1.
Star Wars
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Star Wars is an American epic space opera franchise, centered on a film series created by George Lucas. It depicts the adventures of characters a long time ago in a galaxy far, far away. The franchise began in 1977 with the release of the film Star Wars and it was followed by the successful sequels The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi, these three films constitute the original Star Wars trilogy. A prequel trilogy was released between 1999 and 2005, which received mixed-to-negative reactions, a sequel trilogy began in 2015 with the release of Star Wars, The Force Awakens. All seven films were nominated for Academy Awards and have been successes, with a combined box office revenue of over $7.5 billion. Spin-off films include Star Wars, The Clone Wars and Rogue One, Star Wars also holds a Guinness World Records title for the Most successful film merchandising franchise. In 2015, the value of the Star Wars franchise was estimated at USD $42 billion. In 2012, The Walt Disney Company acquired Lucasfilm for $4.06 billion and earned the rights to all subsequent Star Wars films. Walt Disney Studios owns digital distribution rights to all the Star Wars films, the events depicted in the Star Wars franchise take place in an unnamed fictional galaxy at an undetermined point in the distant past. Many species of creatures are depicted. Robotic droids are also commonplace and are built to serve their owners. Space travel is common, and many planets in the galaxy are members of a single galactic government. In the prequel trilogy, this is depicted in the form of the Galactic Republic, at the end of the trilogy and throughout the original trilogy. Preceding and during the trilogy, this government is the New Republic. One of the prominent elements of Star Wars is the Force and it is described in the first produced film as an energy field created by all living things surrounds us, penetrates us, binds the galaxy together. While the Force can be used for good, known as the side, it also has a dark side that, when pursued, imbues users with hatred, aggression. The sequel trilogy introduces the Knights of Ren, an order of practitioners of the side of the Force aligned with the First Order. The first film in the series, Star Wars, was released on May 25,1977 and this was followed by two sequels, The Empire Strikes Back, released on May 21,1980, and Return of the Jedi, released on May 25,1983
2.
George Lucas
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George Walton Lucas Jr. is an American filmmaker and entrepreneur. He is best known as the creator of the Star Wars and Indiana Jones franchises, as well as the founder of Lucasfilm and he was the Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Lucasfilm, before selling it to The Walt Disney Company in 2012. Upon graduating from the University of Southern California in 1967, Lucas co-founded American Zoetrope with fellow filmmaker Francis Ford Coppola, Lucas wrote and directed THX1138, based on his earlier student short Electronic Labyrinth, THX1138 4EB, which was a critical success but a financial failure. His next work as a writer-director was the film, American Graffiti, inspired by his teen years in early 1960s Modesto, California, the film was critically and commercially successful, and received five Academy Award nominations including Best Picture. Following the first Star Wars film, Lucas produced and co-wrote the following installments in the trilogy, The Empire Strikes Back, along with Steven Spielberg, Lucas co-created and wrote the Indiana Jones films Raiders of the Lost Ark, Temple of Doom, and The Last Crusade. Lucas also produced and/or wrote a variety of films through Lucasfilm in the 1980s and 1990s, Lucas also returned to directing with the Star Wars prequel trilogy, consisting of The Phantom Menace, Attack of the Clones, and Revenge of the Sith. He later collaborated on the story for the Indiana Jones sequel Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, five of Lucass seven features are among the 100 highest-grossing movies at the North American box office, adjusted for ticket-price inflation. Lucas is one of the American film industrys most financially successful filmmakers, Lucas is considered a significant figure in the New Hollywood era. Lucas was born and raised in Modesto, California, the son of Dorothy Ellinore Lucas and George Walton Lucas and he is of German, Swiss-German, English, Scottish, and distant Dutch and French descent. Growing up, Lucas had a passion for cars and motor racing, on June 12,1962, while driving his souped-up Autobianchi Bianchina, another driver broadsided him, flipping over his car, nearly killing him, causing him to lose interest in racing as a career. He attended Modesto Junior College, where he studied anthropology, sociology and he also began shooting with an 8 mm camera, including filming car races. At this time, Lucas and his friend John Plummer became interested in Canyon Cinema, screenings of underground, avant-garde 16 mm filmmakers like Jordan Belson, Stan Brakhage, and Bruce Conner. Lucas and Plummer also saw classic European films of the time, including Jean-Luc Godards Breathless, François Truffauts Jules et Jim, thats when George really started exploring, Plummer said. Through his interest in racing, Lucas met renowned cinematographer Haskell Wexler, another race enthusiast. Wexler, later to work with Lucas on several occasions, was impressed by Lucas talent, George had a very good eye, and he thought visually, he recalled. Lucas then transferred to the University of Southern California School of Cinematic Arts, USC was one of the earliest universities to have a school devoted to motion picture film. During the years at USC, Lucas shared a room with Randal Kleiser. Along with classmates such as Walter Murch, Hal Barwood, and John Milius and he also became good friends with fellow acclaimed student filmmaker and future Indiana Jones collaborator, Steven Spielberg
3.
Science fiction
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Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a literature of ideas. Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying science fiction is what we point to when we say it, a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography, you do not know what it is, in 1970 or 1971William Atheling Jr. According to science fiction writer Robert A, rod Serlings definition is fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science fiction is the improbable made possible, Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possible worlds or futures. Science fiction elements include, A time setting in the future, in alternative timelines, a spatial setting or scenes in outer space, on other worlds, or on subterranean earth. Characters that include aliens, mutants, androids, or humanoid robots, futuristic or plausible technology such as ray guns, teleportation machines, and humanoid computers. Scientific principles that are new or that contradict accepted physical laws, for time travel, wormholes. New and different political or social systems, e. g. utopian, dystopian, post-scarcity, paranormal abilities such as mind control, telepathy, telekinesis Other universes or dimensions and travel between them. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of science itself. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Keplers work the first science fiction story and it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earths motion is seen from there. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. Wells The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry and it is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century, the scientific romance was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Stories magazine. In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars
4.
Princess Leia
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Princess Leia Organa of Alderaan, later known as General Leia Organa, is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise, portrayed in films by Carrie Fisher. Introduced in the original Star Wars film in 1977, Leia is princess of the planet Alderaan, a member of the Imperial Senate and she thwarts the sinister Sith Lord Darth Vader and helps bring about the destruction of the Empires cataclysmic superweapon, the Death Star. In The Empire Strikes Back, Leia commands a Rebel base and evades Vader as she falls in love with the smuggler, Han Solo. In Return of the Jedi, Leia leads the operation to rescue Han from the crime lord Jabba the Hutt, and is revealed to be Vaders daughter and the twin sister of Luke Skywalker. The prequel film Revenge of the Sith establishes that the mother is Senator Padmé Amidala of Naboo. Leia is adopted by Senator Bail and Queen Breha Organa of Alderaan, in The Force Awakens, Leia is the founder and General of the Resistance against the First Order and has a son with Han named Ben, who goes by the name Kylo Ren. She becomes the Chief of State of the New Republic and a Jedi Master, One of the more popular Star Wars characters, Leia has been called a 1980s icon, a feminist hero and model for other adventure heroines. She has appeared in many works and merchandising, and has been referenced or parodied in several TV shows. Her cinnamon buns hairstyle from Star Wars and metal bikini from Return of the Jedi have become cultural icons, Leia was created by Star Wars creator George Lucas. In 1999, Lucas explained his early development of Leia, Luke and Obi-Wan Kenobi, The first talked about a princess, the second version involved a father, his son, and his daughter, the daughter was the heroine of the film. Now the daughter has become Luke, Mark Hamills character, There was also the story of two brothers where I transformed one of them into a sister. The older brother was imprisoned, and the sister had to rescue him. In the fourth draft it was established that Leia Organa came instead from Alderaan, Fisher was 19 when she was cast as Princess Leia, with actresses including Amy Irving, Cindy Williams and Jodie Foster also up for the role. Asked about Streep in 2015, Fisher said, Bullshit, but Jodie Foster was up for it. That one I knew the most, the second draft of the Return of the Jedi screenplay contained dialogue in which Obi-Wan tells Luke he has a twin sister. She and their mother were sent to the protection of friends in a distant system, the mother died shortly thereafter, and Lukes sister was adopted by Bens friends, the governor of Alderaan and his wife. Fisher explained in 1983, Leias real father left her mother when she was pregnant, I was adopted and grew up set apart from other people because I was a princess. Composer John Williams created a musical leitmotif for Leia which recurs throughout the Star Wars saga, Princess Leias Theme was recorded as a concert suite for the score of the 1977 film
5.
Star Wars (film)
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Star Wars is a 1977 American epic space opera film written and directed by George Lucas. The first installment in the Star Wars film series, it stars Mark Hamill, Harrison Ford, Carrie Fisher, Peter Cushing, David Prowse, James Earl Jones, Anthony Daniels, Kenny Baker, and Peter Mayhew co-star in supporting roles. The plot focuses on the Rebel Alliance, led by Princess Leia, and its attempt to destroy the Galactic Empires space station and this conflict disrupts the isolated life of farmhand Luke Skywalker, who inadvertently acquires a pair of droids that possess stolen architectural plans for the Death Star. Star Wars was released theatrically in the United States on May 25,1977 and it earned $461 million in the U. S. and $314 million overseas, totaling $775 million. It surpassed Jaws to become the film of all time until the release of E. T. the Extra-Terrestrial. When adjusted for inflation, Star Wars is the film in North America. It received ten Academy Award nominations, winning seven and it was among the first films to be selected as part of the U. S. Library of Congress National Film Registry as being culturally, historically, at the time, it was the most recent film on the registry and the only one chosen from the 1970s. Its soundtrack was added to the U. S. National Recording Registry in 2004, today, it is often regarded as one of the best films of all time, as well as one of the most important films in the history of motion pictures. It launched an industry of tie-in products, including TV series spinoffs, novels, comic books, and video games, the films success led to two critically and commercially successful sequels, The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi. A prequel trilogy was released between 1999 and 2005, followed by a trilogy beginning in 2015. In 2016, Rogue One was released as a prequel to the original Star Wars film. The galaxy is in the midst of a civil war, spies for the Rebel Alliance have stolen plans to the Galactic Empires Death Star, a heavily armed space station capable of destroying an entire planet. Rebel leader Princess Leia has the plans, but her ship is captured by Imperial forces under the command of the evil Darth Vader, before she is captured, Leia hides the plans in the memory of an astromech droid, R2-D2, along with a holographic recording. R2-D2 flees to the surface of the desert planet Tatooine with C-3PO, the droids are captured by Jawa traders, who sell them to moisture farmers Owen and Beru Lars and their nephew Luke Skywalker. While cleaning R2-D2, Luke accidentally triggers part of Leias message, the next morning, Luke finds R2-D2 searching for Obi-Wan, and meets Ben Kenobi, an old hermit who lives in the hills and reveals himself to be Obi-Wan. Contrary to his uncles statements, Luke learns that his father, Anakin, Obi-Wan tells Luke that Vader was his former pupil who turned to the dark side of the Force and killed Anakin. Obi-Wan then presents to Luke his fathers weapon – a lightsaber, Obi-Wan views Leias complete message, in which she begs him to take the Death Star plans to her home planet of Alderaan and give them to her father for analysis
6.
Death Star
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The Death Star refers to any of several fictional mobile space stations and galactic superweapons appearing in the Star Wars science-fiction franchise created by George Lucas. The first Death Star was stated to be over 100 km in diameter with a volume of 7,240,000 cubic kilometers and it was crewed by an estimated 1.7 million military personnel and 400,000 droids. Its superweapon delivered enough energies on an equivalent to all the energy released by the Sun in an entire week. The second Death Star was significantly larger and technologically advanced than its predecessor. Both versions of these dwarf planet-sized fortresses were designed for power projection capabilities. George Lucas gave the task of designing a Death Star to concept artist and spaceship modeler Colin Cantwell. As it would have taken a week of work just to fill and sand and refill this depression, Lucas liked the idea, and the Death Star model was created by John Stears. The buzzing sound counting down to the Death Star firing its superlaser comes from the Flash Gordon serials, portraying an incomplete yet powerful space station posed a problem for Industrial Light & Magics modelmakers for Return of the Jedi. Only the front side of the 137-centimeter model was completed, both Death Stars were depicted by a combination of complete and sectional models and matte paintings. The Death Star explosions featured in the edition of A New Hope and in Return of the Jedi are rendered with a Praxis effect. These are depictions of the Death Star and other weapons of mass destruction within the Star Wars canon. The original Death Stars completed form appears in Star Wars, the film opens with Princess Leia transporting the stations schematics to the Rebel Alliance to aid them in destroying the Death Star. Later, Luke Skywalker, Han Solo, Chewbacca, Obi-Wan Kenobi, C-3PO, and R2-D2 are pulled aboard the station by a tractor beam, as they make their escape, Obi-Wan dies fighting Darth Vader, enabling the others to flee the station. Later, Luke returns as part of a force to attack its only weak point. The Death Star plans are a central plot-point in the 2016 film Rogue One, the anthology film Rogue One, focuses on a band of Rebels stealing the plans for the first Death Star prior to the events of A New Hope. The Death Star project was overseen by Orson Krennic, the Director of Advanced Weapons Research for the Imperial Military, Grand Moff Tarkin assumes control over the Death Star while Krennic investigates security breaches in the design project. It is subsequently revealed that Galen discreetly sabotaged the design by building a vulnerability into the reactor and this is the same vulnerability that Luke Skywalker takes advantage of during the events of A New Hope. After the Death Star plans are stolen from the Scarif vault Tarkin fires the Death Star laser on the base killing Krennic as well as Jyn Erso and Cassian Andor
7.
Space station
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A space station is distinguished from other spacecraft used for human spaceflight by lack of major propulsion or landing systems. Instead, other vehicles transport people and cargo to and from the station, as of September 2016 three space stations are in orbit, the International Space Station, which is permanently manned, Chinas Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2. Previous stations include the Almaz and Salyut series, Skylab, each crew member stays aboard the station for weeks or months, but rarely more than a year. Since the ill-fated flight of Soyuz 11 to Salyut 1, all manned spaceflight duration records have been set aboard space stations, the duration record for a single spaceflight is 437.7 days, set by Valeriy Polyakov aboard Mir from 1994 to 1995. As of 2016, four cosmonauts have completed single missions of over a year, Space stations have also been used for both military and civilian purposes. The last military-use space station was Salyut 5, which was used by the Almaz program of the Soviet Union in 1976 and 1977, Space stations have been envisaged since at least as early as 1869 when Edward Everett Hale wrote The Brick Moon. The first to give consideration to space stations were Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in the early 20th century. In 1929 Herman Potočniks The Problem of Space Travel was published, during the Second World War, German scientists researched the theoretical concept of an orbital weapon based on a space station. During the same time as von Braun pursued Potočniks ideas, the Soviet design bureaus – chiefly Vladimir Chelomeys OKB-52 – were pursuing Tsiolkovskys ideas for space stations, the work by OKB-52 would lead to the Almaz programme and to the first space station, Salyut 1. The developed hardware laid the ground for the Salyut and Mir space stations, the first space station was Salyut 1, which was launched by the Soviet Union on April 19,1971. Like all the space stations, it was monolithic, intended to be constructed and launched in one piece. As such, monolithic stations generally contained all their supplies and experimental equipment when launched, and were considered expended, and then abandoned, the earlier Soviet stations were all designated Salyut, but among these there were two distinct types, civilian and military. The military stations, Salyut 2, Salyut 3, and Salyut 5, were known as Almaz stations. This allowed for a crew to man the station continually, Skylab was also equipped with two docking ports, like second-generation stations, but the extra port was never utilized. The presence of a port on the new stations allowed Progress supply vehicles to be docked to the station. This concept was expanded on Salyut 7, which docked with a TKS tug shortly before it was abandoned. The later Salyuts may reasonably be seen as a transition between the two groups, unlike previous stations, the Soviet space station Mir had a modular design, a core unit was launched, and additional modules, generally with a specific role, were later added to that. This method allows for flexibility in operation, as well as removing the need for a single immensely powerful launch vehicle
8.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
9.
Ralph McQuarrie
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Ralph Angus McQuarrie was an American conceptual designer and illustrator. McQuarrie was born Ralph McQuarrie on June 13,1929 in Gary, Indiana and was raised on a farm near Billings and he served in the United States Army during the Korean War, surviving a shot to the head. After returning from the war, McQuarrie moved to California in the 1960s, studying at the Art Center School, while there, McQuarrie was asked by Hal Barwood to produce some illustrations for a film project he and Matthew Robbins were starting. McQuarrie married Joan Benjamin in 1983 and stayed married until his death, impressed with his work, director George Lucas met with him to discuss his plans for a space-fantasy film. Several years later, in 1975, Lucas commissioned McQuarrie to illustrate scenes from the script of the film. McQuarrie designed many of the characters, including Darth Vader, Chewbacca, R2-D2 and C-3PO. It was McQuarrie who suggested that Vader wear a breathing apparatus, McQuarries concept paintings, including such scenes as R2-D2 and C-3PO arriving on Tatooine, helped convince 20th Century Fox to fund Star Wars, which became a huge success upon release in 1977. Neil Kendricks of The San Diego Union-Tribune stated McQuarrie holds a position when it comes to defining much of the look of the Star Wars universe. McQuarrie noted, I thought I had the best job that an artist ever had on a film, I still get fan mail — people wondering if I worked on Episode I or just wanting to have my autograph. Around the same period, he was brought on board the team of Star Trek. McQuarrie went on to work as the designer on A New Hopes two sequels The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi. He described McQuarries style as strongly geometric subjects rendered in muted colors against a flat, a McQuarrie Star Wars design looks like what would have resulted if Salvador Dalí had sketched concepts for Universals 1936 Flash Gordon serial by way of Sergio Leones Old West. McQuarrie played the role of General Pharl McQuarrie in The Empire Strikes Back. He appears in Echo Base on Hoth in the opening sequence. An action figure in his likeness as General McQuarrie was produced for Star Wars 30th anniversary and he also worked on the 1978 TV series Battlestar Galactica, and the films Raiders of the Lost Ark, Star Trek IV, The Voyage Home and *batteries not included. McQuarrie retired and his Star Wars concept paintings were displayed in art exhibitions, including the 1999 Star Wars. McQuarrie died aged 82 on March 3,2012, in his Berkeley, California home and he is survived by his wife Joan. Lucas commented after McQuarries death, His genial contribution, in the form of unequalled production paintings, propelled and inspired all of the cast, when words could not convey my ideas, I could always point to one of Ralphs fabulous illustrations and say, do it like this
10.
Darth Vader
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Darth Vader, also known by his birth name Anakin Skywalker, is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise. The character was created by George Lucas and has been portrayed by numerous actors and his appearances span the first six Star Wars films, as well as Rogue One, and his character is heavily referenced in Star Wars, The Force Awakens. He is also an important character in the Star Wars expanded universe of television series, video games, novels, literature and comic books. Originally a Jedi prophesied to bring balance to the Force, he falls to the side of the Force and serves the evil Galactic Empire at the right hand of his Sith master. He is also the father of Luke Skywalker and Princess Leia Organa, grandfather of Kylo Ren, Darth Vader has become one of the most iconic villains in popular culture, and has been listed among the greatest villains and fictional characters ever. The American Film Institute listed him as the third greatest movie villain in history on 100 Years. 100 Heroes and Villains, behind Hannibal Lecter and Norman Bates, however, other critics consider him a tragic hero, citing his original motivations for the greater good before his fall to the dark side. After the success of the original Star Wars, series creator George Lucas hired science fiction author Leigh Brackett to write the sequel with him and they held story conferences and, by late November 1977, Lucas had produced a handwritten treatment. The treatment is similar to the film, except that Vader does not reveal he is Lukes father. In the first draft that Brackett would write from this, Lukes father appears as a ghost to instruct Luke, Lucas was disappointed with the script, but Brackett died of cancer before he could discuss it with her. With no writer available, Lucas had to write the next draft himself, in this draft, he made use of a new plot twist, Vader claiming to be Lukes father. According to Lucas, he found this draft enjoyable to write, the new plot element of Lukes parentage had drastic effects on the series. Anakin battled Kenobi on the site of a volcano and was badly wounded, meanwhile, Kenobi hid Luke on Tatooine while the Galactic Republic became the tyrannical Galactic Empire and Vader systematically hunted down and killed the Jedi. This change in character would provide a springboard to the Tragedy of Darth Vader storyline that underlies the prequel trilogy, after deciding to create the prequel trilogy, Lucas indicated the series would be a tragic one depicting Anakins fall to the dark side. He also saw that the prequels could form the beginning of one story that started with Anakins childhood. This was the step towards turning the film series into a saga. For the first prequel, Star Wars, Episode I – The Phantom Menace, Movie trailers focused on Anakin and a one-sheet poster showing him casting Vaders shadow informed otherwise unknowing audiences of the characters eventual fate. The movie ultimately achieved a goal of introducing audiences to Anakin
11.
Grindelwald
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Grindelwald is a village and municipality in the Interlaken-Oberhasli administrative district in the canton of Berne in Switzerland. In addition to the village of Grindelwald, the municipality includes the settlements of Alpiglen, Burglauenen, Grund, Itramen, Mühlebach, Schwendi, Tschingelberg. Grindelwald village is located at 1,034 m above sea level in the Bernese Alps, Grindelwald was first mentioned in 1146 as Grindelwalt. The oldest traces of a settlement in the area are scattered neolithic tools which have discovered around Grindelwald village. Several Roman era coins have also found in the municipality. A castle was built on the Burgbühl hill above the village during the High Middle Ages, in 1146, King Conrad III granted estates in Grindelwald to Interlaken Monastery. In the late 12th century, the barons of the valleys in what became the Berner Oberland went to war against the expansionist Duke Berthold V of Zähringen. The Duke defeated a coalition of nobles in the Grindlewald valley in 1191 and his victory allowed him to expand Zähringen power into the Oberland, to expand the city of Thun and found the city of Bern. Beginning in the 13th century, Interlaken Monastery began to purchase rights and land in Grindelwald, the Monastery continued to exert influence in the village and in 1315 and again in 1332 ordered the villagers to raid Unterwalden to further the political ambitions of the Abbots patrons. In response to the raids, in 1342, Unterwalden attacked Grindelwald, a few years later, in 1348–49, the villagers joined in an unsuccessful rebellion against ecclesiastical power. In 1528, the city of Bern adopted the Protestant Reformation, Berne was able to impose its will, converted the village and secularized Interlaken Abbey and the Abbeys lands. Grindelwald became part of the bailiwick of Interlaken, under a Bernese bailiff, the first village church was a wooden building from the mid-12th century. The wooden building was replaced with the stone St. Marys Church in 1180 and this church was replaced in the 16th century, and the present church was built in 1793. The tourism industry began in Grindelwald in the late 18th century as foreigners discovered the scenic town, pictures of the vistas were widely reprinted, quickly making the village internationally famous. In the 19th century many Englishmen came to the village to climb the peaks around the valley. The Finsteraarhorn, the Wetterhorn, the Eiger, the Schreckhorn, the first resort opened in 1888, there were 10 hotels in 1889, and by 1914 there were 33 in Grindelwald. A rack railway was built to Kleine Scheidegg in 1893, numerous ski lifts, cable cars, hiking trails and alpine huts were built in the late 19th and 20th centuries to allow tourists to explore the mountains. Today, almost the entire economy of Grindelwald is based on tourism, the municipality is quite large and is divided into seven mountain communities
12.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
