1.
Brigadier general
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Brigadier general is a senior rank in the armed forces. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of colonel and major general, when appointed to a field command, a brigadier general is typically in command of a brigade consisting of around 4,000 troops. In some countries a brigadier general is designated as a one-star general. The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a general, or simply a brigadier. An alternative rank of general was first used in the French revolutionary armies. Some countries, such as Brazil, Taiwan, and Japan, some of these countries then use the rank of colonel general to make four general-officer ranks. The naval equivalent is usually commodore and this gallery displays Air Force brigadier general insignia if they are different from the Army brigadier general insignia. Note that in many Commonwealth countries, the equivalent air force rank is Air Commodore, the rank of brigadier general is used in the Argentine Air Force. Unlike other armed forces of the World, the rank of general is actually the highest rank in the Air Force. This is due to the use of the rank of brigadier and its derivatives to designate all general officers in the Air Force, brigadier, brigadier-major, and brigadier-general. The rank of general is reserved for the Chief General Staff of the Air Force. The Argentine Army does not use the rank of brigadier-general, instead using brigade general which in turn is the lowest general officer before Divisional General, see also Argentine Army officer rank insignia. When posted elsewhere, the rank would be relinquished and the former rank resumed and this policy prevented an accumulation of high-ranking general officers brought about by the relatively high turnover of brigade commanders. Brigadier general was used as an honorary rank on retirement. The rank insignia was like that of the current major general, as in the United Kingdom, the rank was later replaced by brigadier. Prior to 2001, the Bangladesh Army rank was known as brigadier, in 2001 the Bangladesh Army introduced the rank of brigadier general, however the grade stayed equivalent to brigadier. It is the lowest ranking general officer, between the ranks of Colonel and Major General, Brigadier General is equivalent to commodore of the Bangladesh Navy and air commodore of the Bangladesh Air Force. It is still popularly called brigadier
2.
Victoria Cross
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The Victoria Cross is the highest award of the United Kingdom honours system. It is awarded for gallantry in the face of the enemy to members of the British armed forces and it was previously awarded to Commonwealth countries, most of which have established their own honours systems and no longer recommend British honours. It may be awarded to a person of any rank in any service. Since the first awards were presented by Queen Victoria in 1857 and these investitures are usually held at Buckingham Palace. The VC was introduced on 29 January 1856 by Queen Victoria to honour acts of valour during the Crimean War, since then, the medal has been awarded 1,358 times to 1,355 individual recipients. Only 15 medals,11 to members of the British Army, the traditional explanation of the source of the metal from which the medals are struck is that it derives from Russian cannon captured at the Siege of Sevastopol. Some research has suggested a variety of origins for the material, research has established that the metal for most of the medals made since December 1914 came from two Chinese cannons that were captured from the Russians in 1855. Owing to its rarity, the VC is highly prized and the medal has fetched over £400,000 at auction, a number of public and private collections are devoted to the Victoria Cross. The private collection of Lord Ashcroft, amassed since 1986, contains over one-tenth of all VCs awarded, following a 2008 donation to the Imperial War Museum, the Ashcroft collection went on public display alongside the museums Victoria and George Cross collection in November 2010. These are unique awards of honours system, recommended, assessed, gazetted and presented by each country. In 1854, after 39 years of peace, Britain found itself fighting a war against Russia. The Crimean War was one of the first wars with modern reporting, before the Crimean War, there was no official standardised system for recognition of gallantry within the British armed forces. This structure was limited, in practice awards of the Order of the Bath were confined to officers of field rank. Brevet promotions or Mentions in Despatches were largely confined to those who were under the notice of the commanders in the field. Other European countries had awards that did not discriminate against class or rank, France awarded the Légion dhonneur and The Netherlands gave the Order of William. There was a feeling among the public and in the Royal Court that a new award was needed to recognise incidents of gallantry that were unconnected with a mans lengthy or meritorious service. Queen Victoria issued a Warrant under the Royal sign-manual on 29 January 1856 that officially constituted the VC, the order was backdated to 1854 to recognise acts of valour during the Crimean War. Queen Victoria had instructed the War Office to strike a new medal that would not recognise birth or class, the medal was meant to be a simple decoration that would be highly prized and eagerly sought after by those in the military services
3.
Order of the Bath
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The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Knight Companion. Recipients of the Order are now usually senior officers or senior civil servants. Commonwealth citizens who are not subjects of the Queen and foreign nationals may be made Honorary Members, in the Middle Ages, knighthood was often conferred with elaborate ceremonies. These usually involved the taking a bath during which he was instructed in the duties of knighthood by more senior knights. He was then put to bed to dry, clothed in a special robe, he was led with music to the chapel where he spent the night in a vigil. At dawn he made confession and attended Mass, then retired to his bed to sleep until it was fully daylight, in the early medieval period the difference seems to have been that the full ceremonies were used for men from more prominent families. Knights Bachelor continued to be created with the form of ceremony. The last occasion on which Knights of the Bath were created was the coronation of Charles II in 1661. From at least 1625, and possibly from the reign of James I, Knights of the Bath were using the motto Tria iuncta in uno, and wearing as a badge three crowns within a plain gold oval. These were both adopted by the Order of the Bath, a similar design of badge is still worn by members of the Civil Division. Their symbolism however is not entirely clear, the three joined in one may be a reference to the kingdoms of England, Scotland and either France or Ireland, which were held by English and, later, British monarchs. This would correspond to the three crowns in the badge, another explanation of the motto is that it refers to the Holy Trinity. The prime mover in the establishment of the Order of the Bath was John Anstis, Garter King of Arms, the Court remained the centre of the political world. The King was limited in that he had to choose Ministers who could command a majority in Parliament, the leader of an administration still had to command the Kings personal confidence and approval. A strong following in Parliament depended on being able to supply places, pensions, the attraction of the new Order for Walpole was that it would provide a source of such favours to strengthen his political position
4.
Distinguished Service Order
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Instituted on 6 September 1886 by Queen Victoria in a Royal Warrant published in the The London Gazette on 9 November, the first DSOs awarded were dated 25 November 1886. It is typically awarded to officers ranked major or higher, during the First World War,8,981 DSOs were awarded, each award being announced in The London Gazette. The order was established for rewarding individual instances of meritorious or distinguished service in war, after 1 January 1917, commanders in the field were instructed to recommend this award only for those serving under fire. Prior to 1943, the order could be only to someone mentioned in despatches. The order is given to officers in command, above the rank of captain. A number of junior officers were awarded the DSO. In 1942, the award of the DSO was extended to officers of the Merchant Navy who had performed acts of gallantry while under enemy attack. Since 1993, its award has been restricted solely to distinguished service and it has, however, despite some very fierce campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan, remained an officers-only award and it has yet to be awarded to a non-commissioned rank. Recipients of the order are known as Companions of the Distinguished Service Order. They are entitled to use the post-nominal letters DSO, one or more gold medal bars ornamented by the Crown may be issued to DSO holders performing further acts of such leadership which would have merited award of the DSO. The bars are worn as clasps on the ribbon of the original award. The medal signifying its award is a cross, enamelled white. In the centre, within a wreath of laurel, enamelled green, is the crown in gold upon a red enamelled background. On the reverse is the royal cypher in gold upon a red enamelled ground, within a wreath of laurel, a ring at the top of the medal attaches to a ring at the bottom of a gold suspension bar, ornamented with laurel. At the top of the ribbon is a gold bar ornamented with laurel. The red ribbon is 1.125 in wide with blue edges. The medals are issued unnamed but some recipients have had their names engraved on the reverse of the suspension bar, the bar for an additional award is plain gold with an Imperial Crown in the centre. The back of the bar is engraved with the year of the award, a rosette is worn on the ribbon in undress uniform to signify the award of a bar
5.
Medal bar
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A medal bar or medal clasp is a thin metal bar attached to the ribbon of a military decoration, civil decoration, or other medal. When used in conjunction with decorations for service, such as gallantry medals. In the example, Group Captain Leonard Cheshire, VC, OM, DSO, a British convention is to indicate bars by the use of asterisks, thus, DSO** would denote a DSO and two bars. Bars are also used on long service medals to indicate the length of service rendered. The two terms are used because terms bar and clasp both refer to two parts of the medal, the indicator discussed in article, and the part of the medal connected to the ribbon. One exception was the Army Gold Medal issued to higher ranking participants in the Peninsular War, a medal was given for service, with a clasp for each battle fought. After four clasps were earned the medal was turned in for a cross with the names on the arms. The maximum was achieved by the Duke of Wellington, with a cross, over the next 40 years, it became customary for governments to present a medal to all soldiers and officers involved in a campaign. These medals were engraved with the names of the major battles the recipient had fought in during the campaign. The Sutlej Medal was the earliest medal to use such bars and it was awarded to British Army and Honourable East India Company soldiers who fought in the First Anglo-Sikh War between 1845 and 1846. The first battle the recipient participated in would be engraved on the medal itself, if the recipient had participated in multiple engagements, silver bars bearing the name of each additional battle were attached to the medals ribbon. The creation of bars led to the development of General Service medals, bars would be awarded to denote the particular campaign or war the recipient fought in. The 1854 India General Service Medal was awarded to soldiers over a 41-year period, twenty-three clasps were created for this award, becoming one of the more extreme uses of this system. The Crimea Medal was issued with ornate battle bars, since then the general trend has been to have simple horizontal devices. Campaign bars or battle bars are used to denote the campaign, battle. This is the most common use of bars on military decorations. In the United Kingdom, campaign bars are known as clasps. Examples of ones that were issued are the enemy fire clasp on the 1914 Star
6.
Governor-General of Australia
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The Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia is the representative in Australia of the Australian monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The Governor-General is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister of Australia, when travelling abroad, the Governor-General is seen as the representative of Australia, and of the Queen of Australia, so is treated as a head of state. The Governor-General is supported by a staff headed by the Official Secretary to the Governor-General, a Governor-General is not appointed for a specific term, but is generally expected to serve for five years subject to a possible short extension. Since 28 March 2014, the Governor-General has been General Sir Peter Cosgrove, from Federation in 1901 until 1965,11 out of the 15 Governors-General were British aristocrats, they included four barons, three viscounts, three earls, and one prince. Since then, all but one of the Governors-General have been Australian-born, as of 2017, only one Governor-General, Dame Quentin Bryce, was a woman. The selection of a Governor-General is a responsibility for the Prime Minister of Australia, the candidate is approached privately to confirm whether they are willing to accept the appointment. The prime minister advises the monarch to appoint his nominee. This has been the procedure since November 1930, when James Scullins proposed appointment of Sir Isaac Isaacs was fiercely opposed by the British government, Scullin was equally insistent that the monarch must act on the relevant prime ministers direct advice. Both of these appointments had been agreed to despite British government objections, despite these precedents, George V remained reluctant to accept Scullins recommendation of Isaacs and asked him to consider Field Marshal Sir William Birdwood. However, Scullin stood firm, and, on 29 November, the King agreed to Isaacss appointment and this right to not only advise the monarch directly, but also to expect that advice to be accepted, was soon taken up by all the other Dominion prime ministers. This, among other things, led to the Statute of Westminster 1931, having agreed to the appointment, the monarch then permits it to be publicly announced in advance, usually several months before the end of the current Governor-Generals term. During these months, the person is referred to as the Governor-General-designate, the actual appointment is made by the monarch. Governors-General have during their tenure the style His/Her Excellency the Honourable, since May 2013, the style used by a former Governor-General is the Honourable, it was at the same time retrospectively granted for life to all previous holders of the office. From the creation of the Order of Australia in 1975, the Governor-General was, ex officio, Chancellor and Principal Companion of the Order, and therefore became entitled to the post-nominal AC. In 1986 the Letters Patent were amended again, and Governors-General appointed from that time were again, ex officio, until 1989, all Governors-General were members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom and thus held the additional style the Right Honourable for life. The same individuals were also usually either peers, knights, or both, in 1989, Bill Hayden, a republican, declined appointment to the British Privy Council and any imperial honours. Dame Quentin Bryce was the first Governor-General to have had no title or pre-nominal style. Until 2015, the honour continued after the retirement from office of the Governor-General, formerly, the Governor-General automatically became a knight or dame upon being sworn in
7.
Edward VIII
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Edward VIII was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Empire, and Emperor of India, from 20 January 1936 until his abdication on 11 December the same year. Edward was the eldest son of George V and Mary of Teck and he was named Prince of Wales on his sixteenth birthday, nine weeks after his father succeeded as king. As a young man, he served in the British Army during the First World War, Edward became king on his fathers death in early 1936. However, he showed impatience with court protocol, and caused concern among politicians by his apparent disregard for established constitutional conventions. Only months into his reign, he caused a crisis by proposing marriage to Wallis Simpson. When it became apparent that he could not marry Wallis and remain on the throne and he was succeeded by his younger brother, George VI. With a reign of 326 days, Edward was one of the monarchs in British history. After his abdication, he was created Duke of Windsor and he married Wallis in France on 3 June 1937, after her second divorce became final. Later that year, the couple toured Germany, after the war, Edward spent the rest of his life in retirement in France. Edward was born on 23 June 1894 at White Lodge, Richmond Park and he was the eldest son of the Duke and Duchess of York. His father was the son of the Prince and Princess of Wales and his mother was the eldest daughter of Francis and Mary Adelaide, Duke and Duchess of Teck. At the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession to the throne and he was baptised Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David in the Green Drawing Room of White Lodge on 16 July 1894 by Edward White Benson, Archbishop of Canterbury. The names were chosen in honour of Edwards late uncle, who was known to his family as Eddy or Edward and he was always known to his family and close friends by his last given name, David. As was common practice with children of the time, Edward. One of Edwards early nannies often abused him by pinching him before he was due to be presented to his parents and his subsequent crying and wailing would lead the Duke and Duchess to send him and the nanny away. The nanny was discharged after her mistreatment of the children was discovered, Edwards father, though a harsh disciplinarian, was demonstrably affectionate, and his mother displayed a frolicsome side with her children that belied her austere public image. She was amused by the children making tadpoles on toast for their French master, initially Edward was tutored at home by Helen Bricka. Upon his parents return, Edward was placed under the care of two men, Frederick Finch and Henry Hansell, who brought up Edward and his brothers
8.
George VI
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George VI was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death. He was the last Emperor of India and the first Head of the Commonwealth, known as Albert until his accession, George VI was born in the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria, and was named after his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort. As the second son of King George V, he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his life in the shadow of his elder brother. He attended naval college as a teenager, and served in the Royal Navy, in 1920, he was made Duke of York. He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923 and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret, in the mid-1920s, he had speech therapy for a stammer, which he never fully overcame. Georges elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII upon the death of their father in 1936, however, later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry a divorced woman, Edward abdicated in order to marry, and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor. During Georges reign, the break-up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated, the parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the countrys constitution on the day of his accession. The following year, a new Irish constitution changed the name of the state to Ireland, from 1939, the Empire and Commonwealth – except Ireland – was at war with Nazi Germany. War with Italy and Japan followed in 1940 and 1941, respectively, though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre-eminent world powers and the British Empire declined. After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, George remained king of countries, but relinquished the title of Emperor of India in June 1948. Ireland formally declared itself a republic and left the Commonwealth in 1949, George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth. He was beset by problems in the later years of his reign. He was succeeded by his eldest daughter, Elizabeth II, George was born at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria. His father was Prince George, Duke of York, the second and eldest-surviving son of the Prince and his mother was the Duchess of York, the eldest child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck. His birthday was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather, Albert, uncertain of how the Prince Consorts widow, Queen Victoria, would take the news of the birth, the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been rather distressed. Two days later, he again, I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her. Consequently, he was baptised Albert Frederick Arthur George at St. Mary Magdalenes Church near Sandringham three months later, within the family, he was known informally as Bertie
9.
Joseph Lyons
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Joseph Aloysius Lyons, CH was the tenth Prime Minister of Australia, serving from January 1932 until his death. He had earlier served as Premier of Tasmania from 1923 to 1928, Lyons was born in Stanley, Tasmania, and was a schoolteacher and trade unionist before entering politics. He was elected to the Tasmanian House of Assembly in 1909, representing the Labor Party, Lyons was elected party leader after the Labor governments defeat at the 1916 state election. He became premier in October 1923, after Walter Lee lost a no-confidence motion, elected to the Division of Wilmot at the 1929 federal election, Lyons was immediately made a minister in the new government formed by James Scullin. However, he resigned from cabinet in January 1931 over a policy dispute and he and several other Labor defectors subsequently helped to form the new United Australia Party, which elected Lyons as its leader. The UAP won government at the 1931 federal election, and was re-elected in 1934 and 1937, Lyons died of a heart attack in April 1939, becoming the first prime minister to die in office. His widow, Enid Lyons, later became the first woman elected to the House of Representatives, Lyons was born in Stanley, Tasmania, the grandson of Irish immigrants. His father, Michael Lyons, was a farmer who afterwards engaged in a butchery and bakery business, but lost this on account of bad health. His mother did much to keep the family of eight children together, but with the assistance of two aunts, he was able to resume his education at the Philip Smith Teachers Training College, Hobart, and became a teacher. He also became a trade unionist and was an early member of the Australian Labor Party in Tasmania. In 1909 Lyons was elected to the Tasmanian House of Assembly for Wilmot in central Tasmania, from 1914 to 1916 he was Treasurer and Minister for Education and Railways in John Earles state Labor government. As Education Minister he oversaw a number of reforms, including abolition of fees for schools, improving teachers pay and conditions. In 1913, a participant in the Labor discussion groups, Eliza Burnell, introduced him to her 15-year-old daughter, Enid Burnell and she was a strong-minded woman who exercised great influence over Lyons, while raising their eleven children. When the ALP split over conscription during the First World War in 1916, Earle, like most Australians of Irish Catholic background, Lyons was an anti-conscriptionist and stayed in the Labor Party, becoming its new leader in Tasmania. He led the Labor opposition in the Tasmanian Parliament until 1923 when he became Premier and he held office until 1928, also serving as Treasurer during the whole period of his premiership. Lyons government was cautious and pragmatic, establishing relations with business and the conservative government in Canberra. Labor narrowly lost the 1928 state election to the Nationalist Party, at the 1929 election, Lyons ran for the federal seat of Wilmot, covering the same territory as his state seat. He was swept into office in Labors landslide victory under James Scullin and he was appointed Postmaster-General and Minister for Works and Railways
10.
Earle Page
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Sir Earle Christmas Grafton Page, GCMG, CH was an Australian politician who served briefly as the 11th Prime Minister of Australia in 1939. With 41 years,361 days in Parliament, he is the third-longest serving federal parliamentarian in Australian history, behind only Billy Hughes, Page was a minister in the conservative governments of Hughes, Bruce, Lyons, Menzies and Fadden. Pages personal critique of Menzies and his first government on the floor of the House of Representatives in 1939 led to his removal as leader of the Australian Country Party, in post-war Australia he held less prestigious ministries. He was a staunch protectionist and did much to advance the development of Northern Rivers region of New South Wales, Page graduated in medicine at the top of his year in 1900. After graduating from university, Page worked at Sydneys Royal Prince Alfred Hospital as a surgeon in 1901–1902. At Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, he met Ethel Blunt, a nurse, in 1903, Page joined a private practice in Grafton, and, in 1904, he became one of the first people in the country to own a car. He practised in Sydney and Grafton before joining the Australian Army as a officer in the First World War. After the war, Page went into farming and was elected Mayor of Grafton, in 1919 Page was elected to the House of Representatives from Cowper in northeastern New South Wales. He ran as a candidate of the Farmers and Settlers Association of New South Wales, shortly before parliament opened in 1920, the Farmers and Settlers Association merged with several other rural-based parties to form the Country Party. He became the leader in 1921, ousting William McWilliams. The young party found itself with the balance of power in the House after the 1922 election, the Nationalist government of Billy Hughes lost its majority, and could not govern without Country Party support. However, the Country Party had been formed due to discontent with Hughes rural policy. He demanded Hughes resignation as the price for beginning negotiations with the Nationalists, as the Country Party was the Nationalists only politically realistic coalition partner, Hughes stood down. Page then began negotiations with Hughes successor as leader of the Nationalists and his terms were stiff, he wanted his Country Party to have five seats in an 11-man cabinet, including the post of Treasurer and the second rank in the ministry for himself. These demands were unprecedented for a junior coalition partner in a Westminster system. Nonetheless, Bruce agreed rather than force another election, for all intents and purposes, Page was the first Deputy Prime Minister of Australia. Since then, the leader of the Country/National Party has been the member in nearly every non-Labor government. On 30 January 1924, as Acting Prime Minister, Page chaired the first meeting of Federal Cabinet ever held in Canberra and this was still three years before the opening of Parliament House and Canberra becoming the National Capital
11.
Robert Menzies
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Sir Robert Gordon Menzies, KT, AK, CH, PC, QC, FAA, FRS, was the Prime Minister of Australia from 1939 to 1941 and again from 1949 to 1966. He is Australias longest-serving prime minister, serving over 18 years in total, Menzies studied law at the University of Melbourne and became one of Melbournes leading lawyers. He was Deputy Premier of Victoria from 1932 to 1934, and then transferred to federal parliament, subsequently becoming Attorney-General, in April 1939, following Lyons death, Menzies was elected leader of the United Australia Party and sworn in as prime minister. He authorised Australias entry into World War II in September 1939, on his return to Australia in August 1941, Menzies found that he had lost the support of his party and consequently resigned as prime minister. He subsequently helped to create the new Liberal Party, and was elected its leader in August 1945. At the 1949 federal election, Menzies led the Liberal–Country coalition to victory, after 1955, his government also received support from the Democratic Labor Party, a breakaway group from the Labor Party. Menzies won seven consecutive elections during his term, eventually retiring as prime minister in January 1966. Robert Gordon Menzies was born to James Menzies and Kate in Jeparit and he was the fourth of six children, with one sister and three brothers. His maternal grandfather, John Sampson, was a Cornish miner from Penzance who also came to seek his fortune on the goldfields and his father was elected to the Victorian State Parliament for the seat of Lowan in 1911 and moved with the family to Melbourne after selling the farm. His middle name, Gordon, was given to him in honour and memory of Charles George Gordon, Menziess formal education began at Humffray Street State School in Bakery Hill, Ballarat, then later at private school in Ballarat. He attended Wesley College in Melbourne and studied law at the University of Melbourne, when World War I began, Menzies was 19 years old and held a commission in the universitys militia unit. He resigned his commission at the very time others of his age and it was later stated that, since the family had made enough of a sacrifice to the war with the enlistment of two of three eligible brothers, Menzies should stay to finish his studies. Menzies himself never explained the reason why he chose not to enlist and it should be noted that the two brothers, James and Frank, who did enlist did not do so until 1915 after the landings at Anzac which belies the alleged reason. Subsequently, he was prominent in undergraduate activities and won prizes and declared himself to be a patriotic supporter of the war. In 1916 he became the editor of the Melbourne University Magazine, establishing a reputation as an unusually bright and articulate member of the undergraduate community. After graduating from the University of Melbourne in 1916 with First Class Honours in Law, Menzies was admitted to the Victorian Bar and to the High Court of Australia in 1918. Establishing his own practice in Melbourne, Menzies specialised chiefly in Constitutional law which he had read with the leading Victorian jurist and future High Court judge, Sir Owen Dixon. In 1920 Menzies served as an advocate for the Amalgamated Society of Engineers which eventually took its appeal to the High Court of Australia, the case became a landmark authority for the positive reinterpretation of Commonwealth powers over those of the States
12.
Arthur Fadden
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Sir Arthur William Fadden, GCMG was an Australian politician and the 13th Prime Minister of Australia. He became Prime Minister in 1941, after the resignation of Robert Menzies and he was the first Australian Prime Minister born in Queensland. Fadden was born in Ingham, Queensland, on 13 April 1894 and he was educated at state schools, and later studied accountancy while working as a clerk. Once he had qualified he became assistant Town Clerk of Mackay, in 1919 Fadden helped form the North Queensland Rugby League, and served as its founding secretary. In the 1920s he established a successful accountancy firm with offices in Brisbane and he was active in the Country Party from its foundation. In 1932 Fadden was elected for one term to the Legislative Assembly of Queensland as member for Kennedy, the following year, though, he won a by-election in the federal seat of Darling Downs. He was a blunt, effective debater and soon made an impression and he was appointed Minister for Supply and Development, then Minister for Air, then Treasurer. In August 1941 Robert Menzies resigned as Prime Minister and leader of the party in the coalition. Although the non-Labor Coalition had been in power for a decade, under normal circumstances, this would have made Hughes Prime Minister for a second time. However, Hughes was a month shy of 78, and was viewed as too old and frail to be anything other than a stopgap leader, especially during wartime. Under the circumstances, on 28 August a joint UAP-Country meeting chose Fadden as Coalition leader even though the Country Party was the smaller of the two non-Labor parties, Fadden was duly sworn in as Prime Minister the next day, and also remained Treasurer. He was the member of the Country/National Party to serve as Prime Minister without an expectation of a short tenure. Nevertheless, Faddens term of office was troubled from the start, even parliamentarians in his own party feared the worst. On 3 October, the two independent legislators who had been keeping the Coalition in office for the last year, Arthur Coles and Alexander Wilson, Coles and Wilson had been so disgusted with how Menzies had been treated that they refused to support the Coalition any longer. Due to this loss of supply, Fadden submitted his governments resignation to the Governor-General Lord Gowrie later the same day and this was the last occasion to date on which an Australian government was forced to resign after being defeated on the floor of the House of Representatives. Fadden joked that he was like the Flood, he had reigned for 40 days and 40 nights, however, he would have been left with no other option if Labor leader John Curtin did not have enough support to govern. With this in mind, Gowrie summoned Coles and Wilson and obtained their assurances that they would support Curtin as Prime Ministier, Coles and Wilson agreed to this, and Curtin was sworn in on 7 October. Following the fall of his ministry, a joint UAP-Country Party meeting endorsed Fadden as Leader of the Opposition, the Coalition sank into near-paralysis in opposition
13.
John Curtin
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John Joseph Ambrose Curtin was the 14th Prime Minister of Australia, serving from 1941 to 1945, and the Leader of the Labor Party from 1935 to 1945. Having first formed a minority government in 1941, Curtin led Labor to victory at the 1943 election, as the Member for Fremantle, Curtin was the first and to date only prime minister to represent an electorate outside the Eastern states. With the end of the war in sight, Curtin died in office on 5 July 1945 and was succeeded briefly by Frank Forde, Curtin was born in Creswick, Victoria in 1885. His father was an officer of Irish descent, and Curtin was initially raised a Roman Catholic. Curtin attended school until the age of 13, when he left to start working for a newspaper in Creswick and he soon became active in both the Australian Labor Party and the Victorian Socialist Party, which was a Marxist organisation. He wrote for radical and socialist newspapers and it is believed that Curtins first bid for elected office came at this time, when he stood for the position of secretary of the Brunswick Football Club and was defeated. He had earlier played for Brunswick between 1903 and 1907 and he also at this time stood as the Labor candidate for Balaclava in 1914. The strain of this led him to drink heavily and regularly. In 1917, he married Elsie Needham, the sister of Labor Senator Ted Needham, Curtin moved to Cottesloe near Perth in 1917 to become an editor for the Westralian Worker, the official trade union newspaper. He enjoyed the less pressured life of Western Australia and his views gradually moderated. He joined the Australian Journalists Association in 1917 and was elected Western Australian President in 1920 and he wore his AJA badge every day he was prime minister. In addition to his stance on rights, Curtin was also a strong advocate for the rights of women and children. In 1927, the Federal Government convened a Royal Commission on Child Endowment, Curtin was appointed as a member of that commission. Curtin stood for Parliament a second time in 1925, this time for Fremantle, Watson retired in 1928, and Curtin ran again, this time winning on the second count. William Watson chose to come out of retirement in 1931. After the loss, Curtin became the advocate for the Western Australian Government with the Commonwealth Grants Commission and he stood for his old seat in 1934 after Watson announced his retirement for the second time, and was able to win it back. When Scullin resigned as Labor Leader in 1935, Curtin stood in the election to replace him and his opponent was Frank Forde, a well known MP who had been closely associated with the economic policies of the Scullin Government. This led left wing factions and trade unions to support Curtin, in an attempt to block Forde from getting the leadership, with their support, Curtin was able to defeat Forde by just one vote to become Leader of the Labor Party and Leader of the Opposition
14.
Isaac Isaacs
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Sir Isaac Alfred Isaacs GCB, GCMG, KC was an Australian judge and politician who served as the 3rd Chief Justice of Australia and the 9th, and first Australian-born, Governor-General. He had previously served as Attorney-General in the Protectionist government of Alfred Deakin, Isaacs was the son of Alfred Isaacs, a tailor of Jewish ancestry from the town of Mława, Poland. Seeking better prospects, Alfred left Poland and worked his way across what is now Germany, spending months in Berlin. By 1845 he had passed through Paris and arrived to work in London, where he met Rebecca Abrahams, after news of the 1851 Victorian gold rush reached England, Australia became a very popular destination and the Isaacs decided to emigrate. By 1854 they had saved enough for the fare, departing from Liverpool in June 1854, some time after arriving the Isaacs moved into a cottage and shopfront in Elizabeth Street, Melbourne, where Alfred continued his tailoring. Isaac Alfred Isaacs was born in this cottage on 6 August 1855 and his family moved to various locations around Melbourne while he was young, then in 1859 moved to Yackandandah in northern Victoria, close to family friends. At this time Yackandandah was a mining settlement of 3,000 people. Isaacs had siblings born in Melbourne and Yackandandah, John, who became a solicitor and Victorian Member of Parliament. A brother was born in Melbourne, and another sister was born in Yackandandah and his first formal schooling was from sometime after 1860 at a small private establishment. At eight he won the school arithmetic prize, winning his photograph by the schoolmaster, Yackandandah state school was opened in 1863 and Isaacs enrolled as a pupil. Here he excelled academically, particularly in arithmetic and languages, though he was a frequent truant, to help Isaacs gain a better quality education, in 1867, his family moved to nearby Beechworth first enrolling him in the Common school then in the Beechworth Grammar School. He excelled at the Grammar School, becoming dux in his first year, in his second year he was employed part-time as an assistant teacher at the school, and took up after school tutoring of fellow students. In September 1870, when Isaacs was just 15 years old, he passed his examination as a pupil teacher, Isaacs was next employed as an assistant teacher at the Beechworth State School, the successor to the Common school. While employed at the State School, Isaacs had his first experience of the law and he disputed a payment arrangement with the headmaster of his school, resigning as part of the dispute. After returning to teaching, now back at the Grammar School, he expanded his interest in the law, reading law books, as a child Isaacs became fluent in Russian, which his parents spoke frequently, as well as English and some German. Isaacs later gained varying degrees of proficiency in Italian, French, Greek, Hindustani, in 1875 he moved to Melbourne and found work at the Prothonotarys Office of the Law Department. In 1876, while still working full-time, he studied law at the University of Melbourne and he graduated in 1880 with a Master of Laws degree in 1883. He married Deborah Daisy Jacobs, daughter of a tobacco merchant and they had two daughters, one born in 1890 and the other in 1892
15.
Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester
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Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, KG, KT, KP, GCB, GCMG, GCVO, PC was a soldier and third son of King George V and Queen Mary. He also served as the eleventh Governor-General of Australia from 1945 to 1947, the Duke served as a soldier for most of his life. At his death in 1974, he was the last surviving knight of the Order of St. Patrick, as well as the last surviving child of King George V, Prince Henry was born on 31 March 1900, at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate. His father was the Duke of York, the eldest surviving son of the Prince of Wales and his mother was Mary of Teck, the only daughter of Prince Francis, Duke of Teck and Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge. At the time of his birth, he was fifth in the line of succession to the throne, behind his grandfather, father and he was informally known to his family as Harry. As a young boy, Prince Henry suffered from ill health very much like his older brother Albert and he also had knocked knees and had to wear painful leg splints. He was a nervous child, and was often victim to spontaneous fits of crying or giggling. On top of this, Henry also had a nasal lisp, by 1909, Henry’s poor health had become a serious concern for his parents. He was very small for his age and was prone to get very aggressive colds, “You must remember that he is rather fragile and must be treated differently to his two elder brothers who are more robust, ” wrote Prince George to Henry’s tutor, Henry Peter Hansell. On 6 May 1910, Prince George became king and Henry, the King was persuaded by Mr. Hansell that it would be good for Henry’s character to attend school, where he could interact with boys his age. The King, having previously rejected this proposition for his two sons, agreed on the basis that it would help him “behave like a boy. Prince Henry became the first son of a British monarch to attend school. After three days at St Peters Court in Broadstairs, as a day boy, Mr. Hansell, noticing he liked it, asked the King to send him as a boarder, Henry spent three years at St Peters Court. Academically, he was not very bright, although he did show a particular aptitude in mathematics, Henry’s sole interest became sports, particularly cricket and football. “All you write about is your everlasting football of which I am heartily sick, ” wrote his mother, in September 1913 Henry started at Eton College and during the First World War, a member of his house was Crown Prince Leopold of Belgium, later King Leopold III. His studies did not improve but his nerves and disposition did and he made friends through his enthusiasm for sports, and his masters were very pleased with him, noting in his report that he was “thoroughly willing, cheerful, modest & obedient”. To his father, these values were the most important, having no time or interest in what he called “intellectuals”. By the time he went to Cambridge in 1919 with his brother Albert, unlike his brothers, Prince Henry joined the Army instead of the Royal Navy
16.
Governor of New South Wales
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The Governor of New South Wales is the viceregal representative of the Australian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, in the state of New South Wales. In an analogous way to the Governor-General of Australia at the national level, the Governor is appointed by the queen on the advice of the Premier of New South Wales, for an unfixed period of time—known as serving At Her Majestys pleasure—though five years is the norm. The current Governor is retired General David Hurley, who succeeded Dame Marie Bashir on 2 October 2014, the office has its origin in the 18th-century colonial governors of New South Wales upon its settlement in 1788, and is the oldest continuous institution in Australia. The office of Governor is required by the New South Wales Constitution Act,1902, besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing-in of a governor-designate. The sovereign will also hold an audience with the appointee and will at that time induct the governor-designate as a Companion of the Order of Australia. The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years, though this is only a convention. The premier may therefore recommend to the Queen that the remain in her service for a longer period of time. A governor may also resign and three have died in office, furthermore, if the Lieutenant Governor becomes incapacitated while serving in the office of Governor, the next most senior judge of the Supreme Court is sworn in as the Administrator. Between 1788 and 1957, all governors were born outside of New South Wales and were members of the Peerage. Taylor once noted that out and governing New South Wales became the British aristocracys abiding consolation. Coincidentally the first Australian-born Governor, Sir John Northcott on 1 August 1946, was also the first Australian-born Governor of any state, the first Governors were all military officers and the majority of governors since have come from a military background, numbering 19. Samuels was the first governor in New South Wales history without either a political, public service or military background, the first woman to hold this position is also the first Lebanese-Australian governor, Dame Marie Bashir. In this capacity, the governor will issue royal proclamations and sign orders in council, the Governor alone is constitutionally mandated to summon parliament. The governor grants Royal Assent in the Queens name, legally, if the governor withholds the Queens assent, the sovereign may within two years disallow the bill, thereby annulling the law in question. No modern viceroy has denied Royal Assent to a bill, with most constitutional functions delegated to Cabinet, the governor acts in a primarily ceremonial fashion. He or she will host members of Australias royal family, as well as foreign royalty, also as part of international relations, the governor receives letters of credence and of recall from foreign consul-generals appointed to Sydney. The governor is also tasked with fostering unity and pride, the governor also traditionally serves as Honorary and Regimental Colonel in the Royal New South Wales Regiment and as Honorary Air Commodore of No.22 Squadron, Royal Australian Air Force. Since 1946, the governor has also always made the Chief Scout of New South Wales
17.
George V
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George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary
18.
Bertram Stevens (politician)
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Sir Bertram Sydney Barnsdale Stevens KCMG was an Australian politician and the Premier of New South Wales from 16 May 1932 to 5 August 1939. At the time of his resignation, he was the longest continuous serving Premier of New South South Wales at 7 years and 2 months, Stevens was born in the Sydney suburb of Redfern and attended Fort Street High School. An accountant by training, the teetotal Methodist Stevens worked for years in local government, in 1914, he married Edith Lillie Anderson and they had one son and two daughters. In 1924, he became under-secretary and director of finance at the State Treasury, in 1927, he became an alderman on Marrickville Council. In 1927 Stevens entered the Legislative Assembly, as member for the Sydney suburban electoral district of Croydon, during the Nationalist Party Premiership of Sir Thomas Bavin, Stevens served first as Assistant Treasurer, and from 1929 as Treasurer. Not long after the Great Depression ended Bavins administration in 1930, in 1932 the Nationalist Party was absorbed into the United Australia Party, and Stevens became that partys state parliamentary leader. In May 1932 the Governor Sir Philip Game dismissed the Lang government, which was in dispute with Australias federal government of James Scullin, Stevens immediately called a new state election, which his party won in a landslide. He reduced the protections for mortgagors and tenants that had been introduced by Langs 1925–27 government, the UAP was re-elected in 1935 and 1938, each time against the Lang-led Labor Party. For most of Stevenss seven-year Premiership, one of the longest in New South Wales history — it continued until the eve of World War II — he was his own Treasurer, from 1936 onward, Spooner often censured Stevens for not running a balanced budget. Finally, in July 1939, Spooner resigned from cabinet, on 1 August, Spooner moved a parliamentary no confidence motion against Stevenss administration, succeeding by two votes. Stevens resigned, and Alexander Mair took over the Premiership, still only 50 years old, Stevens had hopes of a career in the federal parliament. Despite Sir Robert Menziess attempts to him, he abandoned his Assembly seat in 1940. He was easily defeated by the ALP incumbent, Dan Mulcahy, in 1941 and 1942, Stevens served as the Australian representative to the Eastern Group Supply Council in New Delhi. After the war, Stevens was president of the India League of Australia, and wrote prolifically upon Indian politics, but he never again held, or sought, elective office. He died in the Sydney suburb of Concord West, poor as a result of a public service career and almost forgotten, survived by a son. Stevens was accorded a funeral and buried beside his wife who pre-deceased him in 1966 at Pine Grove Memorial Park, Minchinbury. Stevens was made a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael, Sir Bertram Stevens Drive, a main access road through Royal National Park, a protected national park in Sutherland Shire, NSW. First Stevens–Bruxner ministry Second Stevens–Bruxner ministry Third Stevens–Bruxner ministry
19.
Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales
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The Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales is a government position in the state of New South Wales, Australia, acting as a deputy to the Governor of New South Wales. The office was first created in October 1786, before the arrival of the First Fleet, to act as a deputy to the first governor, at that time the office was filled by military officers. The role of the governors are enshrined in part 2A of the New South Wales Constitution Act, the current role of the lieutenant-governor is to take up the duties of the governor if the governor dies, resigns, or is absent. If the lieutenant-governor becomes incapacitated while serving in the office of governor and this occurred in May 1973 when Sir Leslie Herron died suddenly while the governor, Sir Roden Cutler was overseas. Sir John Kerr became the administrator until Cutler was able to return, the lieutenant-governors/administrators have no standing powers but stand ready to act in the governors position. Three generations of the Street family have served New South Wales as lieutenant-governor, official Website of the Governor of New South Wales
20.
Philip Game
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Born in Surrey in 1876, Game was educated at Charterhouse School and entered the military at Royal Military Academy Woolwich, gaining his commission in 1895. Serving with the Royal Artillery, Game saw action in the Second Boer War, after serving with distinction and bravery, Game transferred to the Royal Flying Corps in early 1916 serving as General Trenchards chief staff officer. Finishing the War as an acting major-general, Game remained in the Royal Air Force after the close of hostilities, notably he served as Air Officer Commanding RAF India and Air Member for Personnel. He retired from the military in 1929, having reached the rank of air vice-marshal, Game dismissed the Government of Premier Jack Lang in May 1932 following illegal activity by Lang. Ending his term in January 1935, Game returned to Britain and was appointed Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police in London and he held it during the tumultuous 1930s, the 1936 abdication crisis and the Second World War, before retiring at the end of the war in 1945. Between 1937 and 1949 he resided at Langham House, Ham Common, retiring with his wife Gwendoline to his home in Kent, Game died in February 1961, aged 84. Game was born in Streatham, Surrey, on 30 March 1876 to George Beale Game, a merchant from Broadway, Worcestershire, before entering the army, he was educated at Charterhouse School. Following officer training at the Royal Military Academy Woolwich, Game was commissioned as a lieutenant on 2 November 1895 into the Royal Artillery. Promoted to lieutenant on 2 November 1898 and further promoted to captain on 3 June 1901, as a young artillery captain he was made officer in charge of the gun carriage bearing the coffin of Queen Victoria at her funeral in February 1901. In July 1902, he was appointed adjutant of the IX division Royal Field Artillery, stationed at Middelburg. Following brief postings in India and Ireland, Game attended the Staff College and he later won the Royal United Services Institute Gold Medal Essay. On 11 August 1908 he married Gwendolen Hughes-Gibb, the daughter of Francis Hughes-Gibb of Dorset, following the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, Game served on the front in France, including at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle. In the war he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order, the Légion dhonneur, in early 1916 Game transferred to the Royal Flying Corps as a result of Hugh Trenchards request for an experienced staff officer to serve in his headquarters. Game transferred to the Royal Air Force on its creation in 1918, at the end of the war, Game continued to work under Trenchard, but as Director of Training and Organisation in the RAF. In 1922 he was promoted to the rank of air vice-marshal, the next year he took up the post of Air Member for Personnel and was appointed as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath a year later. Game retired suddenly on 1 January 1929, at the age of 52, on 1 March 1929 he was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire in the military division. At the height of the Great Depression, Game was appointed Governor of New South Wales in March 1930 and he arrived in Sydney with his family in May 1930. On 30 June 1930, Game was appointed by King George V a Knight of Grace of the Venerable Order of St John, at the October 1930 State elections the Bavin Nationalist Government was defeated and the Labor Party leader, Jack Lang, became Premier
21.
David Murray Anderson
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Admiral Sir David Murray Anderson KCB, KCMG, MVO, KStJ was a British naval officer and governor. Anderson served in the Royal Navy from the age of 13 and served in many Colonial wars and was given various Empire postings, leaving Newfoundland in 1935, he was appointed as Governor of New South Wales but served only briefly due to his ill health. He died while in office aged 62 and his elder brother was Lieutenant General Sir Warren Hastings Anderson. In 1887, as a 13-year-old, he became a cadet at the Royal Naval College, seeing action against King Koko slave traders on the Niger River, he became a lieutenant on 23 February 1895 at age 20. Anderson saw further action against West-African rebels and in the Ashanti Campaign, in May 1902, he was posted as First and gunnery lieutenant to the cruiser HMS Brilliant on the Channel Squadron. In 1905 he was promoted to commander and was posted to the Royal Yacht HMY Victoria and that year, he married a New Zealander, Edith Teschemaker. On 29 July 1910 Anderson was appointed a Member of the Royal Victorian Order, on 11 August 1911, he was promoted to captain and posted as Flag Captain on HMS Hyacinth from 1913 to 1917. When the First World War broke out he took part in the operations that resulted in the destruction of the SMS Königsberg in German East Africa, and was Mentioned in Despatches in 1915. For his actions leading to the capture of Dar es Salaam he was appointed a Commander of the Order of St Michael and he was also invested by the Sultan of Zanzibar with the Order of the Brilliant Star of Zanzibar, Second Class. From 1918 to 1919 Anderson was posted to command the battleship HMS Ajax in the Grand Fleet, in May 1921 he was appointed as an aide-de-camp to King George V, which he held until April 1922. After a posting in England, he was promoted to admiral in 1922. On 2 June 1923 he was appointed as a Companion of the Order of the Bath and he was later posted from August 1923 to October 1925 as the Senior Naval Officer, Yangtze and briefly served as temporary Commander-in-Chief China Station in 1925. For his efforts in China, he was awarded the Order of the Rising Sun, Third Class, further promoted to vice admiral in 1927, he was appointed to command the Africa Station. From June to September 1928 he served as High Commissioner to the Union of South Africa, being fluent in French, he was further appointed to Geneva as the Admiralty representative to the League of Nations permanent advisory commission from 1929 to 1931. On 3 June 1930 he was appointed as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath and he retired at his own request on 5 July 1932. Anderson was then appointed on 20 October 1932 as the Governor of Newfoundland and he became His Majestys Representative at a time of great instability in the Dominion of Newfoundland. The Government, led by Prime Minister Frederick C, alderdice, called upon the British government to take direct control until Newfoundland could become self-sustaining. The United Kingdom, concerned over Newfoundlands likelihood of defaulting on its loans, asked the government to establish the Newfoundland Royal Commission, headed by a Scottish peer, acting on the reports recommendations, Alderdices government voted itself out of existence in December 1933
22.
Governor of South Australia
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The Governor of South Australia is the representative in the Australian state of South Australia of Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia. The Governor performs the same constitutional and ceremonial functions at the level as does the Governor-General of Australia at the national level. The Governors official residence is Government House, in Adelaide, the states capital, nevertheless, the Governor retains the reserve powers of the Crown, and has the right to dismiss the Premier. The Westminster system is a form of constitutional monarchy, the first Australian-born Governor of South Australia was Major-General Sir James Harrison, and most subsequent governors have been Australian-born. The first South Australian-born governor was Sir Mark Oliphant, the current governor is Hieu Van Le. The term of the governor, Rear Admiral Kevin Scarce. As from June 2014, the Queen, upon the recommendation of the Premier, accorded all current, future and these people administered the government in the absence of the official governor. Three former governors are alive, the oldest being Sir Eric Neal, the latest-serving former governor to die was Dame Roma Mitchell, on 5 March 2000. The most recent death of a governor was that of Sir Keith Seaman. The Official Website of the Governor of South Australia Previous governors on official website
23.
Richard Layton Butler
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Sir Richard Layton Butler KCMG was the 31st Premier of South Australia, serving two disjunct terms in office, from 1927 to 1930, and again from 1933 to 1938. Butler would lose his seat at the 1918 election but regained Wooroora at the 1921 election and he followed most of the Liberal Union into the Liberal Federation in 1922 when it joined forces with several pro-conscription Australian Labor Party members. Butler made infrequent speeches in parliament and was in the habit of offending people through his choice of words. He was, however, known for his convivial style outside parliament, in 1925 he became Liberal Federation party whip, becoming party leader shortly afterward following the retirement of former premier Henry Barwell from politics. In becoming Premier, Butler and his became the first father-son combination to serve as Premier of South Australia. By the 1930 election, South Australia faced severe drought as well as the Depression, leaving Butler to warn of hard times ahead, Labor leader Lionel Hill, on the other hand, promised a golden future. Not surprisingly, the Liberal Federation was reduced to 13 seats and this amalgamation resulted in the Liberal and Country League in 1932, with himself as leader. Butler led the LCL to a victory at the 1933 election following the self-destruction of the South Australian ALP over its handling of the Depression. After the Hill government gave its support to the Premiers Plan, Hill resigned nine months before the election and was succeeded by Robert Richards, who faced the nearly impossible task of holding on to power against the LCL. At the election, the LCL won a victory, taking 29 seats while three competing Labor factions only won 13 seats between them. In addition to becoming Premier, Butler served as his own Treasurer and he was also known in Canberra as a fierce opponent of federal control, strongly opposing the proposed Commonwealth wheat pool and the rationalisation of butter production. This had the effect of increasing the already significant rural overweighting that was written into the state constitution, the resulting malapportionment later known as the Playmander. Not all was rosy for Butler, though, not only was Butler forced to give a ministerial post to Country Party power broker Percy Blesing, but former state Country Party leader Archie Cameron was handed the federal seat of Barker. Butler struggled to control members of the LCL - some of these members publicly disagreed with Butler over key issues. Butler held on to his position and led the LCL to the 1938 election, at that poll, the LCL lost several seats, but formed a minority government with the support of independents. Mounting internal LCL displeasure led Butler to consider switching to federal politics, an opportunity arose for such a move in 1938, following the death in an aeroplane crash of Charles Hawker, the United Australia Party MP for the federal seat of Wakefield. Butler gained pre-selection for the 1938 Wakefield by-election and resigned his position as Premier and his seat in parliament on 5 November 1938, at the time of his resignation, Butler was the longest-serving Premier in South Australian history. Butler went into the by-election as a favorite, on paper Wakefield was a safely conservative seat with a UAP/LCL majority of 13.1 percent
24.
Lionel Hill
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Lionel Laughton Hill was the thirtieth Premier of South Australia, representing the South Australian Branch of the Australian Labor Party. This led to his appointment as the secretary-treasurer of the Boilermakers Assistants Union in 1901, Hill then gained Australian Labor Party pre-selection for the South Australian House of Assembly electorate of East Torrens, which he duly won at the 1915 election. In the wake of the split, Hill resigned his East Torrens seat in 1917 to unsuccessfully contest the Australian Senate elections as an anti-conscriptionist Labor candidate. Hill returned as Premier and treasurer but faced problems like unemployment, a formidable state debt, a shrinking economy. Hill continued to stagger from crisis to crisis as riots and protests rocked the state and this failed to materialise but Hill was appointed in 1936 by the federal government to chair the ACT Industrial Board. Hill returned to South Australia in 1958 and found the lure of politics too great, successfully standing for the Town of Kensington, any plans of further electoral success were stymied only by his death in 1963. Thirty years after his departure from the ALP, he was disliked by many Laborites with long memories. Ross McMullin, in his history of the Labor Party, The Light on the Hill, first Hill Ministry Australian Dictionary of Biography Norwood Football Club profile Parliament Profile
25.
Robert Richards (Australian politician)
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Robert Stanley Bob Richards, generally referred to as R. S. Richards was the 32nd Premier of South Australia, representing the South Australian Branch of the Australian Labor Party. In his early twenties Richards moved to Burnie, Tasmania to manage a mine before returning to Moonta. Richards became involved with the movement and was elected vice-president of the Federated Mining Employees Association in 1916. When that union merged into the Australian Workers Union in 1917, he became president of the AWUs mining section, proving himself to be a forceful and competent leader. Labor was swept to power and Richards appointed to the positions of Commissioner of Crown Lands, Minister of Mines and Marine and Minister of Labour, the 23 expelled MPs formed the Parliamentary Labor Party, which stayed in office with the support of the conservative opposition. The Hill Cabinet remained precariously in power until February 1933, when Hill happily resigned as Premier nine weeks before the 1933 election to move to London as Australian Agent-General, Richards spent his nine weeks as Premier attempting to talk up the achievements of his cabinet. However, it was nowhere near enough to him from defeat at the state election. Richards remained opposition leader for 11 years, during which Labor increased its vote at three consecutive elections. He actually led Labor to a 53.3 percent two-party vote at the 1944 election, however, due to the Playmander, Labor was only able to net a five-seat swing in this election, leaving it with 16 seats, four short of victory. He returned from Nauru to Adelaide in 1951, served as Director of Radio 5KA, then under Methodist control, playford, never afraid to make use of opponents’ skills for the greater good, also commissioned Richards to investigate issues relating to delinquent children, mining issues and housing. Afflicted by diabetes, Richards nonetheless lived long enough to see a Labor government returned to South Australia in 1965 and he died in Moonta two years later, and received a state funeral. Richards married Ada Maude Dixon, whose sisters married S. R. Whitford and Oswald Pryor and their children included two daughters, Joyce and Kathlean. Australian Dictionary of Biography Parliament Profile
26.
Tom Bridges
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Sir George Tom Molesworth Bridges, KCB, KCMG, DSO known as Sir Tom Bridges, was a British military officer and Governor of South Australia. After the First World War, he served in Greece, Russia and he was Governor of South Australia from 1922–27. Bridges was born at Park Farm, Eltham, Kent, England, to Major Thomas Walker Bridges and he was educated at Newton Abbot College and later at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. After graduating from the Royal Military Academy, Bridges joined the Royal Artillery as a lieutenant on 19 February 1892. He was promoted to lieutenant on 19 February 1895, and received the rank of captain supernumerary to the establishment on 5 April 1900, serving in the Second Boer War in South Africa, for a few months in 1901 he commanded two West Australian Mounted infantry contingents. In 1908, he became the instructor at the Cavalry School at Netheravon. Seeking a more rapid promotion in the army, Bridges transferred to the 4th Queens Own Hussars in 1909 and he was appointed military attaché to the Low Countries and Scandinavia between 1910 and 1914. Early in World War I, Bridges was involved in the Battle of Mons, during the British Armys retreat, he met two battalions of exhausted British soldiers at Saint Quentin, whose officers planned to surrender to save the town from bombardment. In a celebrated incident on 27 August, the injured Bridges used a tin whistle and toy drum purchased from a toy shop to rally the men, in October, French flew Bridges to the besieged Belgian city of Antwerp to provide intelligence there for the British headquarters. In 1916 he was promoted to major general and he set about turning the 19th Division into an efficient fighting unit, purging the senior officers. The division was in reserve on the disastrous first day of the Battle of the Somme and it acquitted itself well in the small subsequent attacks around La Boiselle in July. In 1917, Bridges was sent on the liaison to the United States under Arthur Balfour, soon after the Americans entered the war. This caused much friction as the American general staff felt that US troops should be commanded by US officers, Bridges returned in time to lead his division at Passchendaele in 1917. He was severely injured on 20 September at the Battle of the Menin Road Ridge, the rate of reinforcements was soon increased threefold. Subsequently, Bridges was appointed to liaison missions to Greece, the Balkans and his final active service was in Greece, fighting against the Turks in Asia Minor. After the war, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George and his uncle, the Poet Laureate Robert Bridges, also honoured him with an ode To His Excellency. Bridges was appointed Governor of South Australia in 1922, at the instigation of his friend Winston Churchill, Bridges arrived in Adelaide in December of the same year. Bridges was a governor, defending capital punishment, supporting the Legislative Council
27.
Winston Dugan, 1st Baron Dugan of Victoria
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Major General Winston Joseph Dugan, 1st Baron Dugan of Victoria GCMG, CB, DSO, KStJ, known as Sir Winston Dugan between 1934 and 1949, was a British administrator and a career British Army officer. He served as Governor of South Australia from 1934 to 1939, Dugan was the son of Charles Winston Dugan, of Oxmantown Mall, Birr, County Offaly, Ireland, an inspector of schools. His mother was born Esther Elizabeth Rogers and he attended Lurgan College, Craigavon, Ireland from 1887 to 1889, and Wimbledon College, Wimbledon, London, England. The family name was pronounced as Duggan and they were originally from County Galway and were a branch of the Soghain people. Dugan was a sergeant in the Royal Sussex Regiment, but transferred to the Lincolnshire Regiment as a lieutenant on 24 January 1900. He fought with the 2nd battalion of his regiment in the Second Boer War 1899-1900, following the war he was appointed adjutant of his battalion on 28 June 1901, and promoted to lieutenant on 1 November 1901. He later fought with distinction in the First World War, where he was wounded and mentioned in six times. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order in 1915 and appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael, in 1929 he was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath and the following year he was promoted to major general. From 1931 to 1934 he commanded the 56th Division, Territorial Army, in 1934, Dugan was appointed Governor of South Australia. He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George, retired from the Army and they became an extremely popular and glamorous vice-regal couple. Sir Winston and Lady Dugan were both excellent public speakers, and travelled widely in order to bring problems to the attention of the ministers of the day and he gave moral and financial support to numerous good causes and needy individuals. Upon the expiration of his term, there was bipartisan support for him to serve a second term. Sir Winston and Lady Dugan arrived in Melbourne on 17 July 1939 and they continued their active role in community affairs, promoting unemployment reduction and making the ballroom of Government House available for the Australian Red Cross. Dugan had an active role stabilising state politics during the tumultuous 1940s, upon the disintegration of Albert Dunstans Country Party in 1943, he installed the Labor leader John Cain as Premier. Four days later, Dunstan formed a coalition with the United Australia Party, following the collapse of that ministry in 1945, Dugan dissolved parliament and called a general election for November, which resulted in the balance of power being held by independents. Dugan commissioned Cain to form the ministry of a minority government, dugans term as Governor was extended five times. He returned to England in February 1949, on 7 July 1949 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Dugan of Victoria, of Lurgan in the County of Armagh. Lord Dugan of Victoria married Ruby Lilian, daughter of Charles Abbott of Kilcaskan, County Cork, there were no children from the marriage
28.
Windsor, Berkshire
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Windsor is a historic market town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is widely known as the site of Windsor Castle, one of the residences of the British Royal Family. The town is situated 23 miles west of Charing Cross, London,7 miles south east of Maidenhead and it is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with its ancient twin town of Eton. Windlesora is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the name originates from old English Windles-ore or winch by the riverside. By the late 12th century the settlement at Windelsora was renamed Old Windsor, the early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conqueror had a timber motte and bailey castle constructed. The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, from about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the sites link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, after the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Book under the entry for Clewer, although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century, King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century,1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephens reign. At about the time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. It had a merchant guild from the early 13th century and, under patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277. Somewhat unusually, this gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor. Windsors position as town of Berkshire was short-lived, however. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century, as a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century. New Windsor was a significant town in the Middle Ages. Its prosperity came from its association with the royal household
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Berkshire
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Berkshire is a county in south east England, west of London. It was recognised as the Royal County of Berkshire because of the presence of Windsor Castle by the Queen in 1957, Berkshire is a county of historic origin and is a home county, a ceremonial county and a non-metropolitan county without a county council. Berkshire County Council was the main county governance from 1889 to 1998 except for the separately administered County Borough of Reading, in 1974, significant alterations were made to the countys administrative boundaries although the traditional boundaries of Berkshire were not changed. The towns of Abingdon, Didcot and Wantage were transferred to Oxfordshire, Slough was gained from Buckinghamshire, since 1998, Berkshire has been governed by the six unitary authorities of Bracknell Forest, Reading, Slough, West Berkshire, Windsor and Maidenhead and Wokingham. It borders the counties of Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Greater London, Surrey, according to Asser, it takes its name from a large forest of box trees that was called Bearroc. Berkshire has been the scene of notable battles through its history. Alfred the Greats campaign against the Danes included the Battles of Englefield, Ashdown, Newbury was the site of two English Civil War battles, the First Battle of Newbury in 1643 and the Second Battle of Newbury in 1644. The nearby Donnington Castle was reduced to a ruin in the aftermath of the second battle, another Battle of Reading took place on 9 December 1688. It was the only military action in England during the Glorious Revolution. Reading became the new county town in 1867, taking over from Abingdon, boundary alterations in the early part of the 20th century were minor, with Caversham from Oxfordshire becoming part of the Reading county borough, and cessions in the Oxford area. On 1 April 1974 Berkshires boundaries changed under the Local Government Act 1972, Berkshire took over administration of Slough and Eton and part of the former Eton Rural District from Buckinghamshire. 94 Signal Squadron still keep the Uffington White Horse in their insignia, the original Local Government White Paper would have transferred Henley-on-Thames from Oxfordshire to Berkshire, this proposal did not make it into the Bill as introduced. On 1 April 1998 Berkshire County Council was abolished under a recommendation of the Banham Commission, unlike similar reforms elsewhere at the same time, the non-metropolitan county was not abolished. Berkshire divides into two distinct sections with the boundary lying roughly on a north-south line through the centre of Reading. The eastern section of Berkshire lies largely to the south of the River Thames, in two places the county now includes land to the north of the river. Tributaries of the Thames, including the Loddon and Blackwater, increase the amount of low lying land in the area. Beyond the flood plains, the land rises gently to the county boundaries with Surrey, much of this area is still well wooded, especially around Bracknell and Windsor Great Park. In the west of the county and heading upstream, the Thames veers away to the north of the county boundary, leaving the county behind at the Goring Gap
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Shipton Moyne
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Shipton Moyne is a village and civil parish in the Cotswold district, Gloucestershire, England located approximately 105 miles west of London. Its nearest towns are Tetbury, also in Gloucestershire and Malmesbury in Wiltshire, the population taken at the 2011 census was 265. British History Online provides an account of the history of the village from the eleventh to the twentieth century. The Fosse Way forms part of the boundary and also the county boundary with Wiltshire. Shipton Moyne was one of several parishes which were transferred from Wiltshire to Gloucestershire in 1930, in 1661 two parishioners were keeping unlicensed alehouses and in 1755 two victualers were licensed. A beerhouse on the west side of the street was recorded in the early 19th century and was presumably occupied by the beer-retailers listed in the parish later. Apparently still unnamed in 1891, it was called the Estcourt Arms in 1927 but by 1931 the name had changed to the Cat. The village pubs unusual name is said to originate from the book Handley Cross or Mr Jorrockss Hunt by R S Surtees, the full text of which may be found here. A South aisle was constructed with a new tower at the South West corner forming a belfry, alexander Hore - Ruthven, 1st Lord Gowrie and his wife are both buried in St. John the Baptist churchyard. Lord Gowrie was the 20th Governor of South Australia from 15/05/1928 to 26/04/1934, from 15/01/1935 to 23/01/1936 he was the 27th Governor of New South Wales and from 23/01/1936 to 30/01/1945 he was Governor General of Australia. To date the governor general. The list of rectors goes back to 1297e, in the 19th century the church was served by Curates, the former church is recorded in engravings and photographsor. There is an account of the church in the Victoria County History, Shipton Moyne, Church, A History of the County of Gloucester, Volume 11, Bisley and Longtree Hundreds, T. H. Wyatt was a cousin of the architects James and Jeffrey Wyatt. T. H. Wyatt was an eminent architect and had a practice that included work on many Wiltshire churches owing to his patronage by the Beauforts. His design of St. John the Baptists Church is an example of a High Victorian design if bearing little relation to its predecessor. Five bells were recorded in 1680 and a bell was added in 1865 - a treble weighing five hundred weight. One tenor bell was cast in the century in London. Weighing fourteen hundred weight it was dedicated to The Virgin Mary, two were cast in Bristol by Roger Purden in 1620, on weighing 6cwt. and the other 7cwt
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Gloucestershire
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Gloucestershire is a county in South West England. The county comprises part of the Cotswold Hills, part of the fertile valley of the River Severn. The county town is the city of Gloucester, and other towns include Cheltenham, Cirencester, Stroud. Gloucestershire is a historic county mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in the 10th century, though the areas of Winchcombe, Gloucestershire originally included Bristol, then a small town. The local rural community moved to the city, and Bristols population growth accelerated during the industrial revolution. Bristol became a county in its own right, separate from Gloucestershire and it later became part of the administrative County of Avon from 1974 to 1996. Upon the abolition of Avon in 1996, the north of Bristol became a unitary authority area of South Gloucestershire and is now part of the ceremonial county of Gloucestershire. The official former postal county abbreviation was Glos, rather than the frequently used but erroneous Gloucs. or Glouc. In July 2007, Gloucestershire suffered the worst flooding in recorded British history, the RAF conducted the largest peace time domestic operation in its history to rescue over 120 residents from flood affected areas. The damage was estimated at over £2 billion, the county recovered rapidly from the disaster, investing in attracting tourists to visit the many sites and diverse range of shops in the area. This is a chart of trend of gross value added of Gloucestershire at current basic prices published by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. Gloucestershire has mainly comprehensive schools with seven schools, two are in Stroud, one in Cheltenham and four in Gloucester. There are 42 state secondary schools, not including sixth form colleges, all but about two schools in each district have a sixth form, but the Forest of Dean only has two schools with sixth forms. All schools in South Gloucestershire have sixth forms, each has campuses at multiple locations throughout the county. Most of the old market towns have parish churches, at Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, and Bishops Cleeve near Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account of the pre-Norman work they retain. These are, however, adjudged to be of English workmanship, other notable buildings include Calcot Barn in Calcot, a relic of Kingswood Abbey. Thornbury Castle is a Tudor country house, the pretensions of which evoked the jealousy of Cardinal Wolsey against its builder, Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, near Cheltenham is the 15th-century mansion of Southam de la Bere, of timber and stone. Memorials of the de la Bere family appear in the church at Cleeve, the mansion contains a tiled floor from Hailes Abbey
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British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
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Mahdist War
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Eighteen years of war resulted in the joint-rule state of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, a condominium of the British Empire and the Kingdom of Egypt. Following the invasion by Muhammad Ali in 1819, Sudan was governed by an Egyptian administration, because of the heavy taxes it imposed and because of the bloody start of the Turkish-Egyptian rule in Sudan, this colonial system was resented by the Sudanese people. Throughout the period of Turco-Egyptian rule, many segments of the Sudanese population suffered extreme hardship because of the system of taxation imposed by the central government. Under this system, a tax was imposed on farmers and small traders. In bad years, and especially during times of drought and famine, fearing the brutal and unjust methods of the Shaiqiyya, many farmers fled their villages in the fertile Nile Valley to the remote areas of Kordofan and Darfur. The jallaba were also known to be slave trading tribes, by the middle 19th century the Ottoman Imperial subject administration in Egypt was in the hands of Khedive Ismail. Thus an ever increasing British role in Egyptian affairs seemed necessary and this commission eventually forced Khedive Ismail to abdicate in favor of his son Tawfiq in 1877, leading to a period of political turmoil. Also in 1873, Ismail had appointed General Charles Chinese Gordon Governor of the Equatorial Provinces of Sudan, for the next three years, General Gordon fought against a native chieftain of Darfur, Al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur. Upon Ismails abdication in 1877, Gordon found himself with dramatically decreased support, exhausted by years of work, he resigned his post in 1880 and left early the next year. His policies were soon abandoned by the new governors, but the anger, another widely reported potential source of frustration was the Turco-Egyptian abolition of the slave trade, one of the main sources of income in Sudan at the time. In the 1870s, a Muslim cleric named Muhammad Ahmad preached renewal of the faith and liberation of the land, soon in open revolt against the Egyptians, Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi, the promised redeemer of the Islamic world. In August 1881 the then-governor of the Sudan, Raouf Pasha, the captains of the two companies were each promised promotion if their soldiers were the ones to return the Mahdi to the governor. Both companies disembarked from the steamer that had brought them up the Nile to Aba Island, arriving simultaneously, each force began to fire blindly on the other, allowing the Mahdis scant followers to attack and destroy each force in turn at the Battle of Aba. The Mahdi then began a retreat to Kordofan, where he was at a distance from the seat of government in Khartoum. This movement, couched as a progress, incited many of the Arab tribes to rise in support of the Jihad the Mahdi had declared against the Turkish oppressors. Another Egyptian expedition dispatched from Fashoda was ambushed and slaughtered on the night of 9 December 1881, the Mahdi also legitimized his movement by drawing deliberate parallels to the life of the Prophet Muhammad. He called his followers Ansar, after the people who greeted the Prophet in Medina, and he called his flight from the British, the hijrah, after the Prophets flight from the Quraysh. The Egyptian administration in the Sudan, now thoroughly concerned by the scale of the uprising and this force approached the Mahdist gathering, whose members were poorly clothed, half starving, and armed only with sticks and stones
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Somaliland Campaign
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The British were assisted in their offensives by the Ethiopians and Italians. During the First World War, Hassan also received aid from the Ottomans, Germans and, for a time, the conflict ended when the British aerially bombed the Dervish capital of Taleh in February 1920. In the colonial period, the Somali-inhabited territories in the Horn of Africa were collectively referred to as Somaliland, although nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, Yemen and the sahil came progressively under the control of Muhammad Ali, ruler of Egypt, between 1821 and 1841. After the Egyptians withdrew from the Yemeni seaboard in 1841, Haj Ali Shermerki, shermerkis governorship had an instant effect on the city, as he manoeuvred to monopolize as much of the regional trade as possible, with his sights set as far as Harar and the Ogaden. Shermerki was later succeeded as Governor of Zeila by Abu Bakr Pasha, in 1874–75, the Egyptians obtained a firman from the Ottomans by which they secured claims over the city. At the same time, the Egyptians received British recognition of their jurisdiction as far east as Cape Guardafui. In actuality, however, Egypt had little authority over the interior and their period of rule on the coast was brief, among the Somali signatories were the Gadabuursi, Habar Awal, and Warsangali. By the end of 1885, the two powers were on the brink of armed confrontation, but opted instead to turn negotiations and they later signed a convention on 1 February 1888 defining the border between French Somaliland and British Somaliland. In April, Yusufs uncle and rival, Boqor Osman, requested a protectorate from the Italians and was granted it. In signing the agreements, the rulers also hoped to exploit the rival objectives of the European imperial powers so as to more effectively assure the independence of their territories. The terms of each treaty specified that Italy was to clear of any interference in the sultanates respective administrations. In return for Italian arms and a subsidy, the Sultans conceded to a minimum of oversight. The Italians also agreed to dispatch a few ambassadors to both the sultanates and their own interests. The new protectorates were thereafter managed by Vincenzo Filonardi through a chartered company, the first offensive campaign was led by Hassan against Ethiopian encampment at Jijiga in March 1900. Hassan seized control of the Ogaden but did not attack Harar, instead, he raided the non-Dervish Qadariyyah clans for their camels and arms. In 1901, the British joined with the Ethiopians and attacked the Dervishes with a force 17,000 strong, Hassan was driven across the border into the Majeerteen Sultanate, which had been incorporated into the Italian protectorate. The Ethiopians failed to get a hold on the western Ogaden, in this campaign, borders were ignored by both British and Somali. The British became convinced of their need of Italian assistance, in 1903, the Italian Foreign Ministry permitted the British to land forces at Hobyo
35.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
36.
Gallipoli Campaign
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The peninsula forms the northern bank of the Dardanelles, a strait that provided a sea route to the Russian Empire, one of the Allied powers during the war. Intending to secure it, Russias allies Britain and France launched an attack followed by an amphibious landing on the peninsula. The naval attack was repelled and after eight months fighting, with casualties on both sides, the land campaign was abandoned and the invasion force was withdrawn to Egypt. The campaign was one of the greatest Ottoman victories during the war, in Turkey, it is regarded as a defining moment in the nations history, a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the Ottoman Empire crumbled. In 1908, a group of officers, known as the Young Turks. The new régime implemented a program of reform to modernise the political and economic system. An enthusiastic supporter, Germany provided significant investment, German diplomats subsequently found increasing influence, despite Britain previously being the predominant power in the region, while German officers assisted in training and re-equipping the army. Despite this support, the resources of the Ottoman Empire were depleted by the cost of the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. In December 1913, the Germans sent a mission to Constantinople. The geographical position of the Ottoman Empire meant that Russia and her allies France, during the Sarajevo Crisis in 1914, German diplomats offered Turkey an anti-Russian alliance and territorial gains in Caucasia, north-west Iran and Trans-Caspia. The pro-British faction in the Cabinet was isolated due to the British ambassador taking leave until 18 August, as the crisis deepened in Europe, Ottoman policy was to obtain a guarantee of territorial integrity and potential advantages, unaware that the British might enter a European war. This action strained diplomatic relations between the two empires and the German government offered SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau to the Ottoman navy as replacements, by allowing the German ships to enter the Dardanelles, the Ottomans confirmed their links to Germany. In September, the British naval mission to the Ottomans, which had established in 1912 under Admiral Arthur Limpus, was recalled due to increasing concern that Turkey would soon enter the war. Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon of the Imperial German Navy took over command of the Ottoman navy, the German naval presence and the success of German armies on all fronts, gave the pro-German faction in the Ottoman government enough influence to declare war on Russia. On 27 October, Goeben and Breslau, having been renamed Yavûz Sultân Selîm and Midilli, sortied into the Black Sea, bombarded the Russian port of Odessa and sank several Russian ships. The Ottomans refused an Allied demand that they expel the German missions and on 31 October 1914, Russia declared war on Turkey on 2 November. The next day, the British ambassador left Constantinople and a British naval squadron off the Dardanelles bombarded the outer defensive forts at Kum Kale, a shell hit a magazine, knocked the guns off their mounts and killed 86 soldiers. Fighting also began in Mesopotamia, following a British landing to occupy the oil facilities in the Persian Gulf, the Ottomans prepared to attack Egypt in early 1915, aiming to occupy the Suez Canal and cut the Mediterranean route to India and the Far East
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Western Front (World War I)
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The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back
38.
Mentioned in dispatches
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In a number of countries, a servicemembers name must be mentioned in dispatches as a condition for receiving certain decorations. In the British Armed Forces, the despatch is published in the London Gazette, for 1914–1918 and up to 10 August 1920, the decoration consisted of a spray of oak leaves in bronze. This decoration was established in 1919, but it had retroactive effect. From 1920 to 1993, the decoration consisted of a bronze oak leaf. In a change introduced in 2014 to the British Armed Forces, prior to this change, even if the soldier was mentioned in dispatches more than once, only a single such decoration was worn. In Britain, since 1993, the decoration is a silver oak leaf. In each case the decoration is pinned or sewn diagonally on to the campaign medal ribbon. If no campaign medal is awarded, the oak leaf is worn on the left breast of the dress uniform, prior to 1979, a mention in dispatches was one of the three awards that could be made posthumously, the others being the Victoria Cross and George Cross. The 1979 reform removed the all or nothing lottery, soldiers can be mentioned multiple times. The British First World War Victoria Cross recipient John Vereker, later Field Marshal Viscount Gort, was mentioned in dispatches nine times, the Australian general Gordon Bennett was mentioned in dispatches a total of eight times during the First World War, as was Field Marshal Sir John Dill. Similarly, the equivalents of the MiD for acts of bravery by civilians, the reformed and comprehensive system is now as follows, The Commendation for Gallantry is now the fourth level decoration for gallantry. The Commendation for Brave Conduct recognises acts of bravery carried by soldiers not directly fighting the enemy, a mention in dispatches – in French, Citation à lordre du jour – gives recognition from a senior commander for acts of brave or meritorious service, normally in the field. The Mention in dispatches is among the list of awards presented by the Governor General of Canada, personnel can be mentioned in dispatches posthumously and multiple awards are also possible. A recipient of a mention in a dispatch is entitled to wear an emblem and they are also issued with an official certificate from the Ministry of Defence. The emblem, which was regarded as a decoration, was worn on the ribbon of the Victory Medal, only one emblem was worn, irrespective of the number of times a recipient had been mentioned. The Afrikaans rendition of mentioned in dispatches is Eervolle Vermelding in Berigte, the mention in dispatches was one of only four awards which could be made posthumously. The others were the Victoria Cross, the George Cross, the oak leaf emblem was worn on the ribbon of the War Medal 1939–1945. The Kings Commendation was denoted by a bronze King Protea flower emblem worn on the ribbon of the Africa Service Medal and it could be awarded posthumously and was the equivalent of a mention in dispatches for services rendered away from the battlefield
39.
Privy Council of the United Kingdom
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Her Majestys Most Honourable Privy Council, usually known simply as the Privy Council, is a formal body of advisers to the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. Its membership mainly comprises senior politicians, who are present or former members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords, the Council also holds the delegated authority to issue Orders of Council, mostly used to regulate certain public institutions. The Council advises the sovereign on the issuing of Royal Charters, which are used to grant special status to incorporated bodies, otherwise, the Privy Councils powers have now been largely replaced by the Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Judicial Committee consists of judges appointed as Privy Counsellors, predominantly Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Privy Council of the United Kingdom was preceded by the Privy Council of Scotland, the key events in the formation of the modern Privy Council are given below, Witenagemot was an early equivalent to the Privy Council of England. During the reigns of the Norman monarchs, the English Crown was advised by a court or curia regis. The body originally concerned itself with advising the sovereign on legislation, administration, later, different bodies assuming distinct functions evolved from the court. The courts of law took over the business of dispensing justice, nevertheless, the Council retained the power to hear legal disputes, either in the first instance or on appeal. Furthermore, laws made by the sovereign on the advice of the Council, powerful sovereigns often used the body to circumvent the Courts and Parliament. During Henry VIIIs reign, the sovereign, on the advice of the Council, was allowed to enact laws by mere proclamation, the legislative pre-eminence of Parliament was not restored until after Henry VIIIs death. Though the royal Council retained legislative and judicial responsibilities, it became an administrative body. The Council consisted of forty members in 1553, but the sovereign relied on a smaller committee, by the end of the English Civil War, the monarchy, House of Lords, and Privy Council had been abolished. The remaining parliamentary chamber, the House of Commons, instituted a Council of State to execute laws, the forty-one members of the Council were elected by the House of Commons, the body was headed by Oliver Cromwell, de facto military dictator of the nation. In 1653, however, Cromwell became Lord Protector, and the Council was reduced to thirteen and twenty-one members, all elected by the Commons. In 1657, the Commons granted Cromwell even greater powers, some of which were reminiscent of those enjoyed by monarchs, the Council became known as the Protectors Privy Council, its members were appointed by the Lord Protector, subject to Parliaments approval. In 1659, shortly before the restoration of the monarchy, the Protectors Council was abolished, Charles II restored the Royal Privy Council, but he, like previous Stuart monarchs, chose to rely on a small group of advisers. Under George I even more power transferred to this committee and it now began to meet in the absence of the sovereign, communicating its decisions to him after the fact. Thus, the British Privy Council, as a whole, ceased to be a body of important confidential advisers to the sovereign and it is closely related to the word private, and derives from the French word privé
40.
Yeomanry
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Yeomanry is a designation used by a number of units or sub-units of the British Army Reserve, descended from volunteer cavalry regiments. Today, Yeomanry units serve in a variety of different military roles, in the 1790s, the threat of invasion of the Kingdom of Great Britain was high, after the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. To improve the defences, volunteer regiments were raised in many counties from yeomen. These regiments became known collectively as the Yeomanry, members of the yeomanry were not obliged to serve overseas without their individual consent. In 1827 it was decided for reasons to reduce the number of yeomanry regiments. A number of independent troops were also dissolved, following these reductions the yeomanry establishment was fixed at 22 corps receiving allowances and a further 16 serving without pay. During the 1830s the number of yeomanry units fluctuated, reflecting the level of civil unrest in any region at any particular time. The Irish Yeomanry, which had played a role in suppressing the rebellion of 1798, was completely disbanded in 1838. For the next thirty years the Yeomanry Force was retained as a line of support for the regular cavalry within Britain. Recruiting difficulties led to serious consideration being given to the disbandment of the force in 1870. These included requirements that individual yeomanry troopers attend a number of drills per year in return for a permanent duty allowance. While these reforms improved the professionalism of the Yeomanry Force, numbers remained low, in 1876 the role of the Yeomanry Force was fixed as that of light cavalry. These supernumerary units were now abolished, during the Second Boer War companies of Imperial Yeomanry were formed to serve overseas from volunteers from the Yeomanry. In 1901 all yeomanry regiments were redesignated as Imperial Yeomanry, in 1908 the Imperial Yeomanry was merged with the Volunteer Force to form the Territorial Force, of which it became the cavalry arm. The Imperial title was dropped at the same time, on the eve of World War I in 1914 there were 55 Yeomanry regiments, each of four squadrons instead of the three of the regular cavalry. Upon embodiment these regiments were brought together to form mounted brigades or allocated as divisional cavalry. For purposes of recruitment and administration the Yeomanry were linked to counties or regions. Some of the still in existence in 1914 dated back to those created in the 1790s while others had been created during a period of expansion following on the Boer War
41.
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland
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Lord Lieutenant was the title of the chief governor of Ireland from the Williamite Wars of 1690 till the Partition of Ireland in 1922. This spanned the Kingdom of Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the office, under its various names, was often more generally known as the viceroy, from the French vice roi or deputy king, and his wife was known as the vicereine. The government of Ireland in practice was usually in the hands of the Lord Deputy up to the 17th century, although in the Middle Ages some Lords Deputy were Irish noblemen, only men from Great Britain, usually peers, were appointed to the office of Lord Lieutenant. The Kings representative possessed a number of overlapping roles and he was the representative of the King, the head of the executive in Ireland, a member of the English or British Cabinet, the font of mercy, justice and patronage, commander-in-chief in Ireland. His Government exercised effective control of parliament through the exercise of the powers of patronage, namely the awarding of peerages, baronetcies. Critics accused successive viceroys of using their power as a corrupt means of controlling parliament. On one day in July 1777, Lord Buckinghamshire as Lord Lieutenant promoted 5 viscounts to earls,7 barons to viscounts, under-Secretary for Ireland, The head of the civil service in Ireland. Lord Justices, Three office-holders who acted in the Lord Lieutenants stead during his absence, the Lord Justices were before 1800 the Lord Chancellor of Ireland, the Speaker of the Irish House of Commons, and the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Armagh as Primate of All Ireland. Lords Lieutenant were appointed for no set term but served for His/Her Majestys pleasure, in reality that meant for as long as wished by the British Government. Where a ministry fell, the Lord Lieutenant was usually replaced by a supporter of the new ministry, until the 16th century, Irish or Anglo-Irish noblemen such as the 8th Earl of Kildare and the 9th Earl of Kildare traditionally held the post of Justiciar or Lord Deputy. Following the plantations, however, noblemen from Great Britain were given the post, the last Irish Catholic to hold the position was Lord Tyrconnell from 1685–91, during the brief Catholic Ascendancy in the reign of James II that was ended by the Williamite war in Ireland. Until 1767 none of the latter lived full-time in Ireland, instead they resided in Ireland during meetings of the Irish Parliament. However the British cabinet decided in 1765 that full-time residency should be required to enable the Lord Lieutenant to keep a eye on public affairs in Ireland. The office was restricted to members of the Anglican faith, the first Catholic appointed to the post since the reign of the Catholic King James II was in fact the last viceroy, Lord FitzAlan of Derwent, in April 1921. His appointment was possible because the Government of Ireland Act 1920 ended the prohibition on Catholics being appointed to the position, FitzAlan was also the only Lord Lieutenant of Ireland ever to hold office when the former Ireland was partitioned into Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland. The post ebbed and flowed in importance, being used on occasion as a form of exile for prominent British politicians who had fallen foul of the Court of St. Jamess or Westminster, on other occasions it was a stepping stone to a future career. Two Lords Lieutenant, Lord Hartington and the Duke of Portland, instead it was the Chief Secretary for Ireland who became central, with he, not the Lord Lieutenant, sitting on occasion in the British cabinet. The official residence of the Lord Lieutenant was the Viceregal Apartments in Dublin Castle, the Geraldine Lords Deputy, the 8th Earl of Kildare and the 9th Earl of Kildare, being native Irish, both lived in, among other locations, their castle in Maynooth, County Kildare
42.
Brigadier (United Kingdom)
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Brigadier-general was formerly a rank or appointment in the British Army and Royal Marines, and briefly in the Royal Air Force. It first appeared in the army in the reign of James II, the appointment was abolished in both the Army and the Marines in 1921, being replaced in the Army by the appointments of colonel-commandant and colonel on the staff. Colonel-commandant was in turn replaced by the appointment of brigadier in both the Army and the Marines in 1928, from the formation of the Royal Air Force on 1 April 1918 until 31 July 1919, it used the appointment of brigadier-general. This was superseded by the rank of air commodore on the following day, the equivalent naval appointment was commodore. Brigadier is the highest field officer rank, whereas brigadier-general was the lowest general officer rank, however, the two ranks are considered equal
43.
Great Depression in Australia
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Australia suffered badly during the period of the Great Depression of the 1930s. The Depression began with the Wall Street Crash of October,1929, as in other nations, Australia suffered years of high unemployment, poverty, low profits, deflation, plunging incomes, and lost opportunities for economic growth and personal advancement. Unemployment reached a high of around 30% in 1932. There were also incidents of civil unrest, particularly in Australias largest city, thus Australia, unlike the United States, did not embark on a significant Keynesian program of spending to recover from the Depression. Nevertheless, the Australian recovery began around 1932, Australians took consolation from sporting achievements through the Depression, with cricketer Don Bradman and race horse Phar Lap achieving long-lasting fame. The Great War had depleted Britains savings and foreign investments, a sluggish economy in Britain naturally reduced British demand for imports from Australia throughout the 1920s and this had affected Australias balance of payments. Throughout the 1920s the Australian unemployment rate floated between 6% and 11%, New dams and grain elevators were built, and the rural railway network was expanded in nearly every state. Large sums of government money were available to provide returned First World War servicemen with farmland. All these publicly funded projects were paid for by loans raised by state and federal governments. Most of these loans were raised on capital markets in the City of London at an average of £30 million per annum, in 1925 the British government decided to put the pound sterling back onto the Gold Standard at pre-1913 parity. This had the effect of making British exports far less competitive in international markets. Because Australia pegged the Australian pound to the pound sterling, this also affected Australian terms of trade, falling export demand and commodity prices placed massive downward pressures on wages, particularly in industries such as coal mining. Due to falling prices, bosses were unable to pay the wages that workers wanted, the result was a series of crippling strikes in many sectors of the economy in the late 1920s. Coal miners strikes in the winter of 1929 brought much of the economy to its knees, a riot at a picket line in the Hunter Region mining town of Rothbury saw police shoot one teenage coal miner dead. This is because arbitration made it difficult for employers to adjust wages in response to market conditions, the opposition Australian Labor Party, led by James Scullin, successfully depicted Stanley Bruce as wanting to destroy Australias high wages and working conditions in the 1929 federal election. The Scullin Labor Government was sworn in on 29 October 1929, the Wall Street Crash took place within the first week of James Scullins government and from the outset it was buffeted by the effects of the global economic crisis. The stagnant economy had reduced economic activity and therefore tax revenues, however, the debt commitments of both state and federal governments remained the same. Australia became severely at risk of defaulting on its foreign debt which had accumulated during the relative prosperity
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