebrated by a group of people having a few drinks, for example, drinks may be served to wet the babys head in the celebration of a birth. Buying someone a drink is a gesture of goodwill and it may be an expression of gratitude, or it may mark the resolution of a dispute. Known as Greaves Rules, the guidelines were based upon his experience of pubs. The rules were later re-commissioned by the Daily Telegraph and published in that newspaper on November 20,1993, copies of the rules soon appeared in many bars throughout the United Kingdom. Trust and fair play are the root of the rules, though there are occasions where the rules can be broken, when taking alcohol to a BYOB party, it is proper for a guest to leave any unconsumed alcohol behind when leaving the party. It shows appreciation to the host and shows responsibility on the guests part and it is considered rude to take any alcohol back when departing. Drinking before 5,00 pm is frowned upon in some cultures, various cultures and traditions feature the social practice of providing free alcoholic drinks for others. For example, during a reception, or a bar mitzvah, free drinks are often served to guests. They are commonly offered to patrons to entice them to continue gambling. A further example is the ladies drink free policy of some bars, large corporations may have a favored bar at which they hold private functions that offer free drinks to attendees. Session drinking is a chiefly British and Irish term that refers to drinking a large quantity of beer during a session without becoming too heavily intoxicated, a session is generally a social occasion. A session beer, such as a bitter, is a beer that has a moderate or relatively low alcohol content. In the United States, a recent session beer definition has been proposed by beer writer Lew Bryson and his Session Beer Project blog includes a definition of 4. 5% ABV or less for session beer. Followers of this definition include Notch Brewing, a session only beer brand, the Brewer Association has adopted a new category within their Great American Beer Fest competition which states a session beer must not exceed 4. 1% ABW. Binge drinking is defined as drinking to excess, the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism defines binge drinking as a pattern of drinking alcohol that brings blood alcohol concentration to 0.08 grams percent or above
Drinking culture
–
The Merry Drinker (circa 1628-1630) by
Frans Hals.
Drinking culture
–
Reunion of gentlemen around a table in an interior by
Jacob van Schuppen.
Drinking culture
–
Steven Petrosino achieving the Guinness world record for speed drinking at the Gingerbreadman Pub in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.
12.
Alcohol law
–
Alcohol laws are laws in relation to the manufacture, use, influence and sale of ethanol or alcoholic beverages that contains ethanol. Australia Germany Hong Kong India United Kingdom Some countries forbid alcoholic beverages, people trying to get around prohibition turn to smuggling of alcohol – known as bootlegging or rum-running – or make moonshine, a distilled beverage in an unlicensed still. Canada imposed prohibition at the beginning of the 20th century, in India, manufacture, sale and/or consumption of alcohol is prohibited in the states of Bihar, Gujarat, Manipur and Nagaland, as well as the union territory of Lakshadweep. Prohibition has become controversial in Gujarat, following a July 2009 episode in which widespread poisoning resulted from alcohol that had been sold illegally, all Indian states observe dry days on major religious festivals/occasions depending on the popularity of the festival in that region. Dry Days are specific days when the sale of alcohol is banned, dry days are also observed on voting days. Dry Days are fixed by the state government. National holidays such as Republic Day, Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanthi are usually dry days throughout India, two Nordic countries had a period of alcohol prohibition in the early 20th century. In Sweden, prohibition was heavily discussed, but never introduced, replaced by strict rationing and later by more lax regulation, following the end of prohibition, government alcohol monopolies were established with detailed restrictions and high taxes. Some of these restrictions have since been lifted, for example, supermarkets in Finland are allowed to sell only fermented beverages with an alcohol content up to 4. 7% ABV, but Alko, the government monopoly, is allowed to sell wine and spirits. This is also the case with the Norwegian Vinmonopolet and the Swedish Systembolaget, in the United States, there was an attempt from 1919 to 1933 to eliminate the drinking of alcoholic beverages by means of a national prohibition of their manufacture and sale. This period became known as the Prohibition era, during this time, the 18th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States made the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages illegal throughout the United States. Prohibition led to the consequence of causing widespread disrespect for the law. In this way, a business was created for illegal producers and sellers of alcohol. As a result, Prohibition became extremely unpopular, which led to the repeal of the 18th Amendment in 1933 via the adoption of the 21st Amendment to the Constitution. Prior to national Prohibition, beginning in the late 19th century, after the repeal of the 18th Amendment, some localities continued to ban the sale of alcohol. Some majority-Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Sudan, and Libya prohibit the production, sale, most countries have drunk driving laws which limit how much alcohol a person can consume before driving a car on a road. The permitted blood alcohol content threshold ranges from 0. 0% to 0. 08%, punishments for violation include fines, temporary or permanent loss of drivers license, and imprisonment. Some jurisdictions have similar prohibitions for drunk sailing, drunk bicycling, in many places in the United States, it is also illegal to have an open container of an alcoholic beverage in the passenger compartment of a vehicle
Alcohol law
–
A warning sign in
Belfast,
Northern Ireland
Alcohol law
–
Detroit police inspecting equipment found in a clandestine
brewery during the Prohibition era.
Alcohol law
–
A sign prohibiting the drinking of alcohol in a public place in
Victoria,
Australia
Alcohol law
–
This convenience store in
Michigan had its retail license suspended for two weeks because it sold alcoholic beverages to minors.
13.
Prohibition
–
The earliest records of prohibition of alcohol date to the Xia Dynasty in China. Yu the Great, the first ruler of the Xia Dynasty and it was legalized again after his death, during the reign of his son Qi. Another record was in the Code of Hammurabi specifically banning the selling of beer for money, in the early twentieth century, much of the impetus for the prohibition movement in the Nordic countries and North America came from moralistic convictions of pietistic Protestants. Rum-running became widespread and organized crime control of the distribution of alcohol. Distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean flourished as their products were consumed by visiting Americans or illegally exported to the United States. Chicago became notorious as a haven for prohibition dodgers during the known as the Roaring Twenties. Prohibition generally came to an end in the late 1920s or early 1930s in most of North America and Europe, in some countries where the dominant religion forbids the use of alcohol, the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages is prohibited or restricted today. For example, in Saudi Arabia and Libya alcohol is banned, Sale of alcohol is banned in Afghanistan. In Bangladesh, alcohol is prohibited due to its proscription in the Islamic faith. However, the purchase and consumption is allowed in the country, the Garo tribe consume a type of rice beer, and Christians in this country drink and purchase wine for their holy communion. In Brunei, alcohol consumption and sale is banned in public, in India alcohol is a state subject and individual states can legislate prohibition, but currently most states do not have prohibition. Prohibition is in force in the states of Gujarat, Bihar and Nagaland, parts of Manipur, the state of Kerala has placed some limitations on sale of alcohol. All other States and union territories of India permit the sale of alcohol, election days and certain national holidays such as Gandhi Jayanti are meant to be dry days when liquor sale is not permitted. The state of Andhra Pradesh had imposed Prohibition under the Chief Ministership of N. T. Rama Rao, Prohibition was also observed from 1996 to 1998 in Haryana. Some Indian states observe dry days on major religious festivals/occasions depending on the popularity of the festival in that region, since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the sale and consumption of alcohol is banned in Iran. Alcohol is banned for people who use small shops and convenience stores, the consumption, importation and brewing of, and trafficking in liquor is strictly against the law. Alcohol is banned for Muslims in Malaysia due to its Islamic faith, the Maldives ban the import of alcohol, x-raying all baggage on arrival. Alcoholic beverages are available only to tourists on resort islands
Prohibition
–
A police raid confiscating illegal alcohol, in
Elk Lake, Canada, in 1925.
Prohibition
–
The Drunkard's Progress: A lithograph by
Nathaniel Currier supporting the temperance movement, January 1846.
Prohibition
–
This 1902 illustration from the Hawaiian Gazette shows the
Anti-Saloon League and the
Women's Christian Temperance Union 's campaign against beer brewers. The
"water cure" was a torture which was in the news because of its use in the Philippines.
Prohibition
–
Prescription form for medicinal liquor
14.
Alcohol industry
–
The alcohol industry is the commercial industry involved in the manufacturing, distribution, and sale of alcoholic beverages. The industry has been criticised in the 1990s for deflecting attention away from the associated with alcohol use. The alcohol industry has also criticised for being unhelpful in reducing the harm of alcohol. The World Bank works with and invests in alcohol industry projects when positive effects with regard to health concerns. Alcohol industry sponsored education to reduce the harm of alcohol results in an increase in the harm of alcohol. As a result, it has recommended that the alcohol industry does not become involved in alcohol policy or educational programs. In the UK the New Labour government took the view that working with the industry to reduce harm was the most effective strategy. However, alcohol-related harm and alcohol abuse increased, alcoholism Alcohol advertising Alcohol and health Long-term effects of alcohol Short-term effects of alcohol
Alcohol industry
–
Fermented beverage
15.
Recreational drugs
–
Recreational drug use is the use of a psychoactive drug to alter ones mental state in a way that modifies emotions, perceptions, and feelings for recreational purposes. When a substance enters the body, it brings on an intoxicating effect. Generally, people use drugs that fall into three categories, depressants, stimulants, and psychedelic drugs. In popular usage, it is considered to be a tolerated social behaviour rather than a serious medical condition such as self-medication. The substances classified as controlled and illegal drugs vary by country, in 2009 it was estimated that about 3% to 6% of people aged 15 to 65 had used illegal drugs at least once. International and domestic law enforcement agencies are perpetually occupied with interdiction efforts against illegal use, manufacture. Many researchers have explored the etiology of recreational drug use, there has not been agreement around any one single cause. Instead, experts tend to apply the biopsychosocial model, any number of these factors are likely to influence an individual’s drug use as they are not mutually exclusive. Regardless of genetics, mental health or traumatic experiences, social factors play a role in exposure to and availability of certain types of drugs. According to addiction researcher Martin A. Plant, many go through a period of self-redefinition before initiating recreational drug use. They tend to view using drugs as part of a lifestyle that involves belonging to a subculture that they associate with heightened status. Plant says, “From the users point of there are many positive reasons to become part of the milieu of drug taking. The reasons for drug use appear to have as much to do with needs for friendship, pleasure, becoming a drug taker, to many people, is a positive affirmation rather than a negative experience. ”Anthropological research has suggested that humansmay have evolved to counter-exploit plant neurotoxins. The ability to use chemicals to serve the function of endogenous neurotransmitters may have improved survival rates. A typically restrictive prehistoric diet may have emphasised the apparent benefit of consuming psychoactive drugs, severity and type of risks that come with recreational drug use vary widely with the drug in question and the amount being used. There are many factors in the environment and within the user interact with each drug differently. Overall, some studies suggest that alcohol is one of the most dangerous of all drugs, only heroin, crack cocaine. Researcher David Nutt stated that studies showing benefits for moderate alcohol consumption lacked control for the variable of what the subjects were drinking
Recreational drugs
–
Adriaen Brouwer 's
The Smokers, circa 1636
Recreational drugs
–
The Drinkers by
Jean Béraud, c. 1908
Recreational drugs
–
Martini, a popular
cocktail, containing
alcohol a common
depressant
Recreational drugs
–
Cappuccino, a
coffee drink containing
caffeine a popular
stimulant
16.
Beer
–
Beer is the worlds oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drink, it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, the fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect, although this is often removed during processing, and replaced with forced carbonation. Beer is sold in bottles and cans, it may also be available on draught, particularly in pubs, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume, archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer, the earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, a fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice, almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a liquid could be obtained from a source of starch. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies, Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today, alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs. What they did not contain was hops, as that was an addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres, the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, the process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, a company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, however, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby
Beer
–
Schlenkerla Rauchbier being poured from a
cask
Beer
–
François Jaques: Peasants Enjoying Beer at Pub in Fribourg (Switz.) – (1923)
Beer
–
Egyptian wooden model of beer making in ancient Egypt,
Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum,
San Jose, California
Beer
–
William Hogarth, Beer Street, 1751.
Brooklyn Museum
17.
Distilled beverage
–
This process purifies it and removes diluting components like water, for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content. As distilled beverages contain more alcohol, they are considered harder – in North America, as examples, this term does not include beverages such as beer, wine, sake, and cider, as they are fermented but not distilled. These all have relatively low alcohol content, typically less than 15%, brandy is a spirit produced by the distillation of wine, and has an ABV of over 35%. Other examples of distilled beverages include bourbon, vodka, gin, rum, tequila, mezcal, whisky, scotch, the term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20% alcohol by volume. Distilled beverages bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, Distilled beverages generally have an alcohol concentration higher than 30%. The origin of liquor and its close relative liquid was the Latin verb liquere, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply a liquid, can be dated to 1225. The first use the OED mentions of its meaning a liquid for drinking occurred in the 14th century and its use as a term for an intoxicating alcoholic drink appeared in the 16th century. The term spirit in reference to alcohol stems from Middle Eastern alchemy and these alchemists were more concerned with medical elixirs than with transmuting lead into gold. The vapor given off and collected during a process was called a spirit of the original material. Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias, the Alexandrians were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century AD. The medieval Arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively. Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice, the freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use. The earliest evidence of distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century. Again, the Chinese may not have been far behind, with evidence indicating the practice of distillation began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties. A still has been found at a site in Qinglong, Hebei. Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century, the production method was written in code, suggesting that it was being kept secret. In 1437, burned water was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany and it was served in a tall, narrow glass called a Goderulffe. Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial, often invoking national pride, but they are plausible after the 12th century AD and these spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content than the alchemists pure distillations, and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs
Distilled beverage
–
An old
whiskey still
Distilled beverage
–
A display of various distilled beverages in a supermarket
Distilled beverage
–
Distillation equipment used by the 3rd century Greek alchemist
Zosimos of Panopolis, from the
Byzantine Greek manuscript Parisinus graces.
Distilled beverage
–
An illustration of brewing and distilling industry methods in England, 1858
18.
Alcohol by volume
–
Alcohol by volume is a standard measure of how much alcohol is contained in a given volume of an alcoholic beverage. It is defined as the number of millilitres of pure ethanol present in 100 millilitres of solution at 20 °C, the number of millilitres of pure ethanol is the mass of the ethanol divided by its density at 20 °C, which is 0.78924 g/ml. The ABV standard is used worldwide, the International Organization of Legal Metrology has tables of density of water–ethanol mixtures at different concentrations and temperatures. In some countries, such as the U. K and France, alcohol by volume is referred to as degrees Gay-Lussac and this results in the slight difference in marked % noted later in this article. Mixing two solutions of alcohol of different strengths usually causes a change in volume, mixing pure water with a solution less than 24% by mass causes a slight increase in total volume, whereas the mixing of two solutions above 24% causes a decrease in volume. The phenomenon of volume due to mixing dissimilar solutions is called partial molar volume. Details about typical amounts of alcohol contained in various beverages can be found in the articles about them. Another way of specifying the amount of alcohol is alcohol proof, for example, 40% abv is 80 proof in the US and 70 proof in the UK. However, since 1980, alcohol proof in the UK has been replaced by abv as a measure of alcohol content, in the United States, a few states regulate and tax alcoholic beverages according to alcohol by weight, expressed as a percentage of total mass. Some brewers print the ABW on beer containers, particularly on low-point versions of domestic beer brands. However, because of the miscibility of alcohol and water, the factor is not constant. 100% ABW, of course, is equivalent to 100% ABV, during the production of wine and beer, yeast is added to a sugary solution. During fermentation, the yeasts consume the sugars and produce alcohol, the density of sugar in water is greater than the density of alcohol in water. A hydrometer is used to measure the change in gravity of the solution before. The volume of alcohol in the solution can then be estimated, there are a number of empirical formulae which brewers and winemakers use to estimate the alcohol content of the liquor made. The simplest method for wine has been described by English author C. J. J, the number 0.7936 is the specific gravity of a 100% ethanol solution. The difference between the starting SG and the final SG measures the specific gravity lost to CO2 release
Alcohol by volume
–
The alcohol by volume shown on a bottle of
absinthe.
19.
Stone Age
–
The Stone Age was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make implements with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted roughly 3.4 million years, and ended between 8700 BCE and 2000 BCE with the advent of metalworking, bone tools were used during this period as well but are rarely preserved in the archaeological record. The Stone Age is further subdivided by the types of tools in use. According to the age and location of the current evidence, the cradle of the genus is the East African Rift System, especially toward the north in Ethiopia, where it is bordered by grasslands. The closest relative among the living primates, the genus Pan, represents a branch that continued on in the deep forest. The rift served as a conduit for movement into southern Africa and also north down the Nile into North Africa and through the continuation of the rift in the Levant to the vast grasslands of Asia. The oldest indirect evidence found of stone tool use is fossilised animal bones with tool marks, the oldest stone tools were excavated from the site of Lomekwi 3 in West Turkana, northwestern Kenya, and date to 3.3 million years old. Prior to the discovery of these Lomekwian tools, the oldest known stone tools had been found at sites at Gona, Ethiopia, on the sediments of the paleo-Awash River. All the tools come from the Busidama Formation, which lies above a disconformity, or missing layer, the oldest sites containing tools are dated to 2. 6–2.55 mya. One of the most striking circumstances about these sites is that they are from the Late Pliocene, excavators at the locality point out that. the earliest stone tool makers were skilled flintknappers. The possible reasons behind this seeming abrupt transition from the absence of tools to the presence thereof include. The species who made the Pliocene tools remains unknown, fragments of Australopithecus garhi, Australopithecus aethiopicus and Homo, possibly Homo habilis, have been found in sites near the age of the Gona tools. Innovation of the technique of smelting ore ended the Stone Age, the first most significant metal manufactured was bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, each of which was smelted separately. The Chalcolithic by convention is the period of the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age, the transition out of the Stone Age occurred between 6000 BCE and 2500 BCE for much of humanity living in North Africa and Eurasia. Note the Rudna Glava mine in Serbia, Ötzi the Iceman, a mummy from about 3300 BCE carried with him a copper axe and a flint knife. In regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa, the Stone Age was followed directly by the Iron Age, the Middle East and southeastern Asian regions progressed past Stone Age technology around 6000 BCE. Europe, and the rest of Asia became post–Stone Age societies by about 4000 BCE, the proto-Inca cultures of South America continued at a Stone Age level until around 2000 BCE, when gold, copper and silver made their entrance
Stone Age
–
Obsidian projectile point
Stone Age
–
Modern
Awash River, Ethiopia, descendant of the Palaeo-Awash, source of the sediments in which the oldest Stone Age tools have been found
Stone Age
–
A variety of
stone tools
Stone Age
–
This is a Mode 1, or Oldowan,
stone tool from the western Sahara.
20.
Neolithic
–
It ended when metal tools became widespread. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant about 10, 200–8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called proto-Neolithic is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic between 10,200 and 8800 BC. By 10, 200–8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep. By about 6900–6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture, unlike the Paleolithic, when more than one human species existed, only one human species reached the Neolithic. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, new and λίθος líthos, stone, the term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC, early development occurred in the Levant and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards, the Neolithic 1 period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Jericho, Israel, Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, the start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming, in the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated
Neolithic
–
An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. Neolithic stone artifacts are by definition polished and, except for specialty items, not chipped.
Neolithic
–
Algerian cave paintings depicting hunting scenes
Neolithic
–
Female figure from
Tumba Madžari,
Republic of Macedonia
Neolithic
–
Skara Brae, Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves)
21.
Wine and health
–
The health effects of wine are mainly determined by its active ingredient alcohol. Some studies found that drinking small quantities of alcohol is associated with a risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome. However, other studies found no such effect, drinking more than the standard drink amount increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, stroke and cancer. Mixed results are observed in light drinking and cancer mortality. Risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents, about 3.3 million deaths are believed to be due to alcohol each year. Alcoholism reduces a persons life expectancy by around ten years and excessive use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. According to systematic reviews and medical associations, people who are nondrinkers should not start drinking wine, ancient Egyptian Papyri and Sumerian tablets dating back to 2200 BC detail the medicinal role of wine, making it the worlds oldest documented human-made medicine. Nearly all research into the medical benefits of wine consumption makes a distinction between moderate consumption and heavy or binge drinking. Moderate levels of consumption vary by the according to age, gender, genetics, weight and body stature, as well as situational conditions. In general, woman absorb alcohol more quickly than men due to their body water content. Some experts define moderate consumption as less than one 5-US-fluid-ounce glass of wine per day for women, the view of consuming wine in moderation has a history recorded as early as the Greek poet Eubulus who believed that three bowls were the ideal amount of wine to consume. The number of three bowls for moderation is a theme throughout Greek writing, today the standard 750 ml wine bottle contains roughly the volume of three kylix cups. However, the cups would have contained a diluted wine. Epidemiological studies have found an association between moderate alcohol consumption and increased bone mineral density. Most of this research has been conducted with women. The International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization has classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen, studies have shown that heavy drinkers put themselves at greater risk for heart disease and developing potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Excessive alcohol consumption can cause blood pressure, increase cholesterol levels. The main cause of heart attacks and the pain of angina is the lack of oxygen caused by blood clots, professional cardiology associations recommend that people who are currently nondrinkers should not start drinking alcohol
Wine and health
–
A glass of wine
Wine and health
–
Wine has a long history of use in the world of medicine and health.
Wine and health
–
Some doctors define "moderate" consumption as one 5oz (150 ml) glass of wine per day for women and two glasses per day for men.
Wine and health
–
The anti-bacterial nature of alcohol may reduce the risk of infection by the Helicobacter pylori bacterium that has been associated with
stomach cancer as well as
gastritis and
peptic ulcers.
22.
Grape
–
A grape is a fruit, botanically a berry, of the deciduous woody vines of the flowering plant genus Vitis. Grapes can be fresh as table grapes or they can be used for making wine, jam, juice, jelly, grape seed extract, raisins, vinegar. Grapes are a type of fruit, generally occurring in clusters. The cultivation of the grape began 6, 000–8,000 years ago in the Near East. Yeast, one of the earliest domesticated microorganisms, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, the earliest archeological evidence for a dominant position of wine-making in human culture dates from 8,000 years ago in Georgia. The oldest known winery was found in Armenia, dating to around 4000 BC, by the 9th century AD the city of Shiraz was known to produce some of the finest wines in the Middle East. Thus it has proposed that Syrah red wine is named after Shiraz. Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics record the cultivation of grapes, and history attests to the ancient Greeks, Phoenicians. The growing of grapes would later spread to regions in Europe, as well as North Africa. Vitis vinifera cultivars were imported for that purpose, Grapes are a type of fruit that grow in clusters of 15 to 300, and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green, orange, and pink. White grapes are actually green in color, and are derived from the purple grape. Mutations in two genes of white grapes turn off production of anthocyanins, which are responsible for the color of purple grapes. Anthocyanins and other pigment chemicals of the family of polyphenols in purple grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines. Grapes are typically an ellipsoid shape resembling a prolate spheroid, most grapes come from cultivars of Vitis vinifera, the European grapevine native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Vitis riparia, a vine of North America, is sometimes used for winemaking. It is native to the entire Eastern U. S. Vitis rotundifolia, the muscadines, used for jams and wine, are native to the Southeastern United States from Delaware to the Gulf of Mexico. Vitis amurensis is the most important Asian species, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization,75,866 square kilometers of the world are dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit
Grape
–
Grapes
Grape
–
"White"
table grapes
Grape
–
Concord is a variety of North American labrusca grape
Grape
–
Wine grapes on the vine
23.
Aging of wine
–
The aging of wine or ageing of wine is potentially able to improve the quality of wine. This distinguishes wine from most other consumable goods, the ability of a wine to age is influenced by many factors including grape variety, vintage, viticultural practices, wine region and winemaking style. The condition that the wine is kept in after bottling can also influence how well a wine ages and may require significant time and financial investment. There is a significant mystique around the aging of wine, as its chemistry was not understood for a long time, the Ancient Greeks and Romans were aware of the potential of aged wines. In Greece, early examples of dried straw wines were noted for their ability to age due to their high sugar contents and these wines were stored in sealed earthenware amphorae and kept for many years. In Rome, the most sought after wines—Falernian and Surrentine—were prized for their ability to age for decades, in the Book of Luke, it is noted that old wine was valued over new wine. Following the Fall of the Roman Empire, appreciation for aged wine was virtually non-existent, most of the wines produced in northern Europe were light bodied, pale in color and with low alcohol. These wines did not have much aging potential and barely lasted a few months before they rapidly deteriorated into vinegar, the older a wine got the cheaper its price became as merchants eagerly sought to rid themselves of aging wine. By the 16th century, sweeter and more alcoholic wines were being made in the Mediterranean, similarly, Riesling from Germany with its combination of acidity and sugar were also demonstrating their ability to age. In the 17th century, two innovations occurred that changed the wine industrys view on aging. One was the development of the cork and bottle which allowed producers to package, the second was the growing popularity of fortifying wines such as Port, Madeira and Sherries. The added alcohol was found to act as a preservative, allowing wines to survive long sea voyages to England, The Americas, the English, in particular, were growing in their appreciation of aged wines like Port and Claret from Bordeaux. Demand for matured wines had an effect on the wine trade. In regions like Bordeaux, Oporto and Burgundy, this dramatically increased the balance of power towards the merchant classes. There is a misconception that wine always improves with age, or that wine improves with extended aging. Some authorities state that more wine is consumed too old than too young, aging changes wine, but does not categorically improve it or worsen it. Fruitness deteriorates rapidly, decreasing markedly after only 6 months in the bottle, due to the cost of storage, it is not economical to age cheap wines, but many varieties of wine do not benefit from aging, regardless of the quality. Experts vary on precise numbers, but typically state that only 5–10% of wine improves after 1 year, in general, wines with a low pH have a greater capability of aging
Aging of wine
–
Bottles of wine aging in an underground cellar
Aging of wine
–
The development of glass bottles with cork closure made it possible to more consistently age wine.
Aging of wine
–
The
Italian wine Tignanello is a blend of Sangiovese, Cabernet Sauvignon and
Cabernet franc —varieties which usually have aging potential.
Aging of wine
–
Storage conditions can influence a wine's aging ability.
24.
Fruit wine
–
Fruit wines are fermented alcoholic beverages made from a variety of base ingredients, they may also have additional flavors taken from fruits, flowers, and herbs. This definition is sometimes broadened to include any fermented alcoholic beverage except beer, for historical reasons, mead, cider, and perry are also excluded from the definition of fruit wine. Fruit wines are referred to by their main ingredient because the usual definition of wine states that it is made from fermented grape juice. In the European Union, wine is defined as the fermented juice of grapes. In the United Kingdom, fruit wine is called country wine, the term should not be conflated with the French term vin de pays. In British legislation, the term made-wine is used, Fruit wine can be made from virtually any plant matter that can be fermented. Most fruits and berries have the potential to produce wine, there are a number of methods of extracting flavour and juice from the fruits or plants being used, pressing the juice, stewing and fermenting the pulp of the fruits are common. However, some of these products do require the addition of sugar or honey to make them palatable, two commonly produced varieties are elderberry wine and dandelion wine. Tainted elderberry wine is the used to commit murders in Joseph Kesselrings play and Frank Capras film adaptation Arsenic. A wine made from elderberry flowers is called elder blow wine, the amount of fermentable sugars is often low and needs to be supplemented by a process called chaptalization in order to have sufficient alcohol levels in the finished wine. Sucrose is often added so that there is sufficient sugar to ferment to completion while keeping the level of acidity acceptable. If the specific gravity of the solution is too high, indicating an excess of sugar. Therefore, much as to sugar content, the fruit mash is generally topped up with water prior to fermentation to reduce the acidity to pleasant levels. Many fruit wines suffer from a lack of natural yeast nutrients needed to promote or maintain fermentation, winemakers can counter this with the addition of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium available commercially as yeast nutrient. In the opinion of one wine writer fruit wines often do not improve with age and are usually meant to be consumed within a year of bottling. Plum liquor, also known as wine, is popular in both Japan and Korea, and is also produced in China. In China, plum wine is called meijiu, plum wine is normally made with distilled liquor and soaked with plum. The alcohol level is higher than typical fruit wine, which is fermented with just fruits, umeshu is a Japanese alcoholic drink made by steeping green plums in shōchū
Fruit wine
–
Elderberries, a common fruit wine ingredient.
Fruit wine
–
Bottles of
passionfruit wine in
Israel.
Fruit wine
–
Bottle of pineapple wine from Dominican Republic
25.
Sake
–
Sake, also spelled saké in English, is a Japanese rice wine made by fermenting rice that has been polished to remove the bran. The brewing process for sake differs from the process for beer in that, for beer, like other rice wines, when sake is brewed, these conversions occur simultaneously. Furthermore, the alcohol content differs between sake, wine, and beer, Wine generally contains 9%–16% ABV, while most beer contains 3%–9%, and undiluted sake contains 18%–20%. In the Japanese language, the word sake can refer to any alcoholic drink, under Japanese liquor laws, sake is labelled with the word seishu, a synonym less commonly used in conversation. The origin of sake is unclear, the making of Chinese alcoholic beverages predates recorded history. The earliest reference to the use of alcohol in Japan is recorded in the Book of Wei in the Records of the Three Kingdoms and this 3rd-century Chinese text speaks of the Japanese drinking and dancing. Alcoholic beverages are mentioned several times in the Kojiki, Japans first written history, bamforth places the probable origin of true sake (which is made from rice, water, and kōji mold in the Nara period. In the Heian period, sake was used for ceremonies, court festivals. Sake production was a government monopoly for a time, but in the 10th century, temples and shrines began to brew sake. The Tamon-in Diary, written by abbots of Tamon-in from 1478 to 1618, the diary shows that pasteurization and the process of adding ingredients to the main fermentation mash in three stages were established practices by that time. In the 16th century, the technique of distillation was introduced into the Kyushu district from Ryukyu, the brewing of shōchū, called Imo—sake started, and was sold at the central market in Kyoto. The work of writers was widely disseminated throughout Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. During the Meiji Restoration, laws were written that allowed anybody with the money and know-how to construct, around 30,000 breweries sprang up around the country within a year. However, as the years went by, the government levied more and more taxes on the sake industry, most of the breweries that grew and survived this period were set up by wealthy landowners. Landowners who grew rice crops would have left over at the end of the season and, rather than letting these leftovers go to waste. The most successful of these family breweries still operate today, during the 20th century, sake-brewing technology grew by leaps and bounds. The government opened the sake-brewing research institute in 1904, and in 1907 the very first government-run sake-tasting competition was held, yeast strains specifically selected for their brewing properties were isolated and enamel-coated steel tanks arrived. The government started hailing the use of tanks as easy to clean, lasting forever
Sake
–
Sake served in a clear glass
Sake
–
Sake barrel offerings,
Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū
Sake
–
Title page of Bereiding van Sacki, by
Isaac Titsingh: earliest explanation of the sake brewing process in a European language. Published in 1781, in
Batavia, Dutch East Indies.
Sake
–
Sake brewery,
Takayama, with a sugitama (杉玉) globe of cedar leaves indicating sake.
26.
Rice wine
–
Rice wine, also known as mijiu, is an alcoholic drink made from rice, traditionally consumed in East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. Rice wine is made from the fermentation of rice starch that has converted to sugars. Microbes are the source of the enzymes that convert the starches to sugar, rice wine typically has an alcohol content of 18%–25% ABV. Rice wines are used in Asian gastronomy at formal dinners and banquets and they are also used in a religious and ceremonial context
Rice wine
–
A bottle of
cheongju, a
Korean rice wine.
Rice wine
–
A bottle of Tapuy, a Philippine rice wine.
Rice wine
–
Fermented beverage
27.
Beer styles
–
Beer style is a term used to differentiate and categorize beers by factors such as colour, flavour, strength, ingredients, production method, recipe, history, or origin. In 1989, Fred Eckhardt furthered Jacksons work publishing The Essentials of Beer Style, although the systematic study of beer styles is a modern phenomenon, the practice of distinguishing between different varieties of beer is ancient, dating to at least 2000 BC. The flavour may include the degree of bitterness of a due to bittering agents such as hops, roasted barley, or herbs. Yeasts that ferment at warmer temperatures, usually between 15.5 and 24 °C, form a layer of foam on the surface of the fermenting beer, which is why they are referred to as top-fermenting yeasts. Yeasts that ferment at considerably lower temperatures, around 10 °C, have the ability to process a chemical known as raffinose. These yeasts collect at the bottom of the beer and are therefore referred to as bottom-fermenting yeast. The majority of beer in production today is fermented in this way and is called lager, beers of spontaneous fermentation produced in Belgium using wild strains of yeast are referred to as lambic. Styles of beer go back at least to Mesopotamia, the Alulu Tablet, a Sumerian receipt for best ale written in Cuneiform found in Ur, suggests that even in 2050 BC there was a differentiation between at least two different types or qualities of ale. The work of Bedrich Hrozny on translating Assyrian merchants tablets found in Hattusa, documents reveal comments on different local brewing methods or ingredients. Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia wrote about Celts brewing ale in Gaul and Spain in a number of different ways, anglo-Saxon laws reveal they identified three different ales, while the Normans mention cervisae and plena cervisia in the Domesday Book. By the 15th century brewers in Germany and the Low Countries were using hops to flavour and preserve their ale, this new style of ale was called beer. When this trend came to Britain and brewers of beer in Southwark, London, started to take away from the traditional brewers of unhopped ale. Laws were passed favouring either beer or ale for a number of years, at the same time, brewers in Bavaria were storing beer in cool caves during the summer months in order to stop it spoiling. The beer became known as lager from the German word lagern, although beers using naturally dried malt would have been pale-coloured, by the 17th century most malts in Europe would have been dried over a fire, resulting in a dark coloured beer. When coke started to be used for roasting malt in 1642, by 1703 the term pale ale was starting to be used, though the beer it described was a lightly hopped ale, very different from more bitter modern versions. Jacksons book had an influence in North America where the writer Fred Eckhardt was also starting to explore the nature of beer styles. The wine importing company Merchant du Vin switched to importing beers mentioned in Jacksons book, small brewers started up, producing copies and interpretations of the beer styles Jackson described. Beers may be categorized based on a number of factors, the visual characteristics that may be observed in a beer are colour, clarity, and nature of the head
Beer styles
–
A small flight of beers, meant to sample several styles in one sitting
28.
List of beer styles
–
Beer style is a term used to differentiate and categorize beers by various factors including appearance, flavour, ingredients, production method, history, or origin. The term beer style and the structuring of world beers into defined categories is based on the work done by writer Michael Jackson in his 1977 book The World Guide To Beer. Fred Eckhardt furthered Jacksons work publishing The Essentials of Beer Style in 1989, there is no universally agreed list of beer styles as different countries and organisations have different sets of criteria. A number of beers, such as chhaang and cauim are generally not included on beer style groupings. Some beer terms such as ale, lager, cask ale cover a variety of beer styles
List of beer styles
–
A glass of
dunkel beer, a
German dark lager
List of beer styles
–
Africa
29.
Grain
–
Grains are small, hard, dry seeds, with or without attached hulls or fruit layers, harvested for human or animal consumption. Agronomists also call the plants producing such seeds grain crops, the two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals such as wheat and rye, and legumes such as beans and soybeans. Because of the ubiquity of grain as a source, the term grain is often used to describe something small. After being harvested, dry grains are more durable than other foods, such as starchy fruits. Thus, major global commodity markets exist for canola, maize, rice, soybeans, wheat, in botany, grains and cereals are synonymous with caryopses, the fruits of the grass family. In agronomy and commerce, seeds or fruits from other plant families are called if they resemble caryopses. For example, amaranth is sold as grain amaranth, and amaranth products may be described as whole grains, the pre-Hispanic civilizations of the Andes had grain-based food systems but, at the higher elevations, none of the grains was a cereal. All three grains native to the Andes are broad-leafed plants rather than such as corn, rice. All cereal crops are members of the grass family, cereal grains contain a substantial amount of starch, a carbohydrate that provides dietary energy. As is the case all other whole plant foods, pulses also contain carbohydrate. Vegetable oils provide dietary energy and some essential fatty acids and they are also used as fuel or lubricants. Those who handle grain at grain facilities may encounter numerous occupational hazards, risks include grain entrapment, where workers are submerged in the grain and unable to remove themselves, explosions caused by fine particles of grain dust, and falls
Grain
–
Food grains at a weekly market
Grain
–
Cereal grain seeds from left to right:
wheat,
spelt,
barley,
oat.
Grain
–
Barley
Grain
–
Rye grains.
. PMID 22158127. doi:10.1093/jnci/djr483.
Portals
WikiProjects
