1.
Italian Campaign (World War II)
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The Italian Campaign of World War II was the name of Allied operations in and around Italy, from 1943 to the end of the war in Europe. It is estimated that between September 1943 and April 1945, some 60, 000–70,000 Allied and 60, overall Allied casualties during the campaign totaled about 320,000 and the corresponding German figure was well over 600,000. Fascist Italy, prior to its collapse, suffered about 200,000 casualties, mostly POWs taken in the Allied invasion of Sicily, including more than 40,000 killed or missing. Besides them, over 150,000 Italian civilians died, as did 15,197 anti-Fascist partisans and 13,021 troops of the Italian Social Republic. The campaign ended when Army Group C surrendered unconditionally to the Allies on May 2,1945, the independent states of San Marino and the Vatican, both surrounded by Italian territory, also suffered damage during the campaign. Even prior to victory in the North African Campaign in May 1943, the British, especially the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, advocated their traditional naval-based peripheral strategy. The United States, with a larger army, favoured a more direct method of fighting the main force of the German Army in Northern Europe. The ability to such a campaign depended on first winning the Battle of the Atlantic. There was even pressure from some Latin American countries to stage an invasion of Spain, the British argued that the presence of large numbers of troops trained for amphibious landings in the Mediterranean made a limited-scale invasion possible and useful. A contributing factor was Franklin D. Roosevelts desire to keep US troops active in the European theatre during 1943 and it was hoped that an invasion might knock Italy out of the conflict, or at least increase the pressure on them and weaken them further. A combined Allied invasion of Sicily began on 10 July 1943 with both amphibious and airborne landings at the Gulf of Gela, the land forces involved were the U. S. Seventh Army, under Lieutenant General George S. Patton, the original plan contemplated a strong advance by the British northwards along the east coast to Messina, with the Americans in a supporting role along their left flank. The defending German and Italian forces were unable to prevent the Allied capture of the island, but succeeded in evacuating most of their troops to the mainland, the Allied forces gained experience in opposed amphibious operations, coalition warfare and mass airborne drops. Forces of the British Eighth Army, still under Montgomery, landed in the toe of Italy on 3 September 1943 in Operation Baytown, the armistice was publicly announced on 8 September by two broadcasts, first by General Eisenhower and then by a proclamation by Marshal Badoglio. Although the German forces prepared to defend without Italian assistance, only two of their divisions opposite the Eighth Army and one at Salerno were not tied up disarming the Royal Italian Army, on 9 September, forces of the U. S. Fifth Army, under Lieutenant General Mark W, although none of the northern reserves were made available to the German 10th Army, it nevertheless came close to repelling the Salerno landing, due mainly to the cautious command of Clark. As the Allies advanced, they encountered increasingly difficult terrain, the Apennine Mountains form a spine along the Italian peninsula offset somewhat to the east, the rivers were subject to sudden and unexpected flooding, which constantly thwarted the Allied commanders plans. This would make the most of the natural geography of Central Italy, whilst denying the Allies the easy capture of a succession of airfields
2.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
3.
Salerno
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Salerno listen is a city and comune in Campania and is the capital of the province of the same name. It is located on the Gulf of Salerno on the Tyrrhenian Sea, Salerno was an independent Lombard principality in the early Middle Ages. During this time, it became the site of the first medical school in the world, later, in 1694, the city was struck by several catastrophic earthquakes and plagues. After a period of Spanish rule which would last until the 18th century, in recent history the city hosted the King of Italy, who moved from Rome in 1943 after Italy negotiated a peace with the Allies in World War II. A brief so-called government of the South was then established in the town, some of the Allied landings during Operation Avalanche occurred near Salerno. Today Salerno is an important cultural centre in Campania and Italy and has had a long, a patron saint of Salerno is Saint Matthew, the Apostle, whose relics are kept here at the crypt of Salerno Cathedral. The area of what is now Salerno has been settled since pre-historical times. We know the Oscan-Etruscan city of Irna, situated across the Irno river and this settlement represented an important base for Etruscan trade with the Greek colonies of Posidonia and Elea. It was occupied by the Samnites around the 5th century BC as consequence of the Battle of Cumae as part of the Syracusan sphere of influence. With the Roman advance in Campania, Irna began to lose its importance, being supplanted by the new Roman colony of Salernum, developing around an initial castrum. The new city, which gradually lost its function in favour of its role as a trade center, was connected to Rome by the Via Popilia. Archaeological remains, although fragmentary, suggest the idea of a flourishing, under the Emperor Diocletian, in the late 3rd century AD, Salernum became the administrative centre of the Lucania and Bruttii province. Like many coastal cities of southern Italy, Salerno initially remained untouched by the newcomers and it subsequently became part of the Duchy of Benevento. Under the Lombard dukes Salerno enjoyed the most splendid period of its history, with Arechis II, Salerno became a centre of studies with its famous Medical School. The Lombard prince ordered the city to be fortified, the Castle on the Bonadies mountain had already been built with walls, in 839 Salerno declared independence from Benevento, becoming the capital of a flourishing principality stretching out to Capua, northern Calabria and Apulia up to Taranto. The coins minted in the city circulated in all the Mediterranean, however, the stability of the Principate was continually shaken by the Saracen attacks and, most of all, by internal struggles. In 1056, one of the numerous plots led to the fall of Guaimar and his weaker son Gisulf II succeeded him, but the decline of the principality had begun. In 1077 Salerno reached its zenith but soon lost all its territory to the Normans, on 13 December 1076, the Norman conqueror Robert Guiscard, who had married Guaimar IVs daughter Sikelgaita, besieged Salerno and defeated his brother-in-law Gisulf
4.
Calabria
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Calabria, known in antiquity as Bruttium and formerly as Italia, is a region in Southern Italy and forms the traditionally conceptualized toe of the Italian Peninsula which resembles a boot. The capital city of Calabria is Catanzaro and its most populated city, and the seat of the Regional Council of Calabria, is Reggio Calabria in the Province of Reggio Calabria. The region is bordered to the north by the Basilicata Region, to the west by the Tyrrhenian Sea, the region covers 15,080 km2 and has a population of just under 2 million. The demonym of Calabria in English is Calabrian, in ancient times Calabria was referred to as Italy. The Romans later extended the name to cover Southern Italy and then the entire peninsula, the region is a long and narrow peninsula which stretches from north to south for 248 km, with a maximum width of 110 km. Some 42% of Calabrias area, corresponding to 15,080 km2, is mountainous, 49% is hilly and it is surrounded by the Ionian and Tyrrhenian seas. It is separated from Sicily by the Strait of Messina, where the narrowest point between Capo Peloro in Sicily and Punta Pezzo in Calabria is only 3.2 km, three mountain ranges are present, Pollino, La Sila and Aspromonte. All three mountain ranges are unique with their own flora and fauna, the Pollino Mountains in the north of the region are rugged and form a natural barrier separating Calabria from the rest of Italy. Parts of the area are heavily wooded, while others are vast and these mountains are home to a rare Bosnian Pine variety, and are included in the Pollino National Park. The highest point is Botte Donato, which reaches 1,928 metres, the area boasts numerous lakes and dense coniferous forests. La Sila also has some of the tallest trees in Italy which are called the Giants of the Sila, the Sila National Park is also known to have the purest air in Europe. The Aspromonte massif forms the southernmost tip of the Italian peninsula bordered by the sea on three sides and this unique mountainous structure reaches its highest point at Montalto, at 1,995 metres, and is full of wide, man-made terraces that slope down towards the sea. In general, most of the terrain in Calabria has been agricultural for centuries. The lowest slopes are rich in vineyards and citrus fruit orchards, the Diamante citron is one of the citrus fruits. Moving upwards, olives and chestnut trees appear while in the regions there are often dense forests of oak, pine, beech. Calabrias climate is influenced by the sea and mountains, mountain areas have a typical mountainous climate with frequent snow during winter. Erratic behavior of the Tyrrhenian Sea can bring heavy rainfall on the slopes of the region, while hot air from Africa makes the east coast of Calabria dry. The mountains that run along the region also influence the climate, the east coast is much warmer and has wider temperature ranges than the west coast
5.
Taranto
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Taranto is a coastal city in Apulia, Southern Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Taranto and is an important commercial port as well as the main Italian naval base and it is the third-largest continental city of Southern Italy, according to 2011 population census, it has a population of 200,154. Taranto is an important commercial and military port and it has well-developed steel and iron foundries, oil refineries, chemical works, some shipyards for building warships, and food-processing factories. In ancient times around 500 BC the city was one of the largest in the world with population estimates up to 300,000 people, Tarantos pre-history dates back to 706 BC when it was founded as a Greek colony, established by the Spartans. The islets of S. Pietro and S. Paolo, collectively known as Cheradi Islands, protect the bay, called Mar Grande, another bay, called Mar Piccolo, is formed by the peninsula of the old city, and has flourishing fishing. Mar Piccolo is a port with strategic importance. At the end of the 19th century, a channel was excavated to allow ships to enter the Mar Piccolo harbour. In addition, the islets and the coast are strongly fortified, because of the presence of these two bays, Taranto is also called the city of the two seas. The Greek colonists from Sparta called the city Taras, after the mythical hero Taras, while the Romans, the natural harbor at Taranto made it a logical home port for the Italian naval fleet before and during the First World War. During World War II, Taranto became famous as a consequence of the November 1940 British air attack on the Regia Marina naval base stationed here, which today is called the Battle of Taranto. Taranto is also the origin of the name of the Tarantula spider family, Theraphosidae. In ancient times, residents of the town of Taranto, upon being bitten by the large local Wolf Spider, Lycosa tarentula and this was done in order to sweat the venom out of their pores, even though the spiders venom was not fatal to humans. The frenetic dance became known as the Tarantella, in geology, Taranto gives its name to the Tarantian Age of the Pleistocene Epoch. It is 14.5 metres above sea level and it was built on a plain running north/north-west–southeast, and surrounded by the Murgia plateau from the north-west to the east. Its territory extends for 209.64 square kilometres and is mostly underwater and it is characterised by three natural peninsulas and a man-made island, formed by digging a ditch during the construction of Aragon Castle. The Big Sea is frequently known as the Big Sea bay as that is where ships harbour and it is separated from the Little Sea by a cape which closes the gulf, leading to the artificial island. This island formed the heart of the city and it is connected to the mainland by the Ponte di Porta Napoli. The latter form an archipelago which closes off the arc creating the natural Big Sea bay
6.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
7.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
9.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
10.
Kingdom of Italy
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The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state. Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866, Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations. Fascist Italy is the era of National Fascist Party rule from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government, according to Payne, Fascist regime passed through several relatively distinct phases. The first phase was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, then came the second phase, the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper from 1925 to 1929. The third phase, with activism, was 1929–34. The war itself was the phase with its disasters and defeats. Italy was allied with Nazi Germany in World War II until 1943 and it switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist party in areas controlled by the Allied invaders. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic, the Kingdom of Italy claimed all of the territory which is modern-day Italy. The development of the Kingdoms territory progressed under Italian re-unification until 1870, the state for a long period of time did not include Trieste or Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, which are in Italy today, and only annexed them in 1919. After the Second World War, the borders of present-day Italy were founded, the Kingdom of Italy was theoretically a constitutional monarchy. Executive power belonged to the monarch, as executed through appointed ministers, two chambers of parliament restricted the monarchs power—an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies. The kingdoms constitution was the Statuto Albertino, the governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were responsible to the king. However, in practice, it was impossible for an Italian government to stay in office without the support of Parliament, members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected by plurality voting system elections in uninominal districts. A candidate needed the support of 50% of those voting, and of 25% of all enrolled voters, if not all seats were filled on the first ballot, a runoff was held shortly afterwards for the remaining vacancies. After a brief multinominal experimentation in 1882, proportional representation into large, regional, Socialists became the major party, but they were unable to form a government in a parliament split into three different factions, with Christian Populists and classical liberals
11.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn
12.
Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis
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He then commanded the 15th Army Group for the capture of Sicily and again in Italy before receiving his field marshals baton and being made Supreme Allied Commander Mediterranean. Alexander proved to be enthusiastic about the Canadian wilderness and was a governor general with Canadians. He was the last non-Canadian-born governor general before the appointment of Adrienne Clarkson in 1999, Alexander retired in 1954 and died in 1969. Alexander was born in London into a family from County Tyrone of Ulster-Scots descent. He was the son of The Earl and Countess of Caledon. Alexander was educated at Hawtreys and Harrow School, there participating as the 11th batsman in the sensational Fowlers Match against Eton College in 1910, though Alexander toyed with the notion of becoming an artist, he went instead on to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. In September 1911, Alexander entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the British Armys Irish Guards. He was promoted to lieutenant in December 1912, Alexander spent most of the First World War on the Western Front. As a 22-year-old platoon commander in the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards and he took part in the retreat from Mons and was wounded at First Ypres and invalided home. He was promoted to captain on 15 November 1914 and permanent captain in the newly raised 2nd Battalion on 7 February the following year. He then returned to the 2nd Battalion as a officer and, in January 1916. For service in the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916, he was, in October, appointed to the Distinguished Service Order, the citation for which read, For conspicuous gallantry in action. He was the life and soul of the attack, and throughout the day led forward not only his own men but men of all regiments and he held the trenches gained in spite of heavy machine gun fire. In the same month, Alexander was further honoured with induction into the French Légion dhonneur, on 10 December 1916, his twenty-fifth birthday, Alexander became second-in-command of the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards as an acting major. By May, he was briefly acting CO of the 1st Battalion, as a lieutenant colonel. He became a permanent major on 1 August 1917 and was promoted acting lieutenant colonel. Alexander commanded his battalion at Third Ypres, where he was wounded, then at Bourlon Wood. Alexander, between 23 and 30 March 1918, had to command of the 4th Guards Brigade
13.
Bernard Montgomery
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He saw action in the First World War as a junior officer of the Royal Warwickshire Regiment. At Méteren, near the Belgian border at Bailleul, he was shot through the lung by a sniper. He returned to the Western Front as a staff officer. He also took part in the Battle of Passchendaele in late 1917 before finishing the war as chief of staff of the 47th Division. During the Second World War he commanded the British Eighth Army from August 1942 in the Western Desert until the final Allied victory in Tunisia in May 1943 and this command included the Second Battle of El Alamein, a turning point in the Western Desert Campaign. He subsequently commanded the British Eighth Army during the Allied invasion of Sicily and he was in command of all Allied ground forces during Operation Overlord from the initial landings until after the Battle of Normandy. He then continued in command of the 21st Army Group for the rest of the campaign in North West Europe, as such he was the principal field commander for the failed airborne attempt to bridge the Rhine at Arnhem, and the Allied Rhine crossing. On 4 May 1945 he took the German surrender at Lüneburg Heath in Northern Germany, after the war he became Commander-in-Chief of the British Army of the Rhine in Germany and then Chief of the Imperial General Staff. He then served as Deputy Supreme Commander of NATO in Europe until his retirement in 1958. Montgomery was born in Kennington, Surrey, in 1887, the child of nine, to an Ulster-Scots Church of Ireland minister, The Reverend Henry Montgomery. The Montgomerys, an Ascendancy gentry family, were the County Donegal branch of the Clan Montgomery and he was probably a descendant of Colonel Alexander Montgomery. Bernards mother, Maud, was the daughter of The V, rev. Frederic William Canon Farrar, the famous preacher, and was eighteen years younger than her husband. After the death of Sir Robert Montgomery, Henry inherited the Montgomery ancestral estate of New Park in Moville in Inishowen in Ulster. There was still £13,000 to pay on a mortgage, a debt in the 1880s. Despite selling off all the farms that were at Ballynally, there was enough to keep up New Park. It was a relief of some magnitude when, in 1889, Henry was made Bishop of Tasmania, then still a British colony. Bishop Montgomery considered it his duty to spend as much time as possible in the areas of Tasmania and was away for up to six months at a time. While he was away, his wife, still in her mid-twenties, gave her children constant beatings, of Bernards siblings, Sibyl died prematurely in Tasmania, and Harold, Donald and Una all emigrated
14.
Mark W. Clark
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Mark Wayne Clark was a United States Army officer who saw service during World War I, World War II, and the Korean War. He was the youngest lieutenant general in the United States Army during World War II, during World War I, he was a company commander and served in France in 1918, as a 22-year old captain, where he was seriously wounded by shrapnel. After the war, the future U. S. Army Chief of Staff, General George Marshall, during World War II, he commanded the United States Fifth Army, and later the 15th Army Group, in the Italian campaign. He is known for leading the Fifth Army in its capture of Rome in June 1944, the German 10th Army then joined with the rest of the German army group at the Trasimene Line. In March 1945, Clark, at the age of 48, General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower, a close friend of Clarks, considered him a brilliant staff officer and trainer of men. Clark was awarded medals, including the Distinguished Service Cross. A legacy of the Clark task force that he led in 1953–1955 and his mother, Rebecca Beckie Ezekkiels, was the daughter of Romanian Jews, but Mark Clark was baptized Episcopalian while a cadet at the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. Clark gained an appointment to the USMA in 1913 at the age of 17. Although Eisenhower two years senior to him, having graduated as part of the West Point class of 1915 and he graduated alongside young men such as Matthew Ridgway, J. Lawton Collins, Ernest N. Harmon, William W. Eagles, Norman Cota, Laurence B. Keiser, Frederick Augustus Irving, William C, mcMahon, Bryant Moore and William Kelly Harrison, Jr. Like his father, he decided to join the Infantry Branch, oDaniel serving as a platoon commander in his company. In the rapid expansion of the U. S. Army during World War I, he rose quickly in rank, promoted to first lieutenant on May 15 and captain on August 5,1917. In late April 1918, shortly before Clarks 22nd birthday and over a year since his graduation from the USMA, he arrived on the Western Front, pershing, the Commander-in-Chief of the AEF on the Western Front. They were two of the first casualties in the division, despite his injuries, however, Clark managed to recover within six weeks, although he was graded unfit to return to the infantry. As a result of his convalescence, Captain Clark was transferred to the Supply Section of the First Army. In this position he served with Colonel John L. DeWitt, and supervised the provision of food for the men of the First Army. He stayed in this post until the end of hostilities on November 11,1918 and he then served with the Third Army in its occupation duties in Germany and returned to the United States in June 1919. During the period between the wars, Clark served in a variety of staff and training roles
15.
Albert Kesselring
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Albert Kesselring was a German Luftwaffe Generalfeldmarschall during World War II. Nicknamed Smiling Albert by the Allies and Uncle Albert by his troops, he was one of the most popular generals of World War II with the rank, Kesselring joined the Bavarian Army as an officer cadet in 1904, and served in the artillery branch. He completed training as an observer in 1912. During World War I, he served on both the Western and Eastern fronts and was posted to the General Staff, despite not having attended the War Academy. During World War II he commanded air forces in the invasions of Poland and France, as Commander-in-Chief South, he was overall German commander in the Mediterranean theatre, which included the operations in North Africa. Kesselring conducted an uncompromising defensive campaign against the Allied forces in Italy until he was injured in an accident in October 1944, in the final campaign of the war, he commanded German forces on the Western Front. He won the respect of his Allied opponents for his military accomplishments, after the war, Kesselring was tried for war crimes and sentenced to death. The sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. A political and media campaign resulted in his release in 1952 and he was one of only three Generalfeldmarschalls to publish his memoirs. Alberts early years were spent in Marktsteft, where relatives had operated a brewery since 1688, matriculating from the Christian Ernestinum Secondary School in Bayreuth in 1904, Kesselring joined the German Army as an Fahnenjunker in the 2nd Bavarian Foot Artillery Regiment. The regiment was based at Metz and was responsible for maintaining its forts, Kesselring married Luise Anna Pauline Keyssler, the daughter of an apothecary from Bayreuth, in 1910. Their marriage was childless, but in 1913 they adopted Rainer, in 1912, Kesselring completed training as a balloon observer in a dirigible section – an early sign of an interest in aviation. Kesselrings superiors considered posting him to the School of Artillery and Engineering as an instructor because of his expertise in the interplay between tactics and technology. During World War I, Kesselring served with his regiment in Lorraine until the end of 1914, when he was transferred to the 1st Bavarian Foot Artillery, on 19 May 1916, he was promoted to Hauptmann. In 1916 he was transferred again, to the 3rd Bavarian Foot Artillery and he distinguished himself in the Battle of Arras, using his tactical acumen to halt a British advance. For his services on the Western Front, he was decorated with the Iron Cross 2nd Class, in 1917, he was posted to the General Staff, despite having not attended the Bavarian War Academy. He served on the Eastern Front on the staff of the 1st Bavarian Landwehr Division, in January 1918, he returned to the Western Front as a staff officer with the II and III Bavarian Corps. At the conclusion of the war, Kesselring was involved in the demobilisation of III Bavarian Corps in the Nuremberg area and he was soon released but his superior, Major Hans Seyler, censured him for having failed to display the requisite discretion
16.
Heinrich von Vietinghoff
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Heinrich von Vietinghoff was a German general of the Wehrmacht during World War II. He was a recipient of the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Vietinghoff commanded the German troops German-occupied Italy in 1945. On 24 November 1938, Vietinghoff was appointed commander of the 5th Panzer Division and he was promoted to General in June 1940 after which he led the German XLVI Panzer Corps in the invasion of Yugoslavia. During Operation Barbarossa his Corps was part of Army Group Centre under Field Marshal Fedor von Bock, as all commanders of the German corps on the Eastern Front during the invasion, Vietinghoff implemented the criminal Commissar Order. Vietinghoff also later served with General Heinz Guderian in the 2nd Panzer Army, from December 1941 to August 1943 he was Commander-in-Chief of the German Fifteenth Army in France. In Italy from August 1943 onwards he commanded German Tenth Army, notable in this context were the defences on the Winter Line from November 1943 to May 1944 and the fighting in the autumn of 1944 on the Gothic Line. In October 1944 he was raised to overall command in Italy when Field Marshal Albert Kesselring was seriously injured in a car crash. In January 1945, on Kesselrings return, he left Italy to command Army Group Courland in East Prussia, when Kesselring was moved in March 1945 to command German Army Command West in France, Vietinghoff returned as the supreme German commander in Italy. Afterwards he spent two and a half years in British captivity at Bridgend Island Farm among high-ranking German prisoners and he was released in September 1947. After the war Vietinghoff was a member of the expert group dealing with the question of German rearmament. In October 1950 he wrote the Himmerod memorandum, named after the Himmerod Abbey where it was written, on behalf of the Adenauer government and he died on 23 February 1952 in Pfronten. Armeekorps 456th Oak Leaves on 16 April 1944 as Generaloberst and commander-in-chief of the 10, armee German Cross in Gold -22 April 1942 as General der Panzertruppe and commanding general of the XXXXVI Panzerkorps
17.
Hans-Valentin Hube
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Hans-Valentin Hube was a general in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany during World War II. He commanded several panzer divisions during the invasions of Poland, France and he was a recipient of the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds, Nazi Germanys highest military decoration. Hube died in an air crash on 21 April 1944, hans-Valentin Hube was born on 29 October 1890, in Naumburg an der Saale, German Empire. In 1918, following the end of the war ended with the German Empires defeat and subsequent collapse. Hube took part in the invasion of Poland and the Battle of France as a regimental commander and he was appointed commander of 16th Infantry Division in June 1940. As commander of the 16th Panzer Division, he took part in Operation Barbarossa as part of Marshal Gerd von Rundstedts Army Group South, for this action during the campaign, Hube got the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross. On 16 January 1942, he was awarded the Oak leaves to the Knights Cross for his actions in the Battle of Kiev, Hube then led the division during Fall Blau and the Battle of Stalingrad. In September 1942, Hube was given command of XIV Panzer Corps, Hube commanded the XIVth Corps during the Soviet counter-offensive, Operation Uranus. He was promoted to Generalleutnant and received the Swords to the Knights Cross with Oakleaves from Adolf Hitler personally on 21 December 1942. During his time at the Führer-Headquarters in Rastenburg, Hube argued strongly, instead, Hitler promised a new relief attack beginning in the middle of Feb. Hube conveyed that plan to Paulus upon his return to the cauldron. However, Hube was then ordered to fly out again on 10 Jan. to reorganize the supply of the 6th Army, after the destruction of the 6th Army, Hube was sent to the Mediterranean front. He created Gruppe Hube in Sicily, an army-sized formation whose task was to defend German positions on the island, with the advent of Operation Husky on 10 July, Hube commanded the overall German defence. On 17 July 1943 Hube was given command of all army, Hube organised the evacuation to the Italian peninsula. He had prepared a defensive line, the Etna Line around Messina. Patton began his assault on the line at Troina, but it was a linchpin of the defense, despite three end run amphibious landings the Germans managed to keep the bulk of their forces beyond reach of capture, and maintain their evacuation plans. Withdrawing a large number of troops from the threat of capture on Sicily represented a major success for the Axis, Hube was later involved in the battles defending positions at Salerno during the Allied Operation Avalanche. Hube was moved back to Germany to take command of the Führer-Reserve OKH, on 23 October 1943, Hube was delegated as commander of the 200,000 man 1st Panzer Army, then serving with Army Group South under Field Marshal Erich von Manstein. In February 1944, Hube was officially confirmed as commander of the 1st Panzer Army, panzerkorps, one of Hubes units, was required to assist German forces breaking out of the Korsun-Cherkassy Pocket
18.
Allied invasion of Sicily
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The Allied invasion of Sicily, codenamed Operation Husky, was a major campaign of World War II, in which the Allies took the island of Sicily from the Axis powers. It was an amphibious and airborne operation, followed by a six-week land campaign and was the beginning of the Italian Campaign. Husky began on the night of 9/10 July 1943, and ended on 17 August, the Italian leader, Benito Mussolini, was toppled from power in Italy and the way was opened for the Allied invasion of Italy. The German leader, Adolf Hitler, canceled a major offensive at Kursk after only a week, in part to divert forces to Italy, resulting in a reduction of German strength on the Eastern Front. The plan for Operation Husky called for the assault of Sicily by two Allied armies, one landing on the south-eastern and one on the central southern coast. The amphibious assaults were to be supported by gunfire, as well as tactical bombing, interdiction. As such, the operation required a complex structure, incorporating land, naval. The overall commander was American General Dwight D. Eisenhower, as Commander-in-Chief of all the Allied forces in North Africa, British General Sir Harold Alexander acted as his second-in-command and as the 15th Army Group commander. The American Major General Walter Bedell Smith was appointed as Eisenhowers Chief of Staff, the overall Naval Force Commander was the British Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham. The Allied land forces were from the American, British and Canadian armies, the Eastern Task Force was led by General Sir Bernard Montgomery and consisted of the British Eighth Army. The Western Task Force was commanded by Lieutenant General George S. Patton, the two task force commanders reported to Alexander as commander of the 15th Army Group. Seventh Army consisted initially of three divisions, organized under II Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Omar Bradley. Middleton, sailed from the United States via Oran in Algeria, the 2nd Armored Division, under Major General Hugh Joseph Gaffey, also sailing from Oran, was to be a floating reserve and be fed into combat as required. On 15 July, Patton reorganized his command into two corps by creating a new Provisional Corps headquarters, commanded by his deputy army commander, Major General Geoffrey Keyes. The two divisions of XIII Corps, the 5th and 50th Infantry Divisions, commanded by Major-Generals Horatio Berney-Ficklin and Sidney Kirkman and this request was granted by the British, displacing the veteran British 3rd Infantry Division. The Red Patch Division was added to Leeses XXX Corps to become part of the British Eighth Army, in addition to the amphibious landings, airborne troops were to be flown in to support both the Western and Eastern Task Forces. To the east, the British 1st Airborne Division, commanded by Major-General George F. Hopkinson, was to seize vital bridges and high ground in support of the British Eighth Army. The initial plan dictated that the U. S. 82nd Airborne Division, Allied naval forces were also grouped into two task forces to transport and support the invading armies
19.
Operation Corkscrew
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Operation Corkscrew was the code name for the Allied invasion of the Italian island of Pantelleria on 11 June 1943, prior to the Allied invasion of Sicily during the Second World War. There had been a plan to occupy the island in late 1940. The Allied focus returned to Pantelleria in early 1943, the radar installations and airfield on the island were seen as a real threat to the planned invasion of Sicily. The Italian garrison on the island was 12,000 strong in well-entrenched pillboxes and 21 gun batteries of a variety of calibres, in addition, there was an opportunity to assess the impact of bombardment upon heavily fortified defences. It was decided to see if the island could be forced into submission by aerial and naval bombardment alone, failing this, an amphibious invasion was planned for 11 June. Starting in late May, the island was subjected to steadily increasing bombing attacks, in early June, the attacks intensified and 14,203 bombs amounting to 4,119 tons were dropped on 16 Italian batteries. On 8 June, a Royal Navy task force of five cruisers, eight destroyers, the engagement was observed by General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean, and Admiral Andrew Cunningham from the flagship HMS Aurora. From 8 May to 11 June 5,285 bombing sorties were flown by fighter-bombers, medium and heavy bombers, two demands for the garrison to surrender went unanswered and, on 11 June, the amphibious assault went ahead. About an hour before the craft reached the beaches, the accompanying ships opened fire. Unknown to the attackers, the commander of the garrison on Pantelleria had sought permission to surrender from Rome the previous evening, when the first of the British Commandos landed, the Italians surrendered. The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, was to later in his memoirs that the only British casualty of the operation was a man bitten by a mule. An assessment by British analyst Professor Sir Solly Zuckerman reported that the defences had been reduced to 47 percent effectiveness, the intense ten-day air bombardment had substantially reduced the defences. Out of 80 guns bombed,43 were damaged, all control communications were destroyed, along with many gun emplacements, ammunition stores and air-raid shelters. The ease of the led to an optimistic assessment of the effectiveness of bombing. The Italian garrisons on other nearby islands quickly fell and this cleared the way for the invasion of Sicily a month later. Detailed American description, 320th Bomb Group British Combined Operations description
20.
Operation Mincemeat
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Operation Mincemeat was a successful British disinformation strategy used during the Second World War. Correspondence between two British generals which suggested that the Allies planned to invade Greece and Sardinia, with Sicily as merely the target of a feint, was placed on the body. It was picked up the morning by a Spanish fisherman. The nominally neutral Spanish government shared copies of the documents with the Abwehr, forensic examination showed they had been read, and decrypts of German messages showed the Germans fell for the ruse. Reinforcements were shifted to Greece and Sardinia both before and during the invasion of Sicily, Sicily received none, the true impact of Operation Mincemeat is unknown, although the island was liberated more quickly than anticipated and losses were lower than predicted. Montagus work formed the basis for a 1956 film, the historian Ben Macintyre observes that although the paper was published under Godfreys name, it bore all the hallmarks of. Lieutenant Commander Ian Fleming, Godfreys personal assistant, the memo contained a number of schemes to be considered for use against the Axis powers to lure U-boats and German surface ships towards minefields. Number 28 on the list was titled, A Suggestion, it was an idea to plant misleading papers on a corpse that would be found by the enemy. The following suggestion is used in a book by Basil Thomson, I understand there is no difficulty in obtaining corpses at the Naval Hospital, but, of course, it would have to be a fresh one. The deliberate planting of fake documents to be found by the enemy was not new, known as the Haversack Ruse, it had been practised by the British and others in the First and Second World Wars. In August 1942, before the Battle of Alam el Halfa, on the corpse was a map purportedly showing the locations of British minefields, the Germans used the map and their tanks were routed to areas of soft sand where they bogged down. In September 1942 an aircraft flying from Britain to Gibraltar crashed off Cádiz, all aboard were killed, including Paymaster-Lieutenant James Hadden Turner – a courier carrying top secret documents – and a French agent. Eisenhower, the Supreme Commander, would arrive in Gibraltar on the eve of the target date of 4 November. Turners body washed up on the beach near Tarifa and was recovered by the Spanish authorities, when the body was returned to the British, the letter was still on it, and technicians determined that the letter had not been opened. Other Allied intelligence sources established that the notebook carried by the French agent had been copied by the Germans, to British planners it showed that some material that was obtained by the Spanish was being passed to the Germans. His plan was A body is obtained from one of the London hospitals, the lungs are filled with water and documents are disposed in an inside pocket. The body is dropped by a Coastal Command aircraft. On being found, the supposition in the mind may well be that one of our aircraft has either been shot or forced down
21.
Operation Fustian
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Operation Fustian was an airborne forces operation undertaken during the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943 in the Second World War. The operation was carried out by Brigadier Gerald Lathburys 1st Parachute Brigade and their objective was the Primosole Bridge across the Simeto River. The intention was for the brigade, with forces in support. They would then capture the bridge and secure the area until relieved by the advance of British XIII Corps. Many of the carrying the paratroopers from North Africa were shot down or were damaged and turned back by friendly fire. Evasive action taken by the pilots scattered the brigade over a large area, despite this and the defence by German and Italian forces, the British paratroops captured the bridge, repulsed attacks and held out against increasing odds until nightfall. The relief force led by the 50th Infantry Division, under Major-General Sidney C, Kirkman, which was short of transport, were still 1 mile away when they halted for the night. By this time, with mounting and supplies running short. The following day the British units joined forces and the 9th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry, with tank support, the capture of Primosole Bridge did not lead to the expected rapid advance, as by this time the Germans had gathered their forces and established a defensive line. It was not until early the following month that the Eighth Army captured Catania, by this time the 1st Parachute Brigade had been withdrawn to Malta and took no further part in the conquest of Sicily. Lessons were learned from the operation and were put into practice in Allied airborne operations. After the Axis powers were defeated in North Africa, the Allied armies next logical objective was to cross the Mediterranean, landing in either the south of France, the objective chosen was Sicily, with the landing scheduled for 10 July 1943. In addition to the landings, there were also airborne landings during the invasion. The first British airborne landing was Operation Ladbroke, which was carried out by the 1st Airlanding Brigade, under Brigadier Philip Hicks and their objective was to seize and hold the Ponte Grande bridge just outside Syracuse. However circumstances changed and the operation was cancelled. The third British airborne mission planned was Operation Fustian, to be carried out by the 1st Parachute Brigade, under Brigadier Gerald Lathbury, the 1st Parachute Brigades objective was the Primosole bridge, crossing the Simeto River, south of Catania. The bridge was an objective, as it was the only crossing point over the Simeto. Its capture would give the Eighth Army access to the Catania plain, to them to continue their advance northwards
22.
Operation Ladbroke
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En route to Sicily, sixty-five gliders released too early by the American and British towing aircraft crashed into the sea, drowning approximately 252 men. Of the remainder, only eighty-seven men arrived at the Pont Grande Bridge, although they successfully captured the bridge, finally, with their ammunition expended and only fifteen soldiers remaining unwounded, the Allied troops surrendered to Italian forces. Other troops from the brigade, who had landed elsewhere in Sicily, aided further by destroying communications links, in January 1943 the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and U. S. President Franklin D. The codename Operation Husky was decided upon for the Allied invasion of Sicily, initially the British Eighth Army, under the command of General Sir Bernard Montgomery, were to land on the south-eastern corner of the island and advance north to the port of Syracuse. Seventh Army, commanded by Lieutenant General George S. Patton, would land on the corner of the island. The commander of the 82nd Airborne Division Artillery, Brigadier General Maxwell D, when training began for the operation, difficulties immediately arose. His airborne advisor, Group Captain Cooper of the Royal Air Force, argued that a glider landing conducted at night with inexperienced aircrews was not practical, montgomerys orders raised several issues, the first with the transport aircraft of the Troop Carrier Wings assigned to the airborne operations. When they had arrived in North Africa, it had decided that the 52nd Troop Carrier Wing would operate with 1st Airborne Division and its counterpart. To switch both was impractical and would have led to a number of problems, which left 1st Airborne Division, further problems were encountered with the gliders to be used in the operation, and the glider pilots themselves. Until a few prior to the operation, there was a notable shortage of serviceable gliders in North Africa. In late March a small number of Wacos arrived at Accra on the Gold Coast, due to neglect and the deleterious effects of tropical weather, the pilots were able to assemble only a small number of Wacos and fly them back on 22 April. A small number of Horsa gliders were transported to North Africa for use by the brigade, thirty took off from England and undertook a trip of approximately 1,500 miles in Operation Turkey Buzzard. After attacks from Luftwaffe fighter patrols and experiencing often turbulent weather, given these problems and delays, 51st Troop Carrier Wing was not able to conduct a large-scale glider exercise until mid-June. The British glider pilots themselves also caused difficulties, although there were a sufficient number of them to conduct the operation, they were highly inexperienced. Detached from the Glider Pilot Regiment for the operation, they had no experience with the Waco gliders and night operations involving them, on average, the pilots had eight hours of flight experience in gliders. Few were rated as being ready and none had combat experience. Colonel George Chatterton, the commander of the Glider Pilot Regiment, had protested their participation as he believed they were unfit for any operation. The units of the 1st Airlanding Brigade were, the 1st Battalion, Border Regiment, 2nd Battalion, South Staffordshire Regiment, 181st Field Ambulance and 9th Field Company, Royal Engineers
23.
Battle of Gela (1943)
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The amphibious Battle of Gela was the opening engagement of the United States portion of the Allied Invasion of Sicily. The battle convinced United States Army officers of the value of artillery support. Ground forces under command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower were transported by naval forces under overall command of Admiral Andrew Cunningham. There were three wings of Supermarine Spitfires operating from airfields on Malta and two groups of Curtiss P-40 Warhawks from airfields on Pantelleria and Gozo, Allied ground forces had no idea when, where, in what numbers, or under what circumstances they might see Allied aircraft. Unlike the earlier invasion of North Africa and later invasion of Italy, carriers which had supported the American landings during Operation Torch had been reassigned without replacement. The fishing village of Gela was on a plateau at 150-foot elevation behind a beach with a 900-foot pier. Plains cultivated for grain extended inland behind the community of 32,000, the mouth of the Gela River was 1 mile east of the pier and the mouth of the Acate River was 5 miles east of the Gela River. The sand and stone beach between the rivers was from 10–30 yards wide and backed by 900 yards of dunes, the 52d Troop Carrier Wing of 222 Douglas C-47 Skytrains from North Africa carried the airborne 505th Infantry Regiment for a parachute drop over Piano Lupo. A western task force of 601 ships under the command of Vice Admiral Henry Kent Hewitt carried the Seventh United States Army under the command of Lieutenant General George S. Patton, both officers sailed aboard the flagship transport USS Monrovia. Patton commanded three times as many soldiers as Hewitt had landed eight months earlier at Morocco during Operation Torch, the invasion was the European combat premier of tank landing ships s only a week after the Pacific Operation Cartwheel. The reserve force of the 2nd Armored Division and 18th Regiment of the 1st Infantry Division was landed on the first day of fighting to support the 1st Infantry Division, the Gela invasion beaches were defended by the Italian XVIII Coastal Brigade. The town itself was defended by the Italian 429th Coastal Battalion using barbed wire, concrete pillboxes, junkers Ju 88A and Savoia-Marchetti SM79 medium bombers could reach Gela from bases in Italy. The LSTs, LCIs, LCTs and patrol craft sailed directly from Tunisia as convoys TJM1, the convoys were spotted and all German forces on Sicily were alerted at 18,40 on 9 July. Beaufort scale force 7 winds created 12 feet seas causing widespread seasickness among the embarked troops, winds moderated on the evening of 9 July as ships divided into task forces C, H, and K and proceeded to assigned anchorages off the Sicilian coast. As the ships anchored, airborne troops of the 505th Infantry Regiment were scattered by wind, fewer than 200 of the 3,400 paratroopers were able to reach the strategic Piano Lupo highland before the defending Livorno Division arrived. The transports Joseph T. Dickman, Prince Charles, Prince Leopold, Oberon, Barnett, Monrovia, Lyon, Samuel Chase, Betelgeuse, Thurston, the Army hoped for surprise, and declined Navy suggestions for pre-invasion bombardment. The transports started unloading shortly after midnight, and General Guzzoni declared an emergency at 01,00, the first assault wave from Barnett, Lyon, Thurston and Stanton landed about 02,45. Shubrick destroyed two XVIII Coastal Brigade searchlights illuminating the first wave and fired on several XVIII Coastal Brigade artillery positions, initial waves had landed on all beaches by 03,35
24.
Battle of Troina
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The Battle of Troina was an important battle that took place between 31 July and 6 August 1943, as part of the Allied invasion of Sicily during World War II. Forces of the U. S. II Corps, part of the U. S, seventh Army, under George S. Patton, engaged in fierce fighting around the town of Troina in the central portion of Sicily along the Caronie Mountains. The battle focused around the hills and mountains surrounding Troina which the Germans had heavily fortified and used as bases for direct and indirect fire. The US 7th Army commander, Lieutenant General George S. Patton Jr, had ordered the US 1st, generals Omar Bradley and Patton ordered the two divisions be pulled out of the line once Troina fell. Troina was considered one of the anchors of the Etna Line. It was defended by the 15th Panzer Grenadier Division commanded by Generalleutnant Eberhard Rodt, the Axis forces, in deep trenches, had a clear view of the oncoming Allied soldiers, who had little cover. This setback forced Bradley and Allen to orchestrate a massive assault, control of key hilltop positions changed hands often, with the Germans and Italians launching more than two dozen counterattacks during the week-long battle. During one Italian counterattack, Lieutenant-Colonel Giuseppe Gianquintos 1st Battalion, 5th Regiment of the Aosta managed to take 40 American prisoners, the experience of Colonel John Bowens 26th Infantry Regiment was fairly typical of the action around Troina. The 26ths assignment was to outflank Troina by seizing Monte Basilio two miles north of the town, from here, the regiment would be positioned to cut the Axis line of retreat. Bowen moved his soldiers forward on 2 August supported by the fire of 1 battalion of 155-mm howitzers,4 battalions of 105-mm howitzers and 4 Long Tom batteries, despite this weighty arsenal, German artillery fire and difficult terrain limited the regiments advance to half a mile. The next morning one of the battalions lost its bearings in the hilly terrain. A second battalion reached Monte Basilio with relatively little difficulty, only to be pounded by Axis artillery fire directed from neighboring hills, the 115th Panzergrenadier Regiment launched a failed offensive to retake the mountains, they were repelled by machine gun fire. For the next two days the men on Monte Basilio were pinned down by artillery fire, determined to hold Troina for as long as possible, the Germans reacted strongly to the threat the 26th Regiment posed to their line of communications. Axis pressure practically cut off the men on Monte Basilio from the rest of the 1st Division, by 5 August food and ammunition were low and casualties had greatly depleted the regiment, with one company mustering only seventeen men effective for duty. It was at point that the German infantry attacked again. James W. Reese moved his squad to a position from which he could effectively engage the advancing German infantry. The squad maintained a fire on the attackers until it began to run out of ammunition. With only three rounds left, Reese ordered his crew to the rear while he advanced to a new position
25.
Battle of Centuripe
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The Battle of Centuripe was fought from 2 to 4 August 1943, as part of the Allied invasion of Sicily during World War II. The battle focused around Centuripe which the German Wehrmacht had heavily fortified the town set on a very high rocky pinnacle and approached by only one steep. Centuripe itself was the key to the whole Adrano position and the capture of Adrano would in turn force the Germans to withdraw to new positions, the British troops captured the town after heavy fighting and as a result caused the Germans to start contemplating abandoning Sicily altogether. The lesser hills round it were well defended by the Germans, defending this position was the crack Hermann Göring Division, consisting mostly of the 3rd Fallschirmjäger Regiment as part of Kampfgruppe von Carnap under Ludwig Heilmann. As well as the regiment, the kampfgruppe consisted of an artillery regiment, Heilmann had replaced the commander Oberstleutenant Von Carnap after he had been killed by British artillery fire in late July. The 78th Battleaxe Infantry Division, under the command of Major-General Vyvyan Evelegh, assembled for a drive towards Catenanuova and to capture Centuripe as part of Operation Hardgate. Evelegh ordered Brigadier Nelson Russell, commander of the 38th Infantry Brigade, to take Centuripe, on the evening of August 1 the London Irish moved to a lying-up area in the wadis below the foothills of Centuripe. No transport was able to get forward and that meant that all ammunition, food, and other supplies had to be man-handled causing a delay. The job of the London Irish was to take three commanding hills, Points 704,611, and 703 behind Centuripe but it was not known in what strength they were held by the Germans. It was hoped that most of German attention would be to the main battle, throughout the night more men from 38th Brigade moved into the town to reinforce those already there. Finally the Germans launched another counterattack but this time it was weak, just before dawn on August 3 the whole of the environs including Centuripe fell to the Irish Brigade. The operation had been a one, in difficult country and chief credit for the success was due to the Inniskillings. The successful capture of Centuripe had caused the whole German line to Catania to crack and thus had to withdraw to a new position and this however had to be abandoned and soon plans were made to abandon the island of Sicily as a whole. The London Irish quickly reached high ground on the far side of the Salso, as dusk approached, two platoons of ‘G’ Company moved across the river with reserve ammunition, mortars, and machine-guns for the immediate support of the two other companies. That, however, was not an Irish Brigade task, for the two brigades of the 78th Division went through. From the afternoon of August 1 to nightfall on August 5 the Irish Brigade had advanced twenty-five miles fighting battles at Centuripe, Salso, the 1st Royal Irish Fusiliers, in the meantime, had captured Capella and Monte Maletto and cleared the village. The fall of Maletto and the subsequent rapid approach to Randazzo forced the Germans on their last hurried withdrawal to the sea. News of the capture of Centuripe was met with enthusiasm, General Bernard Montgomery, the British Eighth Army commander
26.
Operation Baytown
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The attack was made by Lieutenant-General Miles C. Dempseys British XIII Corps, which had under command the 1st Canadian Infantry Division, XIII Corps was part of the British Eighth Army, commanded by General Sir Bernard Montgomery. XIII Corps crossed the Straits of Messina from Sicily to Reggio di Calabria, the intent was to tie down German forces in the area and gain an Allied foothold at the toe of Italy. Montgomery had objected to Baytown as ineffective, but carried it out anyway, a single German regiment was left to defend 17 miles of coast. Montgomerys objections were proved correct, German troops refused battle and the Eighth Army tied down none of them, the main obstacle to the Allied advance was the terrain and German demolitions. Opposition to the landings was light, because the few German troops in the area rapidly withdrew northward. An exception was the 184th Airborne Division Nembo, which provided more determined resistance on the Aspromonte massif, but was eventually overcome on 8 September 1943. Operation Baytown was followed by Operation Slapstick, with the British 1st Airborne Division, and Operation Avalanche, both operations took place on 9 September, following the Italian surrender the day before. The surrender had been agreed on 3 September, but was not publicly announced until 8 September, Allied invasion of Italy Allied invasion of Italy order of battle Italian Campaign Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineers and Second World War
27.
Operation Avalanche
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The Allied invasion of Italy was the Allied amphibious landing on mainland Italy that took place on 3 September 1943 during the early stages of the Italian Campaign of World War II. The operation was undertaken by General Sir Harold Alexanders 15th Army Group, the main invasion force landed around Salerno on 9 September on the western coast in Operation Avalanche, while two supporting operations took place in Calabria and Taranto. Following the defeat of the Axis Powers in North Africa in May 1943, the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, in particular wanted to invade Italy, which in November 1942 he called the soft underbelly of the axis. Popular support in Italy for the war was declining, and he believed an invasion would remove Italy, in addition, it would tie down German forces. When it became clear that no cross-channel invasion of occupied France could be undertaken in 1943, it was agreed to invade Sicily, Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations, to go ahead at the earliest possible date. The Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943, codenamed Operation Husky, was successful, although many of the Axis forces managed to avoid capture. The Axis viewed this as a success, more importantly, in late July, a coup deposed Mussolini as head of the Italian government, which then began approaching the Allies to make peace. It was believed an invasion of Italy might hasten an Italian surrender. However, Italian resistance proved relatively strong, and fighting in Italy continued even after the fall of Berlin in April 1945. In addition, the left the Allies in a position of supplying food and supplies to conquered territory. As well, Italy occupied by a hostile German army would have created problems for the German Commander-in-Chief. The short distance from Sicily meant landing craft could launch from there directly, montgomery was strongly opposed to Operation Baytown. He was proved correct, after Operation Baytown the British Eighth Army marched 300 miles north to the Salerno area against no other than engineering obstacles. Plans for the use of Allied airborne forces took several forms, the initial plan to land glider-borne troops in the mountain passes of the Sorrento Peninsula above Salerno was abandoned 12 August. Six days later it was replaced by Operation Giant, in two regiments of the U. S. 82nd Airborne Division would seize and hold crossings over the Volturno River. The main landings were scheduled to take place on 9 September and it would consist of the U. S. Its primary objectives were to seize the port of Naples to ensure resupply, the naval task force of warships, merchant ships and landing craft totaling 627 vessels came under the command of Vice Admiral Henry K. Hewitt. However, with the signing of the armistice with the Italians on 3 September the picture changed, the airborne division, which was undergoing training exercises in two locations 640 kilometres apart, was ordered on 4 September to embark on 8 September
28.
Operation Slapstick
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Operation Slapstick was the code name for a British landing from the sea at the Italian port of Taranto during the Second World War. Planned at short notice, the followed a offer by the Italian government to open the ports of Taranto. The airborne division was selected to undertake the mission, but at the time they were located in North Africa, instead, the division had to be transported across the Mediterranean by ships of the Royal Navy. The landing was unopposed and the division successfully captured the ports of Taranto. The only German forces in the area were elements of the 1st Parachute Division, eventually, by the end of September, the British 1st Airborne Division advanced 125 miles to Foggia. Reinforcements from two divisions had by then been landed behind them, which allowed the airborne troops to be withdrawn to Taranto. Soon after, the division, minus the 2nd Parachute Brigade, sailed for England in preparation for Operation Overlord, in May 1943, the Axis powers of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy were defeated in the North African Campaign. Two months later, the Allied powers of Great Britain and the United States, successfully launched their invasion of Sicily, the island being completely occupied by the end of August, the Allies next turned their attention to the invasion of Italy. The main invasion was planned for 9 September, with the U. S, fifth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Mark Clark, landing at Salerno on the western coast in Operation Avalanche, with Naples as their immediate objective. The Allies hoped that the invasion would persuade the Italian forces to surrender, if they did, the five Italian divisions in France and the twenty-nine in the Balkans would have to be replaced by German formations. Also, if the Germans then decided to continue the fight in Italy, during secret surrender negotiations with the Allies in early September, the Italian government offered to open the ports of Taranto and Brindisi on the eastern coast. German forces in area were very weak and would be expected to withdraw rather than fight if the Allies landed there. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean, quickly planned a landing, codenamed Slapstick. Slapstick was in part an operation of deception, to divert German forces away from the main Allied landings at Salerno on the day, while also attempting to capture Taranto. The main value of Taranto was its large port and its seizure would, with the expected capture of Naples in the west by the Americans, give the Allies supply points on both Italian coasts. Taranto is the city of the Province of Taranto in the region of Apulia and has a large harbor. It includes the two islets of St. Peter and St. Paul, which protect the bay, called the Mar Grande, after the unification of Italy, Taranto became the main base of the Italian Navy. The military port was located in another bay, the Mar Piccolo, in November 1940, the Royal Navy attacked the naval base in Taranto, sinking some Italian battleships
29.
Armistice of Cassibile
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It was signed at a conference of generals from both sides in an Allied military camp at Cassibile in Sicily, which had recently been occupied by the Allies. The armistice was approved by both King Victor Emmanuel III and Italian Prime Minister Pietro Badoglio, the armistice stipulated the surrender of Italy to the Allies. After its publication, Germany retaliated against Italy, attacking Italian forces in Italy, South of France, Italian forces were quickly defeated and most of Italy was occupied by German troops, while the King, the government and most of the navy reached territories occupied by the Allies. Following the surrender of the Axis powers in North Africa on 13 May 1943 and these moves by Mussolini were described as slightly hostile acts to the king, who had been growing increasingly critical of the war. To help carry out his plan, the King asked for the assistance of Dino Grandi. Grandi was one of the members of the Fascist hierarchy and, in his younger years. The King was also motivated by the suspicion that Grandis ideas about Fascism might be changed abruptly, various ambassadors, including Pietro Badoglio himself, proposed to him the vague possibility of succeeding Mussolini as dictator. The conspirators devised an Order of the Day for the reunion of the Grand Council of Fascism which contained a proposal to restore direct control of politics to the king. Following the Council, held on 23 July 1943, where the order of the day was adopted by majority vote, Mussolini was summoned to meet the King, upon leaving the meeting, Mussolini was arrested by carabinieri and spirited off to the island of Ponza. Badoglio took the position of Prime Minister and this went against what had been promised to Grandi, who had been told that another general of greater personal and professional qualities would have taken the place of Mussolini. The appointment of Badoglio apparently did not change the position of Italy as Germanys ally in the war, however, many channels were being probed to seek a peace treaty with the Allies. Meanwhile, Hitler sent several divisions south of the Alps, officially to help defend Italy from allied landings, three Italian generals were separately sent to Lisbon in order to contact Allied diplomats. In the end, Castellano was admitted to speak with the Allied diplomats in order to set the conditions for the surrender of Italy. To ease communication between the Allies and the Italian Government, a captured British SOE agent, Dick Mallaby, was released from Verona prison and secretly moved to the Quirinale. It was vital that the Germans remained ignorant of any suggestion of Italian surrender, Badoglio still considered it possible to gain favourable conditions in exchange for the surrender. He ordered Castellano to insist that any surrender of Italy was subordinate to a landing of Allied troops on the Italian mainland. On 31 August General Castellano reached Termini Imerese, in Sicily, by plane and was transferred to Cassibile. It soon became obvious that the two sides in the negotiations had adopted rather distant positions, Castellano pressed the request that the Italian territory be defended from the inevitable reaction of the German Wehrmacht against Italy after the signing
30.
Operation Achse
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Operation Achse, originally called Operation Alaric, was the codename for the German plan to forcibly disarm the Italian armed forces after the armistice with the Allied forces in 1943. The Armistice of Cassibile was made public on 8 September, German forces moved rapidly to take over the Italian zones of occupation in the Balkans and southern France, and to disarm Italian forces in Italy. Additionally, individual soldiers or whole units, like the 24th Pinerolo Division in Thessaly, only in Sardinia, Corsica, Calabria and in the southern part of Apulia were Italian troops able to offer successful resistance and hold off the Germans until relieved by the arrival of Allied forces. The first German combat units were sent to Italy to bolster its defenses against a probable Allied attack on Italian soil while Germany and they would be the Sardinia Command, the Sicily Command, and a ready reserve. Adolf Hitler wrote to a dubious Benito Mussolini that since they were weak units that needed reinforcements, the Fallschirm-Panzer Division 1 Hermann Göring arrived mid-May 1943 and was sent to Sicily, and the 16th Panzer Division arrived in early June and was sent west of Bari. On 19 May also, the headquarters of general Hans Hubes 14th Panzerkorps was also sent from France to strengthen the structure of the Oberbefehlshaber Süd field marshal Albert Kesselring. On 20 May 1943, during a discussion at his headquarters, Hitler expressed his doubts about the politic stability of the Fascist government. On 21 May, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, the head of the OKW, meanwhile, German reserves kept being redeployed to face potential threats in the Mediterranean theater. On 17 June Mussolini, after a refusal, urgently asked for two German armoured divisions, as a reinforcement to confront the powerful Allied forces. The last of them was deployed at Salerno on 9 July, the 29th Panzergrenadier Division was sent to Foggia in mid-June and the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division was deployed north of Rome in the first days of July. Meanwhile, on 24 June, the Reichsführer-SS Brigade had been moved to Corsica, and in mid-July, the Allied invasion of Sicily began on 10 July 1943, and established solid beachheads, despite Italian and German counterattacks. The political and military leaders of the two countries reacted immediately to the worsening situation, in Rome, Ambrosio urged unrealistic demands for help from Germany on Mussolini. Among the German commanders in Italy, Eberhard von Mackensen and Albert Kesselring became increasingly skeptical about Italian defense capabilities, on 17 July, Hitler decided to meet with Mussolini and his collaborators, and assess their resolve to continue the war. The meeting was near Feltre on 19 July 1943, the Feltre meeting had little use. Moreover, Hitler gave a view of the situation and refused the sweeping Italian requests for more land and air support, mentioning technical. After the meeting, Hitler was convinced that he had lifted Mussolini’s morale, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel had been put in charge of forces being organized in Bavaria for intervention in case of Italys defection. Rommel was worried about the fate of German troops in Sicily and southern Italy, but Hitler ignored warnings from Rommel. On 21 July, Hitler decided to suspend the planning of Alaric, on 25 July, before he learned of the fall of Mussolini, Hitler sent six Heer divisions to Italy, including a panzer division, and three Waffen-SS divisions
31.
Four days of Naples
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The Four days of Naples refers to the popular uprising in the Italian city of Naples between 27 and 30 September 1943 against the German forces occupying the city during World War II. From 1940–43, Naples suffered heavy Allied bombing raids, which caused much damage, the citys artistic and cultural heritage also suffered damage, such as the partial destruction of the Chiesa di Santa Chiara on 4 December 1942. With the Allied advance in southern Italy, anti-Fascists in the Naples area began to establish contacts with the Allied commanders. From 8 September 1943, the day in which the Cassibile armistice came into force, things there were already difficult, thanks to the unceasing bombing raids and the imbalance in forces. The situation in Naples soon turned into chaos, with many higher officials deserting the city and those escaping included Riccardo Pentimalli and Ettore Del Tetto, the generals entrusted with military responsibility for Naples, who fled in civilian clothing. Del Tettos last actions before fleeing had been to hand the city over to the German army and to publish a decree banning assemblies and authorising the military to fire on those who flouted that ban. Even so, sporadic but bloody attempts at resistance arose throughout the Zanzur Barracks, as far as the Carabinieri barracks at Pastrengo, on 9 September, some citizens met with German troops at Palazzo dei Telefoni, managing to escape, and in Via Santa Brigida. This latter episode involved a Carabiniere, who opened fire to defend a shop from German soldiers attempting to loot it, the retaliation for the Piazza del Plebiscito clashes came quickly, the Germans set fire to the National Library and opened fire on the crowd that gathered there. On 12 September, numerous soldiers were killed on the streets of Naples, while about 4,000 Italian soldiers and civilians were deported for forced labor. An announcement of the prefect on 22 September decreed compulsory labor for all men from 18–33 years of age and set their forced deportation to camps in northern Italy. The population refused to collaborate and rose up, every single citizen who behaves calmly will enjoy my protection. On the other hand, anyone who openly or surreptitiously acts against the German armed forces will be executed, moreover, the home of the miscreant and its immediate surroundings will be destroyed and reduced to ruins. Every German soldier wounded or murdered will be avenged a hundred times, I order a curfew from 8 pm to 6 am. Only in case of alarm will it be allowed to use the road in order to reach the nearest shelter, a state of siege is proclaimed. Within 24 hours all weapons and ammunition of any kind, including shotguns, hand grenades, anyone who, after that period, is found in possession of a weapon will be immediately executed. The delivery of weapons and ammunition shall be made to the German military patrols, people must keep calm and act reasonably. A young sailor was executed on the stairs of the headquarters, on the same day,500 people were also forcibly deported to Teverola, near Caserta, and forced to watch the execution of 14 policemen, who had offered armed resistance to the occupying forces. Almost simultaneously, a manifesto from the citys prefect called for work from all males between the ages of 18 and 30, in practice a forced deportation to labor camps in Germany
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Bombing of the Vatican
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Bombing of Vatican City occurred twice during World War II. The first occasion was on the evening of 5 November 1943, the second bombing, which affected only the outer margin of the city, was at about the same hour on 1 March 1944, and caused the death of one person and the injury of another. Vatican City State was neutral throughout the war, both Allied and Axis aircraft crews were generally commanded to respect its neutrality even when bombing Rome. On 25 July 1943, after Allied forces had conquered the Italian possessions in Africa and had taken Sicily, the Fascist Grand Council removed Benito Mussolini from power. The Kingdom of Italy at first remained an ally of Nazi Germany, both bombings occurred while Rome was under German occupation. An undated eyewitness account written by Monsignor Domenico Tardini in 1944 states and it was a very clear and cloudless evening. For over half an hour an aeroplane was heard circling insistently over Rome, at about 8,10, while an Allied squadron passed over the Vatican, the aeroplane that until then had been circling over Rome dropped four bombs and flew away. If they had fallen a few metres off, they would have hit the Radio, the Government building, that of the Tribunals. They caused considerable damage, for all the windows were blown to pieces, the future cardinal Tardini continued, General opinion, and general indignation, blamed the Germans and, perhaps more, the Republican Fascists. The latter view was reinforced by notes about a conversation of Barracu that a telephone operator gave to the Holy Father. 5 November is for England, Father Hughes told me, an anti-Pope day, Monsignor Carroll did not know whether the delinquent had been punished. Perhaps we will know, when the war is over, what really happened, the message from Monsignor Walter S. Carroll that Monsignor Tardini spoke of as addressed to Monsignor Montini was in reality addressed to Cardinal Secretary of State Luigi Maglione. The German and British authorities gave similar assurances regarding aircraft of their countries, aware that the bombs used were British, the British pointed out that this proved nothing as they could have been taken from captured ordinance and used for precisely that purpose. Augusto Ferraras 2010 book 1943 Bombe sul Vaticano, declares that the attack was orchestrated by leading Italian Fascist politician, the aim was to knock out Vatican Radio, which was suspected of sending coded message to the Allies. The aircraft that delivered the bombs was a SIAI Marchetti S. M.79, a three-engined Italian medium bomber known as the Sparviero, which had taken off from Viterbo, some 80 kilometres north of Rome. One piece of evidence on which Ferrara bases his account of the responsibility of Farinacci was a call from a priest called Giuseppe to the Jesuit Pietro Tacchi Venturi. In Ferraras account, five bombs were dropped, of one did not explode. The 2007 book Venti angeli sopra Roma by Cesare De Simone speaks of an admission of responsibility by the RAF in the postwar period
33.
Volturno Line
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The Volturno Line was a German defensive position in Italy during the Italian Campaign of World War II. The line ran from Termoli in the east, along the Biferno River through the Apennine Mountains to the Volturno River in the west. Following the Allied invasion of Italy in September 1943 the German forces set up a series of lines across Italy. The Volturno Line was the southernmost of these, by late morning, the two elements had linked up and that night 78th Divisions 36th Brigade were able to be landed by sea at Termoli. As more German armour arrived, the Allied troops across the Biferno were forced onto the defensive, by the afternoon of 5 October, they had been squeezed back to within.5 mi of Termoli. However, at the same time frantic round the clock efforts by engineers had resulted in a heavyweight Bailey bridge being completed allowing Canadian and that evening, 78th Divisions 38th Brigade arrived by sea at Termoli and the German attack the following morning was narrowly repulsed in desperate fighting. By late morning on 6 October, the Allies were on the attack and by afternoon the Germans had started to fall back to the next prepared defences on the River Trigno. On the other coast, the U. S, fifth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, attacked across the Volturno on the night of 12 October. The Germans using rearguard tactics skillfully using the terrain which was favourable for defence, Italy and the Battle for Rome 1944. From the Volturno to the Winter Line 6 October-15 November 1943, washington, United States Army Center of Military History. Smith, Col. Kenneth V. Naples-Foggia 9 September 1943-21 January 1944, washington, United States Army Center of Military History. Allied invasion of Italy Gustav Line Barbara Line British Eighth Army U. S
34.
Barbara Line
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Near the eastern coast, it ran along the line of the Trigno river. The line mostly consisted of fortified hilltop positions, generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring—German commander-in-chief Italy- ordered his forces to retreat to the Barbara Line on 12 October 1943 after the U. S. Fifth Army crossed the Volturno River, breaching the Volturno defensive line, by early November the Barbara Line on the Tyrrhenian Sea side of the Apennine Mountains had been breached by the U. S. Fifth Army, and the German Forces fell back to the Bernhardt Line, on the Adriatic front east of the Apennine Mountain spine was the British Eighth Army under General Bernard Montgomery. In October Eighth Army had crossed the Bifurno river and the British Eighth Army had broken the Viktor/Volturno Line defences on 6 October, delayed by these logistical problems, the Allies were not able to attack the next line of defences behind the Trigno river immediately. It therefore was not until the hours of 2 November that the V Corps on the right of the front on the coast. On the V Corps front, British 78th Infantry Division attacked along the road while 8th Indian Infantry Division attacked some 10 mi inland. Forward elements of Eighth Army moved to contact with the forward defenses of the German Winter Line on the high ground north of the Sangro River. The Allies were able to move forward without opposition and the Allied advance reached the Sangro on 9 November, Allied invasion of Italy Italian Campaign British Eighth Army U. S. Fifth Army Volturno Line Bernhardt Line Battle of San Pietro Infine Gustav Line Gothic Line Carver, the Imperial War Museum Book of the War in Italy 1943–1945. From the Volturno to the Winter Line 6 October-15 November 1943, washington, United States Army Center of Military History. Smith, Col. Kenneth V. Naples-Foggia 9 September 1943-21 January 1944, washington, United States Army Center of Military History
35.
Air raid on Bari
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The air raid on Bari was an air attack by German bombers on Allied forces and shipping in Bari, Italy on 2 December 1943 during World War II. The attack lasted a little more than one hour and put the port out of action until February 1944, the release of mustard gas from one of the wrecked cargo ships added to the loss of life. The British and US governments covered up the presence of mustard gas, on 11 September 1943 the port of Bari in southern Italy was taken without resistance by the British 1st Airborne Division. The port then served as an important logistics hub for Allied forces, Bari had inadequate air defences, no Royal Air Force fighter aircraft squadrons were based there, and fighters within range were assigned to escort or offensive duties, not port defence. Little thought was given to the possibility of a German air raid on Bari and he said, I would consider it as a personal insult if the enemy should send so much as one plane over the city. This was despite the fact that German air raids, partially executed by KG54 and KG76, hit the Naples port area four times in the previous month, thirty ships of American, British, Polish, Norwegian and Dutch registry were in Bari Harbour on 2 December. The adjoining port city held a population of 250,000. The port was lit on the night of the raid to expedite the unloading of supplies supporting Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Monte Cassino and was working at full capacity. On the afternoon of 2 December, Luftwaffe pilot Werner Hahn made a flight over Bari in a Messerschmitt Me 210. His report resulted in Albert Kesselring ordering the raid, Kesselring and his planners had earlier considered Allied airfields at Foggia as targets, but the Luftwaffe lacked the resources to attack such a large complex of targets. Generalfeldmarschall Wolfram von Richthofen—who commanded Luftflotte 2—had suggested Bari as an alternative, richthofen believed that crippling the port might slow the advance of the British Eighth Army. The Ju 88 pilots were ordered to fly east to the Adriatic Sea, then swing south and west, the attack opened at 19,25, when two or three German aircraft circled the harbour at 10,000 ft dropping Düppel to confuse Allied radar. They also dropped flares, which were not needed due to the harbour being well illuminated, the German bomber force obtained complete surprise and was able to bomb the harbour and its contents with great accuracy. Hits on two ammunition ships caused explosions which shattered windows 7 mi away, a bulk petrol pipeline on a quay was severed and the gushing fuel ignited. A sheet of burning fuel spread over much of the harbor, twenty-eight merchant ships laden with more than 34,000 short tons of cargo were sunk or destroyed, three ships carrying a further 7,500 short tons were later salvaged. The port was closed for three weeks and was restored to full operation in February 1944. All Bari-based submarines were undamaged, their tough exteriors able to withstand the German attack, one of the destroyed vessels—the U. S. Liberty ship John Harvey—had been carrying a cargo of 2000 M47A1 mustard gas bombs
36.
Winter Line
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The Winter Line was a series of German military fortifications in Italy, constructed during World War II by Organisation Todt and commanded by Albert Kesselring. The series of 3 lines was designed to defend a western section of Italy, focused around the town of Monte Cassino, through which ran the important Highway 6 which led uninterrupted to Rome. The two subsidiary lines, the Bernhardt Line and the Hitler Line ran much shorter distances from the Tyrrehnian sea to just North East of Cassino where they would merge into the Gustav Line. Relative to the Gustav Line, the Hitler Line stood to the North-West, the Gustav Line, though ultimately broken, effectively slowed the Allied advance for months between December 1943 and June 1944. Major battles in the assault on the Winter Line at Monte Cassino, the center of the Gustav line crossed the main route north to Rome at strategically crucial Highway 6. It followed the Liri Valley and was anchored around the mountains behind the town of Cassino, a bloody and protracted battle was waged over the monastery, known as the Battle of Monte Cassino. The north end of the line was held by the town of Ortona. On the western side of the Apennines were two lines, the Bernhardt Line in front of the main Gustav positions, and the Hitler Line some 5 miles to the rear. The Winter Line was fortified with gun pits, concrete bunkers, turreted machine-gun emplacements, barbed-wire and it was the strongest of the German defensive lines south of Rome. About 15 German divisions were employed in the defence and it took the Allies from mid-November 1943 to June 1944 to fight through all the various elements of the Winter Line, including the well-known battles at Monte Cassino and Anzio. The offensive on the Bernhardt line was launched on December 1,1943 as part of Operation Raincoat. British and American troops took the terrain around Monte Camino and the Mingano Gap within a week, other authorities use the Winter Line name interchangeably with the Gustav Line as defined above. Washington, United States Army Center of Military History, from the Volturno to the Winter Line 6 October-15 November 1943. Washington, United States Army Center of Military History, smith, Col. Kenneth V. WWII Campaigns, Naples-Foggia 9 September 1943-21 January 1944. Washington, United States Army Center of Military History, German Tactics in the Italian Campaign. La Tattica tedesca nella Campagna dItalia, in Linea Gotica avanposto dei Balcani, roma, Amedeo Montemaggi - Edizioni Civitas. The Imperial War Museum Book of the War in Italy 1943-1945, hitler’s Fortresses, German Fortifications and Defences 1939-45. Winter Line Stories Original stories from the front lines of the Italian Campaign by US Army Liaison Officer Major Ralph R
37.
Bernhardt Line
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The Bernhardt Line was a German defensive line in Italy during the Italian Campaign of World War II. Having reached the Bernhardt Line at the start of December 1943, Fifth Army to fight their way to the next line of defences, the Gustav Line. The line was defended by XIV Panzer Corps, part of the German Tenth Army, however, the defences of the Gustav Line on the Adriatic are sometimes referred to as the Bernhardt Line and the battles for this part of the line are included in this entry. The Bernhardt line was not as strong as the Gustav Line and was intended only to delay the Allies arrival at the Gustav Line, together with the Gustav Line and the Hitler Line, it made up the German Winter Line defences. Following the Allied invasion of Italy in September 1943, the Italian government had surrendered, Alexander had three possible alternatives to reach the Italian capital of Rome. On the Adriatic front he could advance to Pescara and then use Route 5 which traversed the country to Rome on the other coast. Alternatively, on the side of the Apennines, highway 7 followed along the west coast. Finally, highway 6 ran in the direction, but further inland. The German forces in Italy were commanded by Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, the defence of the Winter Line was the task of the German 10th Army under the temporary command of Lieutenant-General Joachim Lemelsen. The Allied Armies in Italy, formerly designated the 15th Army Group, were commanded by General Alexander, under his command were two field armies, to the left, on the western side of Italy, was the U. S. Fifth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, the Fifth Army consisted of American, British and French units. On 3 October, a battalion of the British Eighth Armys 78th Infantry Division had crossed the Bifurno river to confront the German Volturno-Viktor Line defences, by 6 October, the Germans were withdrawing to new defensive positions behind the Trigno river, the Barbara Line. At the Trigno, Eighth Army were obliged to pause because it had outrun its supply chain which stretched back over poor roads to the ports of Bari. Port and transport capacity had also affected by the logistic requirements of the Allied air force. The Eighth Army attacked across the Trigno on 2 November, by the next day, the German position had been turned and the Germans commenced a fighting withdrawal to the forward Winter-Line positions they were preparing on the ridges behind the Sangro River. The Eighth Armys forward units had reached the Sangro on 9 November, Alexander had planned for Montgomery to strike across the river on its coastal plain on 20 November with the V Corps. In secrecy, Montgomery shifted the Indian division to the right to narrow the V Corps front and concentrate its power, bringing the newly arrived 2nd New Zealand Division into the gap. Eighth Army also devised a scheme involving false troop movements
38.
Battle for Monte la Difensa
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Monte La Difensa, was one of the peaks forming the Camino hill mass which formed the left-hand gatepost dominating the Mignano Gap, key to the U. S. Fifth Armys route to Cassino and the Liri valley and thence to Rome, the mountain itself had become a stalemate for American and British troops because of the defenses employed by the German troops, part of the Bernhardt Line. The action was the first combat in the Italian theatre for the US-Canadian commando unit 1st Special Service Force and they were attached to the U. S. 36th Infantry Division. The 1st SSF used the training that they had received in winter and mountain warfare to scale the mountain. The cost for both sides was high though, the 1st Special Service Forces suffered a 77% casualty rate, but distinguished themselves by doing the seemingly impossible. After a pause to regroup the U. S, the successful assault on Difensa was the climax for the 1968 motion picture The Devils Brigade. Part 2 of the series WW2 Greatest Raids called Mountain Massacre was broadcast by National Geographic, Bernhardt Line Winter Line Fifth Army at the Winter Line 15 November 1943 -15 January 1944. Washington, United States Army Center of Military History
39.
Battle of San Pietro Infine
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The eventual Allied victory in the battle was crucial in the ultimate drive to the north to liberate Rome. The battle is remembered as the first in which the troops of the Royal Italian Army fought as co-belligerents of the Allies following the armistice with Italy. The original town of San Pietro Infine was destroyed in the battle, the Allied invasion of Italy from the south followed the Allied successes in North Africa. The invasion was launched by the American Seventh Army, under Lieutenant General George S. Patton, Jr. both armies were under the command of the 15th Army Group, commanded by General Sir Harold Alexander. Over the next five weeks,500,000 Allied soldiers, sailors, although the Allied powers were victorious, the Axis managed to evacuate over 100,000 men and 10,000 vehicles from Sicily across the Straits of Messina during the first seventeen days in August. The Allies then invaded the Italian mainland in early September 1943 at Salerno, in Calabria, on 8 September, before the main invasion at Salerno by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clarks U. S. Fifth Army, the surrender of Italy to the Allies was announced, Italian units ceased combat, and the Royal Italian Navy sailed to Allied ports to surrender. This changed the German defensive strategy greatly, and the Germans now regarded their former allies as enemies and moved to disarm Italian units, the invasion at Salerno was ultimately successful, although the Allies sustained heavy casualties, and subsequently captured nearby Naples on 1 October. German forces then withdrew to the north, towards Rome, by late 1943 the fighting had reached the Winter Line. The German Commander-in-Chief Albert Kesselring—had marked out the Winter Line as three parallel defensive systems to the south of Rome, the Reinhard was actually a southern bulge in the stronger Gustav line to the north. The Germans occupied San Pietro in September 1943 to prepare the defenses and they set up a defensive apparatus in the whole territory, in particular on Mount Sambúcaro and Mount Lungo, which overlooked the Mignano Gap. These were strategically important positions because they allowed the control of the stretch of Route 6. The Fifth Army began to attack the Reinhard/Bernhardt Line on 5 November, the Battle of San Pietro was preceded by Allied attacks on the Camino hill mass at the entrance to the Mignano Gap. The entire hill mass is about 10 km long and 6 kilometres wide, after that, the main Allied effort was against the German defenses on Mount Sambúcaro and Mount Lungo, which dominated the narrow valley on the northeast and southwest respectively. The direct attack on the German positions in and around San Pietro began on 8 December by Major General Geoffrey Keyes II Corps of the Fifth Army. The positions were defended by two battalion sized elements of the 15th Panzer Grenadier Division and a battalion of the 71st Infantrie Division, the U. S. 36th Division, then planned a further effort for 15 December. In the center, the 141st Infantry would attack San Pietro itself, the main attack of the 36th Division started at 12,00 on 15 December. In an effort to break the German defenses in the town, the armored attack failed due to mines and anti-tank fire
40.
Moro River Campaign
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The Moro River Campaign was an important battle of the Italian Campaign during the Second World War, fought between elements of the British Eighth Army and LXXVI Panzer Corps of the German 10th Army. Lasting from 4–26 December 1943, the campaign occurred primarily in the vicinity of the Moro River in eastern Italy, after being held at the Gully for 10 days, the Canadians succeeded in outflanking German defences, and forcing a German withdrawal to the Ortona–Orsogna Line. On 20 December, the line was attacked by both corps, by 26 December, strong German defences had stalled Canadian forces in Ortona and British and New Zealand forces in Orsogna. Although both Ortona and Villa Grande were captured by the end of December, general exhaustion among the Allied forces prevented the capture of Orsogna and an advance to Pescara. When harsh winter weather set in, it clear to the Allied commanders that no further progress would be made. East of the Apennine Mountain spine was the British Eighth Army, in October, the Eighth Army had crossed the Bifurno river and pushed the German defenders from the Volturno-Viktor Line defences. Delayed by logistical problems, they were not able to attack the line of defences behind the Trigno river until 2 November. However, by 9 November forward elements of the Eighth Army were in contact with the defences of the German Winter Line. After several days of fighting, the Germans withdrew to the defences they had prepared on the high ground to the north of the Moro river. The Moro River runs from the central spine of Italy to the Adriatic coast south of Ortona. The German defences on the Moro were a centerpiece of the Winter Line, Montgomery hoped to punch through the Winter Line, capture Ortona and Pescara and advance to Rome. The 78th Infantry Division was sent into the mountains on the relatively quiet left wing of the army, montgomerys plan was for the 1st Canadian Division to attack across the Moro in the coastal lowlands to take Ortona first and then Pescara. Together, these units formed Traugott Herr′s LXXVI Panzer Corps, the part of Joachim Lemelsens 10th Army responsible for the front line to the east of the Apennines. On 6 December 1943, Canadian forces began a series of assaults on major crossing points along the Moro River with the objective of securing a large bridgehead along the defensive line. Three primary points of attack were chosen, Villa Rogatti, along the edge of the Canadian sector, San Leonardo,5 km south of Ortona, and San Donato. Five primary infantry battalions were selected to assault these positions with the objective of crossing the Moro River, the offensives were scheduled to start on the morning of 6 December. The task of taking Villa Rogatti, the westernmost crossing point, was given to Princess Patricias Canadian Light Infantry, elements of three German regiments—the 200th and 361st Panzergrenadier, and 26th Panzer—maintained strong defences within the town. At 00,00 on 5 December, two companies of the PPCLI crossed the Moro River, moving towards Villa Rogatti, within an hour, vicious fighting had erupted throughout the town as the two companies of Canadian infantry struggled to break the German defensive lines
41.
Battle of Ortona
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The battle took place in the small Adriatic Sea town of Ortona, with a peacetime population of 10,000. The British Eighth Armys offensive on the Winter Line defences east of the Apennine mountains had commenced on 23 November with the crossing of the river Sangro. Allied forces were ordered to maintain the offensive, and going through the built up areas in, Ortona was part of the Winter Line defence system and the Germans had constructed a series of skilfully designed interlocking defensive positions in the town. This—together with the fact that the Germans had been ordered to fight for every last house, the Canadians faced elements of the renowned German 1st Parachute Division. These soldiers were battle-hardened after many years of war, and were ordered by Adolf Hitler to defend Ortona at any cost. The initial Canadian attack on the town was made on 20 December by Canadian 2nd Brigades Loyal Edmonton Regiment with elements of the Seaforth Highlanders of Canada under command. The Germans also concealed various machine guns and anti-tank emplacements throughout the town, making movement by armour, the house to house fighting was vicious and the Canadians made use of a new tactic, mouse-holing. This tactic involved using weapons such as the PIAT to breach the walls of a building, the soldiers would then throw in grenades and assault through the mouse holes, clearing the top floors and making their way down, where both adversaries struggled in repeated close-quarters combat. Mouse-holing was also used to pierce through walls into adjoining rooms, the tactic would be used repeatedly as assaulting through the streets inflicted heavy casualties on both Canadian and German troops. Later, in a deadly incident, German Fallschirmjäger engineer Karl Bayerlein demolished an entire house packed with Canadian soldiers. After six days of combat, 2nd Brigades third battalion, Princess Patricias Canadian Light Infantry, on 28 December, after eight days of fighting, the depleted German troops—who lacked reinforcements—finally withdrew from the town. The Canadians suffered 1,375 dead during the Moro River battles of which Ortona was a part and this represented almost a quarter of all Canadians killed during the entire Italian Campaign. Ortona, Canadas epic World War II battle
42.
Battle of Rapido River
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The Battle of Rapido River was fought from 20 to 22 January 1944 in the course of the Battle of Monte Cassino, part of the Italian Campaign of World War II. Despite its name, the battle occurred on the Gari river. S, 36th Infantry Division, commanded by Major General Fred Walker. The Americans suffered very high losses and after two days of fighting the survivors retreated back across the river, two regiments were wiped out in the failed attack. He hoped to destroy the German armies there and build on the success in the direction of Southeast Europe to anticipate the arrival of the Soviet Red Army. The Allied advance through Italy bogged down around Monte Cassino, which was a point in the Axis defensive positions known as the Winter Line. As a result, Allied commanders planned to outflank the Germans with Operation Shingle, to assist in the landing, Allied forces to the South were to launch attacks in the days leading up to Operation Shingle by seizing German positions across the Garigliano and Rapido rivers. It was hoped that German forces would be away from Anzio to counter these attacks. After the barrage, the 141st and 143rd Infantry Regiments were ordered to cross the river, two rifle companies of the 143rd successfully crossed the river, but German return fire resulted in the loss of too many men and landing boats, and their foothold was abandoned. The 141st fared even worse, being forced to withdraw with heavy casualties after landing in a minefield, on the next day, both regiments were ordered to perform another attack at 16,00. Without the bridges, armor could not assist in the attack, after more than 20 hours of fruitless combat, both were ordered to withdraw. The 143rd was able to withdraw intact, but much of the 141st was not so lucky as, being stranded, their boats. The German defenders mounted a counterattack against the trapped Americans, capturing many hundreds, the Commanding General of the 36th Division, Major General Walker, decided against committing the divisions last regiment, the 142nd Infantry, and the battle concluded at 21,40 on January 22. No significant gains had been made in either assault, and the objective of luring away German forces was entirely unsuccessful. Battle of Monte Cassino Battle of Anzio Fred L. Walker Mark W. Clark citations Sources Schultz, Winter Line Stories Original stories from the front lines of the Italian Campaign by US Army Liaison Officer Major Ralph R. Hotchkiss
43.
Battle of Monte Cassino
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The Battle of Monte Cassino was a costly series of four assaults by the Allies against the Winter Line in Italy held by Axis forces during the Italian Campaign of World War II. The intention was a breakthrough to Rome, at the beginning of 1944, the western half of the Winter Line was being anchored by Germans holding the Rapido-Gari, Liri and Garigliano valleys and some of the surrounding peaks and ridges. Together, these formed the Gustav Line. Monte Cassino, a historic hilltop abbey founded in AD529 by Benedict of Nursia, dominated the town of Cassino. Lying in a historic zone, it had been left unoccupied by the Germans. They had manned some positions set into the slopes below the abbeys walls. Repeated pinpoint artillery attacks on Allied assault troops caused their leaders to conclude the abbey was being used by the Germans as an observation post, fears escalated along with casualties and in spite of a lack of clear evidence, it was marked for destruction. On 15 February American bombers dropped 1,400 tons of high explosives, the raid failed to achieve its objective, as German paratroopers occupied the rubble and established excellent defensive positions amid the ruins. Between 17 January and 18 May, Monte Cassino and the Gustav defences were assaulted four times by Allied troops, the German defenders were finally driven from their positions, but at a high cost. The capture of Monte Cassino resulted in 55,000 Allied casualties, with German losses being far fewer, estimated at around 20,000 killed and wounded. On the western front, the American Fifth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clarks Fifth Army made slow progress in the face of difficult terrain, wet weather, the original estimates that Rome would fall by October 1943 proved far too optimistic. Highway 6 ran through the Liri valley, dominated at its entrance by the rugged mass of Monte Cassino above the town of Cassino. Excellent observation from the peaks of several hills allowed the German defenders to detect Allied movement and direct highly accurate artillery fire, preventing any northward advance. Running across the Allied line was the fast flowing Rapido River, there the Liri river joined the Gari to form the Garigliano River, which continued on to the sea. Nevertheless, some Allied reconnaissance aircraft maintained they observed German troops inside the monastery. The main central thrust by the U. S. II Corps would commence on 20 January with the U. S. 36th Infantry Division making an assault across the swollen Gari river five miles downstream of Cassino. Simultaneously the French Expeditionary Corps, under General Alphonse Juin would continue its right hook move towards Monte Cairo, VI Corps, under Major General John P. Lucas, was due to make an amphibious landing on 22 January. The intelligence assessment of Allied prospects was therefore over-optimistic and they hardly had time to prepare the new assault, let alone take the rest and reorganization they really needed after three months of attritional fighting north from Naples
44.
Battle of Anzio
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The operation was opposed by German forces in the area of Anzio and Nettuno. Any delay could result in the occupation of the mountains by the defenders, Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, commander of the U. S. Fifth Army, understood that risk, but Clark did not pass on his appreciation of the situation to his subordinate, Lucas, the initial landing achieved complete surprise with no opposition and a jeep patrol even made it as far as the outskirts of Rome. While Lucas consolidated, Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, the German commander in the Italian theatre and his artillery units had a clear view of every Allied position. The Germans also stopped the pumps and flooded the reclaimed marsh with salt water, planning to entrap the Allies. For weeks a rain of shells fell on the beach, the marsh, the harbour, after a month of heavy but inconclusive fighting, Lucas was relieved and sent home. His replacement was Major General Lucian K. Truscott, who had commanded the U. S. 3rd Infantry Division. The Allies broke out in May, at the end of 1943, following the Allied invasion of Italy, Allied forces were bogged down at the Gustav Line, a defensive line across Italy south of the strategic objective of Rome. The terrain of central Italy had proved ideally suited to defense, Operation Shingle was originally conceived by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in December 1943, as he lay recovering from pneumonia in Marrakesh. His concept was to two divisions at Anzio, bypassing German forces in central Italy, and take Rome, the strategic objective of the current Battle of Rome. By January he had recovered and was badgering his commanders for a plan of attack, accusing them of not wanting to fight but of being interested only in drawing pay and eating rations. General Harold Alexander, commander of the Allied Armies in Italy, had considered such a plan since October using five divisions. However, the 5th Army did not have the troops nor the means to transport them, Clark proposed landing a reinforced division to divert German troops from Monte Cassino. This second landing, however, instead of failing similarly, would hold the shingle for a week in expectation of a breakthrough at Cassino, the Anzio beachhead is at the northwestern end of a tract of reclaimed marshland, formerly the Pontine Marshes, now the Pontine Fields. Previously uninhabitable due to mosquitoes carrying malaria, in Roman times armies marched as quickly as possible across it on the military road, the Via Appia. The marsh was bounded on one side by the sea and on others by mountains, the Monti Albani, the Monti Lepini, overall these mountains are referenced by the name Monti Laziali, the mountains of Lazio, the ancient Latium. Invading armies from the south had the choice of crossing the marsh or taking the other road to Rome. The marshes were turned into land in the 1930s under Benito Mussolini
45.
Battle of Cisterna
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The Battle of Cisterna took place during World War II, on 30 January–2 February 1944, near Cisterna, Italy, as part of the Battle of Anzio, part of the Italian Campaign. The battle was a clear German victory which also had repercussions on the employment of U. S. Army Rangers that went beyond the immediate tactical and strategic results of the battle. On 22 January 1944, the Allies launched Operation Shingle, the landing by the U. S. and British divisions of U. S. VI Corps in the area of Anzio. Following the landings, which had been unopposed, John P. By 29 January, there were 69,000 men in the beachhead but the Germans had also had time to react, on 31 January, Lucas launched a two-pronged attack. The main attack, by British 1st Infantry Division, was to advance northeast up the Via Anziate toward Campoleone, 7th Infantry was to cut Route 7, the main supply line to the German Tenth Army on the Gustav Line, at Cassino. However the plan had been based on the misinterpretation of reconnaissance intelligence, however the Wehrmacht had designated Cisterna as an assembly area for its reserve divisions and had begun moving units into the area. The Rangers, who expected to encounter a line of thinly-held outposts advanced unknowingly towards an enemy force. Contrary to their function as an elite raiding force, the Rangers had been involved in much of the front line fighting around the Anzio beachhead. Ranger casualties meant many replacements were recruits who lacked the experience, the growing presence of green troops in an otherwise skilled force degraded its ability to conduct successful infiltration and night operations. Their objective was to seize the town in a surprise attack, the two battalions—totaling 767 men and supported by a platoon of 43 men of the 3rd Reconnaissance Troop—moved out at 01,30 and moved in the darkness along a drainage ditch in column formation. Although they were able to bypass numerous German positions, at first light they were short of their objective. At this point the Rangers were attacked by strong German forces of the 715th Infantry Division and Herman Göring Panzer Division, according to the Army history of the operation, the infiltration movement had apparently been discovered and an ambush prepared. The 1st Battalion commander—Major Dobson—personally knocked out one tank by shooting the commander with his pistol, climbing atop the tank, two other tanks were captured by Rangers, but then knocked out by other Rangers who did not know they had been captured. Despite fierce fighting, there was chance of success once the Rangers were attacked on the open ground. German units put Ranger prisoners in front of their tanks and commanded other Rangers to surrender, after the approximately seven-hour battle, only six of the 767 Rangers and one member of the 3rd Recon troop returned to Allied lines, resulting in an overall loss of 803 men. The exact number of killed, wounded and captured is unknown, US Army records indicate over 700 Ranger prisoners. The main assault also jumped off, now attempting to rescue the trapped battalions, led by the 4th Ranger Battalion, it encountered serious opposition and failed to break through
46.
Operation Diadem
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Operation Diadem, also referred to as the Fourth Battle of Monte Cassino or, in Canada, the Battle of the Liri Valley, was an offensive operation undertaken by the Allies of World War II (U. S. Fifth Army and British Eighth Army in May 1944, as part of the Italian Campaign of World War II, Diadem was supported by air attacks called Operation Strangle. The opposing force was the German 10th Army, the object of Diadem was to break the German defenses on the Gustav Line and open up the Liri Valley, the main route to Rome. Four corps were employed in the attack, from right to left these were Polish II Corps and British XIII Corps, of Eighth Army, and the Free French Corps and U. S. II Corps, of Fifth Army. Fifth Army also controlled U. S. VI Corps in the Anzio beachhead, Diadem was launched at 23, 00pm on 11 May 1944 by elements, composed of the British 4th Infantry Division and 8th Indian Infantry Division with supporting fire from the 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade. They made a successful strongly opposed night crossing of the Garigliano and this broke into the heart of the German defenses in the Liri valley against strong opposition and drew German theater reserves reducing pressure on the Anzio beachhead. The Free French Corps pushed through the mountains to the left on 14 May, on 17 May, Polish II Corps on the right attacked Monte Cassino. The German position collapsed, and the Germans fell back from the Gustav Line to the Hitler Line some 10 miles to their rear, on 23 May, the four corps attacked the Hitler Line. On the same day, the U. S. VI Corps attacked out of the Anzio beachhead, the Hitler Line was breached by 1st Canadian Infantry Divisions 4th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards at Pontecorvo on 23 May. German Tenth Army was forced to retire northwestward, U. S. VI Corps, moving northeast from Anzio, was on the point of cutting the German line of retreat, when Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, commander of the U. S. Fifth Army, inexplicably ordered them to turn northwest and advance on Rome instead, there is much speculation that he did this so that his Fifth Army would capture Rome ahead of the Eighth Army advancing up the Liri Valley. The German 10th Army thus avoided being surrounded, the Germans fought a series of delaying actions, retired to the Trasimene Line, and then to the Gothic Line, north of the Arno River. Operation Diadem order of battle Battle of Monte Cassino, Operation Diadem Anzio, Operation Diadem
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