1.
Neighborhoods in Boston
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Bostons diverse neighborhoods serve as a political and cultural organizing mechanism. The Boston Redevelopment Authority, the City Parking Clerk, and the Citys Department of Neighborhood Development have also designated their own neighborhoods, unofficially, Boston has many overlapping neighborhoods of various sizes. Neighborhood associations have formed around smaller communities or commercial districts that have a well-defined center, as the city of Boston has grown and evolved, its neighborhoods have changed as well. The names of the West End, North End, and South End refer to their positions on the Shawmut Peninsula, due to the annexation of surrounding communities, those neighborhoods are no longer at those geographic extremities. The Back Bay and Bay Village neighborhoods were part of an actual bay. Brighton, Charlestown, Dorchester, Roxbury, have all at some point been municipalities independent from downtown Boston, Downtown Boston includes Downtown Crossing, the Financial District, and Government Center. Surrounding downtown are the neighborhoods of Chinatown/Leather District, South End, North End, West End, Bay Village, Beacon Hill, Chinatown/Leather District is the historical garment district and today has thriving Chinese and other Asian populations. The South End is the center of the citys LGBT population and also populated by artists, the North End retains an Italian flavor with its many Italian restaurants, though many of its Italian families have moved out, while young professionals have moved in. The Back Bay, west of the Public Garden and Beacon Hill, the Back Bay and Beacon Hill are also home to national and local politicians, famous authors, and top business leaders and professionals. Bay Village is one of the smallest neighborhoods in Boston and mostly contains Greek Revival-style row houses, North and east of downtown are the neighborhoods of East Boston and Charlestown. East Boston has a majority of Hispanic and Brazilian population with a remnant of older Italians, on the north bank of the Charles River is Charlestown, once a predominantly Irish enclave and site of the Bunker Hill Monument, it is now a haven for young professionals. West of downtown are the neighborhoods of Fenway Kenmore, Allston, Brighton and Mission Hill, Fenway Kenmore borders the campus of Boston University and houses many college students and young professionals and is the location of Fenway Park. Allston and Brighton are populated heavily by students from nearby universities, Mission Hill is adjacent to the Longwood Medical district, full of world-class medical institutions and retains an extremely diverse mix of African Americans, Asian Americans, whites and Latinos. South of downtown are the neighborhoods of Roxbury, Jamaica Plain, Dorchester, Mid Dorchester, Dorchester, including Mid Dorchester, is Bostons largest neighborhood and predominantly a working class community considered to be Bostons most diverse. Roxbury is populated largely by African Americans, Caribbean Americans, Jamaica Plain is a community of white professionals and Latinos, and includes the larger side of the Arnold Arboretum. South Boston is a predominantly Irish-American neighborhood, which hosts the citys annual St. Patricks Day parade, South of Roxbury, Jamaica Plain, and Dorchester are the neighborhoods of Mattapan, Roslindale, Hyde Park, and West Roxbury. Roslindale is known for its business district and includes the smaller side of the Arnold Arboretum. Roslindale has also become a majority-minority neighborhood
2.
Commonwealth Avenue (Boston)
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Commonwealth Avenue is a major street in the cities of Boston and Newton, Massachusetts. It begins at the edge of the Boston Public Garden. It continues as part of Route 30 through Newton until it crosses the Charles River at the border of the town of Weston, often compared to Georges-Eugène Haussmanns Paris boulevards, Commonwealth Avenue in Back Bay is a parkway divided at center by a wide grassy mall. This greenway, called Commonwealth Avenue Mall, is punctuated with statuary and memorials and it connects the Public Garden to the Fens. The section in Newton is made up of two separated by a grassy median lined with trees. The south side of the roadway contains the main, two-lane east-west roadway, with a one-way, the linear 1.5 miles stretch of Commonwealth Avenue between Kenmore Square and Packards Corner is well known to be Boston University territory. Boston University owns much of the property along and around part of Commonwealth Avenue. Walking from one end to the end or vice versa takes about 25–35 minutes. Paul Street, Pleasant Street, Babcock Street, and Packards Corner, together, these nine stops are renowned for representing Boston Universitys presence in and around this 1. 5-mile stretch of Commonwealth Avenue. The Commonwealth Avenue Mall was designed by Arthur Delevan Gilman, frederick Law Olmsted designed the Newton portion of Commonwealth Ave and included the parkway as part of the Emerald Necklace park system. The first statue on the Commonwealth Avenue Mall was erected in 1865 at Arlington Street, the Newton end of the roadway was constructed in 1895 with a line of the Middlesex and Boston Street Railway in the median. Streetcar service was cut back to its present terminus at the Boston border in 1930, an amusement park and ballroom known as Norumbega Park was built at the end of the line on the Charles River in 1897 to increase streetcar patronage. The eastern half of the Newton section of the road is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Commonwealth Avenue Historic District. Starting at the Public Garden and going westward, the statues can be seen on the mall, Alexander Hamilton, co-author of The Federalist Papers. The first statue placed on the mall, john Glover, Revolutionary War soldier, sculpted by Martin Milmore. Patrick Andrew Collins, former mayor of Boston, sculpted by Henry Hudson Kitson, moved in 1966 from its original siting at Charlesgate due to construction of the Bowker Overpass. The Vendome Memorial, which honors nine firefighters killed in the 1972 Hotel Vendome fire, William Lloyd Garrison, abolitionist and journalist, sculpted by Owen Levi Warner. Samuel Eliot Morison, naval historian and writer, sculpted by Penelope Jencks, the Boston Womens Memorial, with statues of Abigail Adams, Lucy Stone, and Phillis Wheatley, sculpted by Meredith Bergmann
3.
U.S. Route 20 in Massachusetts
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The cross-country U. S. Route 20 runs its easternmost 153 miles in the U. S. state of Massachusetts. The highway crosses the border from New Lebanon, New York into Hancock, Massachusetts, and runs eastward into Boston. It spends the vast majority of its journey paralleling the Massachusetts Turnpike, still, US-20 directly serves many towns and local business areas which the Turnpike bypasses. U. S. Route 20 is the longest numbered highway in the country and also holds the distinction of being the longest numbered highway in the state. Parts of US20 between the Worcester and Boston areas were also an alignment of the Boston Post Road, a colonial highway designated in 1673 for carrying mail between New York City and Boston. US20 is still known as the Boston Post Road in the towns of Marlborough, Sudbury, Wayland. The highway enters town and meets U. S. Route 7, US-20 turns south along US-7, and the two routes form a concurrency into the town of Lenox. In Lenox, Route 7A splits off to serve the center of town, the highway passes through town and interchanges with the Mass Pike at Exit 2 south of town, near the eastern end of Route 102. US-20 turns to the east at this point, and closely parallels the Mass Pike for several miles, before entering the town of Becket, Route 8 northbound joins US-20 east to directly serve the town, while the Mass Pike passes south of Becket. Upon crossing through the center, Route 8 splits from US-20. US-20 passes through the town of Chester, and clips the southern portion of Huntington in Hampshire County before re-entering Hampden County. US-20 passes through Russell, passes under the Mass Pike and meets the end of Route 23. US-20 crosses the U. S. Route 202/Route 10 concurrency in the center of the town, and intersects the northern end of Route 187 just to the east. US-20, as Boston Road, crosses Route 21 and proceeds east into the town of Wilbraham, in Palmer, US-20 meets the southern end of Route 181 and then intersects Route 32, which provides close access to the Mass Pike at Exit 8. US-20 and Route 32 share a concurrency in Palmer, before US-20 splits east. Before leaving Palmer, Route 67 meets its end at US-20. Brimfield is the last town US-20 passes through in Hampden County, it enters from the west, crosses Route 19 in the center of town, US-20 crosses into Worcester County and the town of Sturbridge, immediately meeting the southern end of Route 148. The route continues east where it meets the end of Route 131 before interchanging with Interstate 84 at Exit 3
4.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
5.
Suffolk County, Massachusetts
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Suffolk County is a county in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, in the United States. As of 2016, the population was 784,230 making it the fourth-most populous county in Massachusetts, the county seat is Boston, the state capital and largest city. Suffolk County is included in the Boston-Cambridge-Newton, MA-NH Metropolitan Statistical Area, the county was created by the Massachusetts General Court on May 10,1643, when it was ordered that the whole plantation within this jurisdiction be divided into four shires. Suffolk initially contained Boston, Roxbury, Dorchester, Dedham, Braintree, Weymouth, the county was named after Suffolk, England, which means southern folk. In 1731, the western portions of Suffolk County, which included Uxbridge, were split off to become part of Worcester County. In 1793, most of the original Suffolk County except for Boston, Chelsea, Hingham, Hingham and Hull would leave Suffolk County and join Plymouth County in 1803. Revere was set off from Chelsea and incorporated in 1846 and Winthrop was set off from Revere, like an increasing number of Massachusetts counties, Suffolk County exists today only as a historical geographic region, and has no county government. All former county functions were assumed by state agencies in 1999, however, communities are now granted the right to form their own regional compacts for sharing services. Politically speaking, Suffolk County supports the Democratic Party overwhelmingly, no Republican presidential candidate has won there since 1924. In 2012 Barack Obama received 77. 4% of the vote, in the 2014 gubernatorial election Martha Coakley carried the county by a 32. 4% margin, while losing the election statewide by 48.4 to 46. 5%. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 120 square miles. It is the second-smallest county in Massachusetts by land area and smallest by total area, essex County Norfolk County Middlesex County Suffolk County has no land border with Plymouth County to its southeast, but the two counties share a water boundary in the middle of Massachusetts Bay. The population density was 12,415.6 inhabitants per square mile, there were 315,522 housing units at an average density of 5,425.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 56. 0% white,21. 6% black or African American,8. 2% Asian,0. 4% American Indian,9. 7% from other races, and 3. 9% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 19. 9% of the population, in terms of ancestry,16. 4% were Irish,10. 4% were Italian,5. 2% were English, and 2. 0% were American. The average household size was 2.30 and the family size was 3.11. The median age was 31.5 years, the median income for a household in the county was $50,597 and the median income for a family was $58,127. Males had an income of $48,887 versus $43,658 for females
6.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
7.
Eastern Time Zone
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Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
8.
Area codes 617 and 857
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Area codes 617 and 857 are the North American area codes serving Boston and several surrounding communities in Massachusetts—such as Brookline, Cambridge, Newton and Quincy. In July 1988, most of the western and southern portions of the old 617 territory, including Worcester, the South Coast and it was split again in 1997, when most of Bostons outer suburbs split off as 781. This reduced 617 to Boston itself and its closer-in suburbs—an area largely coextensive with the ring of Greater Boston. This was intended as a solution, but within three years 617 was close to exhaustion once again due to the demand for more phone lines for auxiliary devices. The supply of numbers was limited because the entire eastern half of Massachusetts is still a single LATA. On May 2,2001,857 was overlaid onto 617, since then,10 digit local dialing is mandatory. Some mobile phone numbers from the 1990s assigned to communities in the area surrounding 617 kept the 617 area code just on those mobile lines after it split
9.
Washington Allston
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Washington Allston ARA was an American painter and poet, born in Waccamaw Parish, South Carolina. Allston pioneered Americas Romantic movement of landscape painting and he was well known during his lifetime for his experiments with dramatic subject matter and his bold use of light and atmospheric color. Allston was born on a plantation on the Waccamaw River near Georgetown. His mother Rachel Moore had married Captain William Allston in 1775, though her husband died in 1781, Moore remarried to Dr. Henry C. Flagg, the son of a shipping merchant from Newport. He was admitted to the Royal Academy Schools in London in September, from 1803 to 1808, he visited the great museums of Paris and then, for several years, those of Italy, where he met Washington Irving in Rome and Coleridge, his lifelong friend. In 1809, Allston married Ann Channing, sister of William Ellery Channing, samuel F. B. Morse was one of Allstons art pupils and accompanied Allston to Europe in 1811. After traveling throughout western Europe, Allston finally settled in London, Allston was also a published writer. In London in 1813, he published The Sylphs of the Seasons, with Other Poems, republished in Boston, Massachusetts and his wife died in February 1815, leaving him saddened, lonely, and homesick for America. In 1818, he returned to the United States and lived in Cambridge, Massachusetts and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1826. He was the uncle of the artists George Whiting Flagg and Jared Bradley Flagg, the first American exhibition of Allstons work was in 1827 when twelve of his paintings were shown at the Boston Athenæum. In 1830 Allston married Martha Remington Dana, the sister of the novelist Richard Henry Dana, Dana was a cousin of Allstons first wife. In 1841, he published Monaldi, a romance illustrating Italian life, and in 1850, a volume of his Lectures on Art, Allston died on July 9,1843, at age 63. Allston is buried in Harvard Square, in the Old Burying Ground between the First Parish Church and Christ Church, Allston was sometimes called the American Titian because his style resembled the great Venetian Renaissance artists in their display of dramatic color contrasts. His work greatly influenced the development of U. S. landscape painting, also, the themes of many of his paintings were drawn from literature, especially Biblical stories. The influential critic and editor Rufus Wilmot Griswold dedicated his famous anthology The Poets, poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow,17 years after Allstons death, wrote that, One man may sweeten a whole time. I never pass through Cambridge Port without thinking of Allston and his memory is the quince in the drawer and perfumes the atmosphere. Washington Allston was the first to use the term Objective Correlative in 1840 which subsequently revived, the west Boston, Massachusetts neighborhood of Allston is named after him
10.
Brighton, Boston
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Brighton is a dissolved municipality and current neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, United States, and is located in the northwestern corner of the city. It is named after the town of Brighton in the English city of Brighton, for its first 160 years, Brighton was part of Cambridge, and was known as Little Cambridge. Throughout much of its history, it was a rural town with a significant commercial center at its eastern end. Brighton separated from Cambridge in 1807 after a dispute, and was annexed to Boston in 1874. The neighborhood of Allston was also part of the town of Brighton. In 1630, land comprising present-day Allston–Brighton and Newton was assigned to Watertown, in 1646, Reverend John Eliot established a Praying Indian village on the present Newton–Brighton boundary, where resided local natives converted to Christianity. The first permanent English settlement came as settlers crossed the Charles River from Cambridge, establishing Little Cambridge, before the American Revolutionary War, Little Cambridge became a small, prosperous farming community with fewer than 300 residents. Its inhabitants included wealthy Boston merchants such as Benjamin Faneuil, a key event in the history of Allston–Brighton was the establishment in 1775 of a cattle market to supply the Continental Army. Jonathan Winship I and Jonathan Winship II established the market, and in the period that followed. Legislative approval for separation was obtained in 1807, and Little Cambridge renamed itself Brighton, in 1820, the horticulture industry was introduced to the town. Over the next 20 years, Brighton blossomed as one of the most important gardening neighborhoods in the Boston area, the businessmen, however, did not neglect the cattle industry. In 1834, the Boston & Worcester Railroad was built, solidifying the communitys hold on the cattle trade, by 1866, the town contained 41 slaughterhouses, which later were consolidated into the Brighton Stock Yards and Brighton Abattoir. Allston–Brightons population grew tremendously in the half century, rising from 6,000 in 1875 to 47,000 by 1925. Brighton is accessible via the B Branch of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority s Green Line light rail service, cleveland Circle on the C Branch is located in the southern tip of Brighton, and the D Branch is nearby. The former A Branch, had served the community. Turnpike 503 Brighton Center – Copley Square via Oak Square & Mass, turnpike Forty-seven percent of the population of Brighton drive alone to work and 36% use mass transit, compared with 71% and 2% for the United States as a whole. On June 7,2012, MassDOT announced a plan to build a rail station at Everett Street in Brighton. The new station, Boston Landing, will be served by the Framingham/Worcester Line, Brighton is connected to the rest of the city by the Allston neighborhood
11.
Boston Police Department
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The Boston Police Department, dating back to 1838, holds the primary responsibility for law enforcement and investigation within the city of Boston, Massachusetts. It is the first in the nation, the BPD is also the 20th largest law enforcement agency in the country and the 3rd largest in New England behind the Massachusetts State Police and the Massachusetts Department of Correction. Before the existence of a police department, the first night watch was established in Boston in 1635. In 1703, pay in the sum of 35 shillings a month was set for members of the night watch. In 1796, the watch was reorganized, and the watchmen carried a badge of office, a rattle, and a pole, which was painted blue and white with a hook on one end. The hook was used to grab fleeing criminals, and the bill was used as a weapon. The rattle was a device used for calling for assistance. The Day Police, which had no connection to the watch, was organized in 1838. The Day Police operated under the city marshal and had six appointed officers and this organization would eventually lead to the establishment of the modern-day Boston Police Department. In 1838, a bill passed in the General Court that allowed the city to appoint police officers, the Boston Police Department was formally founded in May 1854, at which point both the night watch and Day Police were disbanded. A fourteen-inch club replaced the old hook and bill, which had been in use for one hundred, at the time of its founding, the Boston Police constituted one of the first paid, professional police services in the United States. The department was organized and modeled after Sir Robert Peels Metropolitan Police Service. On November 3,1851, the first Irish born Boston Police officer, at the time, the police salary of $2.00 a day for the morning and afternoon beat and $1.20 for the night watch was nearly twice as high as the wages of laborers. On January 5,1852, shortly before the elected mayor Benjamin Seaver took office. McGinniskin was discharged from the Boston Police for no reason than he was a Catholic. McGinniskin became a United States inspector at the customhouse and died of rheumatism on March 2,1868, McGinniskin is buried in the St. Augustine Cemetery in South Boston. On October 18,1857, at about 5,15 a. m, Boston Police Officer Ezekiel W. Hodsdon was patrolling the Corner of Havre and Maverick Street in East Boston. Hodsdon attempted to arrest two suspects for a burglary, a struggle ensued, and one of the suspects was able to get behind Hodsdon and shoot him in the head
12.
Three-decker (house)
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A certain type of three-story apartment building is often called a triple-decker or three-decker in the US. These buildings are typically of light-framed, wood construction, where each floor consists of a single apartment. Both stand-alone and semi-detached versions are common, the economics of the three-decker are simple, the cost of the land, basement and roof are spread among three or six apartments, which typically have identical floor plans. C. Three-deckers were most commonly built in the industrial cities of the central New England region of the United States between 1870 and 1920. There are large concentrations in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, Worcester, MA, was the likely origin of the type, with Francis Gallagher held to be the originator. Other cities make the claim, though, and they can also be found in the former industrial cities of New Hampshire, Maine. They were primarily housing for the working-class and middle-class families, often in rows on narrow lots in the areas surrounding the factories. It is estimated that by 1920, the city of Boston had over 15,000 three decker houses, typically, the affordable three decker homes attracted live-in landlords who would collect rent from the other two apartments. In the textile mill city of Fall River, Massachusetts, thousands of wood-framed multi-family tenements were built by the owners during the boom years of the 1870s to house their workers. Many more were built by individuals who rented their apartments to the mill workers. This style of housing differed greatly from the well-spaced boardinghouses of the early 19th century built in Lowell and Lawrence, a different three story style apartment house is also common in urban working class neighborhoods in northern New Jersey. They are sometimes referred to as Bayonne Boxes. Similar brick apartment buildings were built in Chicago in the 1910s and 1920s and they are locally referred to as Three Flats. Three-deckers are usually defined by the style of their roofs, being either gable, hip or flat-roofed, for instance, hipped and gabled three-deckers are dominant in Worcester. While typically lacking the ornamentation found on other homes of the Victorian period, they sometimes were built with decorative details, such as porch railings. A typical feature of the triple-decker is a stack of bay windows. The rear often has utility porches, which, in cities, are often encloseable. It is not uncommon for three-deckers to feature two apartments per floor, with the units sharing a common wall, each apartment typically has a front and/or back porch for each apartment, and, because the buildings are usually freestanding, windows on all four sides
13.
Victorian architecture
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Victorian architecture is a series of architectural revival styles in the mid-to-late 19th century. Victorian refers to the reign of Queen Victoria, called the Victorian era, however, many elements of what is typically termed Victorian architecture did not become popular until later in Victorias reign. The styles often included interpretations and eclectic revivals of historic styles mixed with the introduction of middle east, the name represents the British and French custom of naming architectural styles for a reigning monarch. Within this naming and classification scheme, it follows Georgian architecture and later Regency architecture, during the early 19th century, the romantic medieval Gothic revival style was developed as a reaction to the symmetry of Palladianism, and such buildings as Fonthill Abbey were built. Paxton also continued to build houses as Mentmore Towers, in the still popular English Renaissance styles. In this era of prosperity new methods of construction were developed, other notable Scottish architects of this period are Archibald Simpson and Alexander Marshall Mackenzie whose stylistically varied work can be seen in the architecture of Aberdeen. Victorian architecture usually has many intricate window frames inspired by the famous architect Elliot Rae, some chose the United States, and others went to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Normally, they applied architectural styles that were fashionable when they left England, thus, the influence of English architecture spread across the world. Several prominent architects produced English-derived designs around the world, including William Butterfield, the Victorian period flourished in Australia and is generally recognised as being from 1840 to 1890, which saw a gold rush and population boom during the 1880s in the state of Victoria. There were fifteen styles that predominated, The Arts and Crafts style and Queen Anne style are considered to be part of the Federation Period, during the British colonial period of British Ceylon, Sri Lanka Law College, Sri Lanka College of Technology and the Galle Face Hotel. In the United States, Victorian architecture generally describes styles that were most popular between 1860 and 1900, a list of these styles most commonly includes Second Empire, Stick-Eastlake, Folk Victorian, Queen Anne, Richardsonian Romanesque, and Shingle. As in the United Kingdom, examples of Gothic Revival and Italianate continued to be constructed during this period, some historians classify the later years of Gothic Revival as a distinctive Victorian style named High Victorian Gothic. Stick-Eastlake, a manner of geometric, machine-cut decorating derived from Stick, on the other hand, terms such as Painted Ladies or gingerbread may be used to describe certain Victorian buildings, but do not constitute a specific style. The names of architectural styles varied between countries, many homes combined the elements of several different styles and are not easily distinguishable as one particular style or another. San Francisco is well known for its extensive Victorian architecture, particularly in the Haight-Ashbury, Lower Haight, Alamo Square, Noe Valley, Castro, Nob Hill, the extent to which any one is the largest surviving example is debated, with numerous qualifications. The Distillery District in Toronto, Ontario contains the largest and best preserved collection of Victorian-era industrial architecture in North America, cabbagetown is the largest and most continuous Victorian residential area in North America. Other Toronto Victorian neighbourhoods include The Annex, Parkdale, and Rosedale, in the USA, the South End of Boston is recognized by the National Register of Historic Places as the oldest and largest Victorian neighborhood in the country. Old Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky also claims to be the nations largest Victorian neighborhood, richmond, Virginia is home to several large Victorian neighborhoods, the most prominent being The Fan
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Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
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East Asia
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East Asia is the eastern subregion of the Asian continent, which can be defined in either geographical or ethno-cultural terms. Geographically and geopolitically, it includes China, Taiwan, Mongolia, Korea and Japan, it covers about 12,000,000 km2, or about 28% of the Asian continent, the East Asian people comprise more than 1.5 billion people. About 38% of the population of Asia and 22%, or over one fifth, the overall population density of the region is 133 inhabitants per square kilometre, about three times the world average of 45/km2. Historically, societies in East Asia have been part of the Chinese cultural sphere, major religions include Buddhism, Confucianism or Neo-Confucianism, Taoism, Chinese folk religion in China and Taiwan, Shinto in Japan, Korean shamanism in Korea. Shamanism is also prevalent among Mongolians and other populations of northern East Asia. The Chinese calendar is the root from which many other East Asian calendars are derived, Chinese Dynasties dominated the region in matters of culture, trade, and exploration as well as militarily for a very long time. There are records of tributes sent overseas from the kingdoms of Korea. There were also considerable levels of cultural and religious exchange between the Chinese and other regional Dynasties and Kingdoms, as connections began to strengthen with the Western world, Chinas power began to diminish. Around the same time, Japan solidified itself as a nation state, throughout World War II, Korea, Taiwan, much of eastern China, Hong Kong, and Vietnam all fell under Japanese control. Culturally, China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam are commonly seen as being encompassed by cultural East Asia, there are mixed debates around the world whether these countries or regions should be considered in East Asia or not. Vietnam Siberia in Russia Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in the South China Sea, however, in this context, the term Far East is often more appropriate which covers ASEAN countries and the countries in East Asia. However, being a Eurocentric term, Far East describes the geographical position in relation to Europe rather than its location within Asia. Alternatively, the term Asia Pacific Region is often used in describing East Asia and this usage, which is seen in economic and diplomatic discussions, is at odds with the historical meanings of both East Asia and Northeast Asia. The Council on Foreign Relations defines Northeast Asia as Japan and Korea, the military and economic superpower of China became the largest economy in the world in 2014, surpassing the United States of America. Currently in East Asia, trading systems are open, and zero or low duties on imports of consumer and capital goods etc. have considerably helped stimulate cost-efficiency. Free and flexible labor and other markets are important factors making for high levels of business-economic performance. East Asian populations have demonstrated highly positive work ethics, there are relatively large and fast-growing markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds. The culture of East Asia has been influenced by the civilisation of China, East Asia, as well as Vietnam, share a Confucian ethical philosophy, Buddhism, political and legal structures, and historically a common writing system
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Korea
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Korea is a historical state in East Asia, since 1945 divided into two distinct sovereign states, North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by China to the northwest and it is separated from Japan to the east by the Korea Strait and the Sea of Japan. Korea emerged as a political entity after centuries of conflict among the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Later Silla divided into three states during the Later Three Kingdoms period. Goryeo, which had succeeded Goguryeo, defeated the two states and united the Korean Peninsula. Around the same time, Balhae collapsed and its last crown prince fled south to Goryeo, Goryeo, whose name developed into the modern exonym Korea, was a highly cultured state that created the worlds first metal movable type in 1234. However, multiple invasions by the Mongol Yuan Dynasty during the 13th century greatly weakened the nation, following the Yuan Dynastys collapse, severe political strife followed, and Goryeo eventually fell to a coup led by General Yi Seong-gye, who established Joseon in 1388. The first 200 years of Joseon were marked by peace and saw the creation of the Korean alphabet by Sejong the Great in the 14th century. During the later part of the dynasty, however, Koreas isolationist policy earned it the Western nickname of the Hermit Kingdom, by the late 19th century, the country became the object of imperial design by the Empire of Japan. Despite attempts at modernization by the Korean Empire, in 1910 Korea was annexed by Japan and these circumstances soon became the basis for the division of Korea by the two superpowers, exacerbated by their incapability to agree on the terms of Korean independence. To date, both continue to compete with each other as the sole legitimate government of all of Korea. Korea is the spelling of Corea, a name attested in English as early as 1614. It is a derived from Cauli, Marco Polos transcription of the Chinese 高麗. This was the Hanja for the Korean kingdom of Goryeo or Koryŏ, Goryeos name was a continuation of the earlier Goguryeo or Koguryŏ, the northernmost of the Samguk, which was officially known by the shortened form Goryeo after the 5th-century reign of King Jangsu. The original name was a combination of the go with the name of a local Yemaek tribe. The name Korea is now used in English contexts by both North and South Korea. In South Korea, Korea as a whole is referred to as Hanguk, the name references the Samhan—Ma, Jin, and Byeon—who preceded the Three Kingdoms in the southern and central end of the peninsula during the 1st centuries BC and AD. It has been linked with the title khan used by the nomads of Manchuria
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South Asia
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Topographically, it is dominated by the Indian Plate, which rises above sea level as Nepal and northern parts of India situated south of the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush. South Asia is bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean and on land by West Asia, Central Asia, East Asia, the current territories of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka form the countries of South Asia. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation is an economic cooperation organisation in the region which was established in 1985, South Asia covers about 5.1 million km², which is 11. 51% of the Asian continent or 3. 4% of the worlds land surface area. The population of South Asia is about 1.749 billion or about one fourth of the worlds population, overall, it accounts for about 39. 49% of Asias population and is home to a vast array of peoples. The area of South Asia and its extent is not clear cut as systemic. Aside from the region of South Asia, formerly part of the British Empire, there is a high degree of variation as to which other countries are included in South Asia. Modern definitions of South Asia are consistent in including Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar is included by some scholars in South Asia, but in Southeast Asia by others. Some do not include Afghanistan, others question whether Afghanistan should be considered a part of South Asia or the Middle East, the mountain countries of Nepal and Bhutan, and the island countries of Sri Lanka and Maldives are generally included as well. Myanmar is often added, and by various deviating definitions based on often substantially different reasons, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the common concept of South Asia is largely inherited from the administrative boundaries of the British Raj, with several exceptions. The Aden Colony, British Somaliland and Singapore, though administered at various times under the Raj, have not been proposed as any part of South Asia. Additionally Burma was administered as part of the Raj until 1937, the 562 princely states that were protected by but not directly ruled by the Raj became administrative parts of South Asia upon joining Union of India or Dominion of Pakistan. China and Myanmar have also applied for the status of members of SAARC. This bloc of countries include two independent countries that were not part of the British Raj – Nepal, and Bhutan, Afghanistan was a British protectorate from 1878 until 1919, after the Afghans lost to the British in the Second Anglo-Afghan war. The United Nations Statistics Divisions scheme of sub-regions include all eight members of the SAARC as part of Southern Asia, population Information Network includes Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Burma, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka as part of South Asia. Maldives, in view of its characteristics, was admitted as a member Pacific POPIN subregional network only in principle, the Hirschman–Herfindahl index of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific for the region includes only the original seven signatories of SAARC. The British Indian Ocean Territory is connected to the region by a publication of Janes for security considerations, the inclusion of Myanmar in South Asia is without consensus, with many considering it a part of southeast Asia and others including it within South Asia. Afghanistan was of importance to the British colonial empire, especially after the Second Anglo-Afghan War over 1878–1880, Afghanistan remained a British protectorate until 1919, when a treaty with Vladimir Lenin included the granting of independence to Afghanistan. Following Indias partition, Afghanistan has generally included in South Asia
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South America
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South America is a continent located in the western hemisphere, mostly in the southern hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the northern hemisphere. It may also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas, which is the used in nations that speak Romance languages. The reference to South America instead of other regions has increased in the last decades due to changing geopolitical dynamics. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean, North America and it includes twelve sovereign states, a part of France, and a non-sovereign area. In addition to this, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Trinidad and Tobago, South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers. Its population as of 2005 has been estimated at more than 371,090,000, South America ranks fourth in area and fifth in population. Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with more than half of the population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela. In recent decades Brazil has also concentrated half of the regions GDP and has become a first regional power, most of the population lives near the continents western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, the continents cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves. Given a long history of colonialism, the majority of South Americans speak Portuguese or Spanish. South America occupies the portion of the Americas. The continent is delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate, South Americas major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies and this is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export. South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth, South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a proportion of the Earths species. Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the land area
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Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
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Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
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Town and gown
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The metaphor is historical in its connotation but continues to be used in the literature on urban higher education and in common parlance. During the Middle Ages, students admitted to European universities often held minor clerical status and these vestments evolved into the academic long black gown, worn along with hood and cap. The gown proved comfortable for studying in unheated and draughty buildings, the gown also served as a social symbol, as it was impractical for physical manual work. The hood was often adorned with the colours of the colleges, thus by their distinctive clothing, the students were set apart and distinguished from the citizens of the town, hence the phrase town and gown. The idea of a school of learning as a distinct. The Academy was established as a sanctuary for learning outside the city walls of Athens. The Academy endured for nine centuries until it was closed, along with other pagan schools, in the 12th century, when the early medieval universities came into existence – first in Italy and then across Europe – they were founded without physical campuses. The masters simply rented lecture halls in the host cities, early on, there were few identifiable campus buildings. Most students took lodging in the university towns, the scholars often congregated in identifiable areas of cities, most famously the Left Bank of the Seine in Paris – what became known as the Quartier Latin. Thus, the institutions were more integrated into the cities than in the case of the Academy. It is no accident that most medieval universities were founded within cities, the schools existence required a permanent population and an infrastructure that included a vibrant marketplace and system of governance, but their dependence on the host towns was limited. In most instances, the endowment of the universities was drawn largely, if not entirely. Consequently, the universities were largely independent of municipal revenues and, to a great extent, the medieval studium remained a sanctuary in its status as beneficiary of the Catholic Church and in the scholars exemption from civil law. Such special jurisdictions were by no means uncommon in the Middle Ages, the independent jurisdiction of the universities essentially was part of this system. Also, the encroachment of universities upon neighboring areas created a point of contention between town and gown. The medieval universities formed as guilds of masters and/or students on the established by the crafts guilds. Once the scholars were able to receive a charter, they would begin negotiations with municipal authorities to secure fair rents for lecture halls, because they had no investment in a physical campus, they could threaten to migrate to another town if their demands were not met. This was not an empty threat, the scholars at the University of Lisbon in Portugal migrated to Coimbra, and then later back to Lisbon in the 14th century
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Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
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Judaism
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Judaism encompasses the religion, philosophy, culture and way of life of the Jewish people. Judaism is an ancient monotheistic Abrahamic religion, with the Torah as its text, and supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as the Midrash. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the relationship that God established with the Children of Israel. With between 14.5 and 17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth-largest religion in the world, Judaism includes a wide corpus of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. Modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic, today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between groups are their approaches to Jewish law, the authority of the Rabbinic tradition. Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditional interpretation of Judaisms requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews. Historically, special courts enforced Jewish law, today, these still exist. Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, the history of Judaism spans more than 3,000 years. Judaism has its roots as a religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Judaism is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions, the Hebrews and Israelites were already referred to as Jews in later books of the Tanakh such as the Book of Esther, with the term Jews replacing the title Children of Israel. Judaisms texts, traditions and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Islam, many aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law. Jews are a group and include those born Jewish and converts to Judaism. In 2015, the world Jewish population was estimated at about 14.3 million, Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism, the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of humankind. According to the Tanakh, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation, many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God, that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate Gods concern for the world. He also commanded the Jewish people to one another, that is. These commandments are but two of a corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, which is the substance of Judaism
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Baptists
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Other tenets of Baptist churches include soul competency, salvation through faith alone, Scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local congregation. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, elders and deacons, Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity. Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in Amsterdam, in accordance with his reading of the New Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults. Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christs atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect. Thomas Helwys formulated a distinctively Baptist request that the church and the state be kept separate in matters of law, Helwys died in prison as a consequence of the religious persecution of English dissenters under King James I. In 1638, Roger Williams established the first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies, in the mid-18th century, the First Great Awakening contributed to Baptist growth in both New England and the South. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent, the largest Baptist denomination is the Southern Baptist Convention, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 15 million. Modern Baptist churches trace their history to the English Separatist movement in the century after the rise of the original Protestant denominations and this view of Baptist origins has the most historical support and is the most widely accepted. Adherents to this position consider the influence of Anabaptists upon early Baptists to be minimal and it was a time of considerable political and religious turmoil. Both individuals and churches were willing to give up their theological roots if they became convinced that a more biblical truth had been discovered, during the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church. There were some Christians who were not content with the achievements of the mainstream Protestant Reformation, there also were Christians who were disappointed that the Church of England had not made corrections of what some considered to be errors and abuses. Of those most critical of the Churchs direction, some chose to stay and they became known as Puritans and are described by Gourley as cousins of the English Separatists. Others decided they must leave the Church because of their dissatisfaction, historians trace the earliest Baptist church back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with John Smyth as its pastor. Three years earlier, while a Fellow of Christs College, Cambridge, reared in the Church of England, he became Puritan, English Separatist, and then a Baptist Separatist, and ended his days working with the Mennonites. He began meeting in England with 60–70 English Separatists, in the face of great danger, Smyth and his lay supporter, Thomas Helwys, together with those they led, broke with the other English exiles because Smyth and Helwys were convinced they should be baptized as believers. In 1609 Smyth first baptized himself and then baptized the others, in 1609, while still there, Smyth wrote a tract titled The Character of the Beast, or The False Constitution of the Church. In it he expressed two propositions, first, infants are not to be baptized, and second, Antichristians converted are to be admitted into the true Church by baptism. Hence, his conviction was that a church should consist only of regenerate believers who have been baptized on a personal confession of faith
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Islam in the United States
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Islam is the third largest religion in the United States after Christianity and Judaism. According to a 2010 study, it is followed by 0. 9% of the population, compared with 70. 6% who follow Christianity,22. 8% unaffiliated,1. 9% Judaism,0. 7% Buddhism, and 0. 7% Hinduism. According to an estimate done in 2016, there were 3.3 million Muslims living in the United States. American Muslims come from various backgrounds and, according to a 2009 Gallup poll, are one of the most racially diverse religious groups in the United States, native-born American Muslims are mainly African Americans who make up about a quarter of the total Muslim population. Many of these have converted to Islam during the last seventy years, conversion to Islam in large urban areas has also contributed to its growth over the years. While an estimated 10 to 30 percent of the slaves brought to colonial America from Africa arrived as Muslims, prior to the late 19th century, most documented non-enslaved Muslims in North America were merchants, travelers, and sailors. From the 1880s to 1914, several thousand Muslims immigrated to the United States from the territories of the Ottoman Empire. About 72% of American Muslims are immigrants or second generation, in 2005, more people from Muslim-majority countries became legal permanent United States residents—nearly 96, 000—than there had been in any other year in the previous two decades. In 2009, more than 115,000 Muslims became legal residents of the United States, one of the earliest accounts of Islams possible presence in North America dates to 1528, when a Moroccan slave, called Estevanico, was shipwrecked near present-day Galveston, Texas. He and four survivors subsequently traveled through much of the American southwest, an early Egyptian and possible Muslim immigrant is mentioned in the accounts of the Dutch settlers of the Catskill Mountains and recorded in the 1884 History of Greene County, New York. According to this tradition, an Egyptian named Norsereddin settled in the Catskills in the vicinity of the Catskill Mountain House and he befriended the local indigenous American chief, Shandaken, and sought the hand of his daughter Lotowana in marriage. Rejected, he poisoned Lotowana and in consequence was caught and burned alive, records from the American Revolutionary War indicate that at least a few likely Muslims fought on the American side. Among the recorded names of American soldiers are Yusuf ben Ali, Bampett Muhamed, the first country to recognize the United States as an independent nation was the Sultanate of Morocco, under its ruler Mohammed ben Abdallah, in the year 1777. He maintained several correspondences with President George Washington, on December 9,1805, President Thomas Jefferson hosted an Iftar dinner at the White House for his guest Sidi Soliman Mellimelli, an envoy from Tunis. Bilali Muhammad was a Fula Muslim from Timbo, Futa-Jallon, in present-day Guinea-Conakry, while enslaved, he became the religious leader and Imam for a slave community numbering approximately eighty Muslim men residing on his plantation. During the War of 1812, Muhammad and the eighty Muslim men under his leadership protected their masters Sapelo Island property from a British attack. He is known to have fasted during the month of Ramadan, worn a fez and kaftan, in 1829, Bilali authored a thirteen-page Arabic Risala on Islamic beliefs and the rules for ablution, morning prayer, and the calls to prayer. Known as the Bilali Document, it is housed at the University of Georgia in Athens
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Charles River
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The Charles River is an 80 mi long river in eastern Massachusetts. From its source in Hopkinton the river flows in a direction, traveling through 23 cities. Thirty-three lakes and ponds and 35 municipalities are entirely or partially part of the Charles River drainage basin, despite the rivers length and relatively large drainage area, its source is only 26 miles from its mouth, and the river drops only 350 feet from source to sea. The Charles River watershed contains more than 8,000 acres of protected wetlands and these areas are important in preventing downstream flooding and providing natural habitats to native species. Brandeis University, Harvard University, Boston University, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are located along the Charles River, near its mouth, it forms the border between downtown Boston and Cambridge and Charlestown. The river opens into a basin and is lined by the parks of the Charles River Reservation. On the Charles River Esplanade stands the Hatch Shell, where concerts are given in summer evenings, the basin is especially known for its Independence Day celebration. The river is known for its rowing, sculling, dragonboating. The river may also be kayaked, depending on the season, however, kayakers can only navigate the Charles by getting out, the Lower Basin between the Longfellow and Harvard bridges is home to Community Boating, the Harvard University Sailing Center, and the MIT Sailing Pavilion. The Head of the Charles Regatta is held here every October, in early June, the annual Hong Kong Boston Dragon boat Festival is held in Cambridge, near the Weeks Footbridge. The Charles River Bike Path runs 23 miles along the banks of the Charles, starting at the Museum of Science and passing the campuses of MIT, Harvard, the path is popular with runners and bikers. Many runners gauge their distance and speed by keeping track of the mileage between the bridges along the route, for several years, the Charles River Speedway operated along part of the river. On July 13,2013, swimming for the public was permitted for the first time in more than 50 years. The rivers name, preceding the English version, was thought to be Quinobequin, though that attribution has been discredited by, among others. The river was used by Native Americans for local transportation and fishing, when Smith presented his map to Charles I he suggested that the king should feel free to change any of the barbarous names for English ones. The king made such changes, but only four survive today. In portions of its length, the Charles drops slowly in elevation and has relatively little current, despite this, early settlers in Dedham, Massachusetts, found a way to use the Charles to power mills. In 1639, the town dug a canal from the Charles to a brook that drained to the Neponset River
27.
Harvard Square
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Harvard Square is a triangular plaza at the intersection of Massachusetts Avenue, Brattle Street, and John F. Kennedy Street, near the center of Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The term Harvard Square is also used to delineate the business district and Harvard University surrounding that intersection and these residents use the Harvard station, a major MBTA Red Line subway and bus transportation hub. In an extended sense, the name Harvard Square can also refer to the neighborhood surrounding this intersection for several blocks in each direction. The nearby Cambridge Common has become an area with a playground, baseball field. The heart of Harvard Square is the junction of Massachusetts Avenue, Brattle Street and John F. Kennedy Street merge from the southwest, joining Massachusetts Avenue at Ninis Corner, where another newsstand is located. The Harvard/MIT Cooperative Society main building forms the western streetwall at the intersection, along with a bank, the high pedestrian traffic makes Harvard Square a gathering place for street musicians and buskers, who must obtain a permit from the Cambridge Arts Council. Singer-songwriter Tracy Chapman, who attended nearby Tufts University, is known to have played here during her college years, Amanda Palmer, of The Dresden Dolls, regularly performed here as a living statue. Another frequent performer over the years has been indie rock guitarist Mary Lou Lord, a small bronze statue of Doo Doo sits at the corner of Brattle and Eliot streets, in honor of Fokin and all the street performers. Until 1984, the Harvard Square stop was the terminus of the Red Line. Automobile traffic can be heavy, and parking is difficult, most of the bus lines serving the area from the north and west run through a tunnel adjacent to the subway tunnel. The tunnel also allows safer and covered access between the subway and the buses, at the center of the Square is the old Harvard Square Subway Kiosk, now a newsstand, Out of Town News, stocking newspapers and magazines from around the world. A video of it appears in clips used on CNN. A public motion art installation, Lumen Eclipse, has introduced at the Tourist Information Booth showing monthly exhibitions of local, national and international artists. The office of NPRs Car Talk radio show faces the square, with a stencil in the window that reads Dewey, Cheetham & Howe, the fictional law firm often referenced on the show. The popular show has referenced this by asking its viewers to send in answers to the Puzzler to Puzzler Tower, Car Talk Plaza, Harvard Square, Cambridge, the sunken region next to the newsstand and the subway entrance is called The Pit. The overall scene was later recalled by singer songwriter Amanda Palmer as a hangout for Cool People. In the southwest area of the Square neighborhood, on Mount Auburn St, a number of other public squares dot the surrounding streets, notably Brattle Square and Winthrop Square, with a wide variety of street performers throughout the year. Brattle Street itself is home to the Brattle Theater and the American Repertory Theater, the John F. Kennedy Memorial Park, one block further down JFK Street, is on the bank of the Charles River
28.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
29.
John W. Weeks Bridge
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The John W. Weeks Bridge, usually called the Weeks Footbridge, is a pedestrian bridge over the Charles River, connecting Cambridge, Massachusetts with the Allston neighborhood of Boston. John W. Weeks was a longtime U. S. Representative and its concrete underbelly conceals tentacles of the Universitys steam, electrical, and communications networks. The bridge is a vantage point from which to enjoy the Head of the Charles Regatta. An abrupt bend in the river prompts most boats to crowd through the center span. Stairs at either end were replaced with ramps and accessibility-compliant railings were installed on the bridge, harvard University contributed $150,000 to the project
30.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Cambridge is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and is a part of the Boston metropolitan area. According to the 2010 Census, the population was 105,162. As of July 2014, it was the fifth most populous city in the state, behind Boston, Worcester, Springfield, Cambridge was one of the two seats of Middlesex County prior to the abolition of county government in 1997, Lowell was the other. The site for what would become Cambridge was chosen in December 1630, because it was located safely upriver from Boston Harbor, Thomas Dudley, his daughter Anne Bradstreet, and her husband Simon, were among the first settlers of the town. The first houses were built in the spring of 1631, the settlement was initially referred to as the newe towne. Official Massachusetts records show the name capitalized as Newe Towne by 1632, the original village site is in the heart of todays Harvard Square. In the late 19th century, various schemes for annexing Cambridge itself to the city of Boston were pursued and rejected, in 1636, the Newe College was founded by the colony to train ministers. Newe Towne was chosen for the site of the college by the Great and General Court primarily—according to Cotton Mather—to be near the popular, in May 1638 the name of the settlement was changed to Cambridge in honor of the university in Cambridge, England. Hooker and Shepard, Newtownes ministers, and the colleges first president, major benefactor, in 1629, Winthrop had led the signing of the founding document of the city of Boston, which was known as the Cambridge Agreement, after the university. It was Governor Thomas Dudley who, in 1650, signed the charter creating the corporation which still governs Harvard College, Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village eight miles by road from Boston, the capital of the colony. By the American Revolution, most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with farms and estates comprising most of the town. Coming up from Virginia, George Washington took command of the volunteer American soldiers camped on Cambridge Common on July 3,1775, most of the Tory estates were confiscated after the Revolution. On January 24,1776, Henry Knox arrived with artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga, a second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new Middlesex Canal. The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and marshland into prime industrial and residential districts, in the mid-19th century, Cambridge was the center of a literary revolution when it gave the country a new identity through poetry and literature. Cambridge was home to some of the famous Fireside Poets—so called because their poems would often be read aloud by families in front of their evening fires, the Fireside Poets—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes—were highly popular and influential in their day. Cambridge was incorporated as a city in 1846, the citys commercial center began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the downtown of the city around this time. The coming of the railroad to North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge then led to three changes in the city, the development of massive brickyards and brickworks between Massachusetts Ave. For many decades, the citys largest employer was the New England Glass Company, by the middle of the 19th century it was the largest and most modern glassworks in the world
31.
Regina Pizzeria
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Regina Pizzeria, also known as Pizzeria Regina, and originally called Regina Pizza, is a regional pizza chain in New England. The company was founded in 1926 by Luigi DAuria in Bostons North End neighborhood and it has been run by the Polcari family since 1956. The chain is a part of Boston Restaurant Associates and is headquartered in Lynnfield, the original location, at 11 1/2 Thacher Street in Bostons North End, is still in operation and it is the most popular of all the Regina Pizzeria locations. It has been described as what movie pizzerias strive to look like, the company also boasts that it makes its own sausage and dough daily from fresh ingredients. The first Regina Pizzeria was founded in 1926 by Luigi DAuria and it is located at 11 1/2 Thacher Street in Bostons North End, and is Bostons oldest pizzeria. When Luigi DAuria passed, he left the restaurant to his grandson, in 1956, Luigi DAuria sold Regina Pizza to the Polcari family, and they have operated the restaurant since. In May 2015, the parent company filed for protection, closing four underperforming locations. They hoped to renegotiate leases at Independence Mall in Kingston, Liberty Tree Mall in Danvers, and Solomon Pond Mall in Marlborough
32.
Boston and Albany Railroad
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The Boston and Albany Railroad was a railroad connecting Boston, Massachusetts to Albany, New York, later becoming part of the New York Central Railroad system, Conrail, and CSX Transportation. The line is used by CSX for freight. Passenger service is operated on the line by Amtrak, and by the MBTA Commuter Rail system. The Boston and Worcester Railroad was chartered June 23,1831 and construction began in August 1832. The line opened in sections, to West Newton on April 16,1834, to Wellesley on July 3, to Ashland on September 20, to Westborough in November 1834, and the full length to Worcester on July 4,1835. The originally single-track line was doubled-tracked from Boston to Framingham in 1839, in 1843 the B&W introduced season passes to West Newton for $60, effectively introducing the concept of commuter rail. The Western Railroad was chartered February 15,1833 and incorporated March 15,1833 to connect the B&W to the Hudson, construction began in 1837, and the Eastern Division to the Connecticut River in Springfield opened on October 1,1839. On October 4,1841 the first train ran along the full route, the Castleton and West Stockbridge Railroad was incorporated in New York in 1834 as the New York part of the Western Railroad, and changed its name to the Albany and West Stockbridge Railroad. Construction began in December 1840 and the line opened from Greenbush to Chatham on December 21,1841 and it was leased to the Western Railroad for 50 years from November 11,1841. This railroad replaced the Hudson and Berkshire Railroad east of Chatham, two mergers, on September 4,1867 and December 28,1870 brought the three companies, along with the Hudson and Boston Railroad, together into one company, known as the Boston and Albany Railroad. The New York Central and Hudson River Railroad leased the B&A for 99 years from July 1,1900 and this lease passed to the New York Central Railroad in 1914, throughout this, the B&A kept its own branding in the public eye. The NYC merged into Penn Central on February 1,1968, by 1889, as many as 35 trains traveled the Circuit daily, providing commuter service. In 1899, the new South Station union station opened in Boston and that terminal had been located on the west side of Utica Street (Boston, from Kneeland Street south to Harvard Street, now part of the South Bay Interchange. Even earlier, the terminal was in the bounded by Kneeland Street, Beach Street, Albany Street. By the early part of the 20th century, commuter service was provided east of Worcester. The intercity trips were taken over by Amtrak on May 1,1971, and, on January 27,1973, Service beyond Framingham was discontinued October 27,1975, as the state did not subsidize it. Conrail took over Penn Central on April 1,1976, on September 26,1994, some rush hour trains started to serve Worcester on Conrail trackage, extending to other times beginning on December 14,1996. The MBTA acquired the rest of the line from Framingham to Worcester as part of an agreement announced in 2009, the deal was closed on June 17,2010
33.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
34.
Cambridgeport, Cambridge
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Cambridgeport is one of the neighborhoods of Cambridge, Massachusetts. It is bounded by Massachusetts Avenue, the Charles River, the Grand Junction Railroad, the neighborhood contains predominantly residential homes, many of the triple decker style common in New England. The neighborhood also includes Fort Washington Park, several MIT buildings, the neighborhood is Area 5 of Cambridge. In the late 1800s the Fig Newton cookie was first manufactured in Cambridgeport at the F. A. Kennedy Steam Bakery, portions of the neighborhood would have been demolished as part of the Inner Belt highway project. The interstate would have followed the path of Brookline Street to the Boston University Bridge, in 2010 the neighborhood had a population of 12,220 residents living in 5,391 households. In 1999, the household income was $45,294
35.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
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Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was an American poet and educator whose works include Paul Reveres Ride, The Song of Hiawatha, and Evangeline. He was also the first American to translate Dante Alighieris Divine Comedy, Longfellow was born in Portland, Maine, which was then a part of Massachusetts. After spending time in Europe he became a professor at Bowdoin and, later and his first major poetry collections were Voices of the Night and Ballads and Other Poems. Longfellow retired from teaching in 1854, to focus on his writing, living the remainder of his life in Cambridge, Massachusetts and his first wife Mary Potter died in 1835, after a miscarriage. His second wife Frances Appleton died in 1861, after sustaining burns when her dress caught fire, after her death, Longfellow had difficulty writing poetry for a time and focused on translating works from foreign languages. Longfellow wrote many lyric poems known for their musicality and often presenting stories of mythology and he became the most popular American poet of his day and also had success overseas. He has been criticized, however, for imitating European styles and his father was a lawyer, and his maternal grandfather, Peleg Wadsworth, was a general in the American Revolutionary War and a Member of Congress. He was named after his mothers brother Henry Wadsworth, a Navy lieutenant who had died three years earlier at the Battle of Tripoli, Longfellow was the second of eight children, his siblings were Stephen, Elizabeth, Anne, Alexander, Mary, Ellen and Samuel. Longfellow was of entirely English ancestry, all of which had been in New England since the early 1600s, Longfellow attended a dame school at the age of three and by age six was enrolled at the private Portland Academy. In his years there he earned a reputation as being very studious and his mother encouraged his enthusiasm for reading and learning, introducing him to Robinson Crusoe and Don Quixote. He published his first poem, a patriotic and historical four-stanza poem called The Battle of Lovells Pond and he stayed at the Portland Academy until the age of fourteen. He spent much of his summers as a child at his grandfather Pelegs farm in the western Maine town of Hiram, in the fall of 1822, the 15-year-old Longfellow enrolled at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, along with his brother Stephen. His grandfather was a founder of the college and his father was a trustee, there Longfellow met Nathaniel Hawthorne, who would later become his lifelong friend. He boarded with a clergyman for a time before rooming in 1823 on the floor of what is now known as Winthrop Hall. He joined the Peucinian Society, a group of students with Federalist leanings, in his senior year, Longfellow wrote to his father about his aspirations, I will not disguise it in the least. The fact is, I most eagerly aspire after future eminence in literature, my whole soul burns most ardently after it, and every earthly thought centres in it. I am almost confident in believing, that if I can ever rise in the world it must be by the exercise of my talents in the field of literature. He pursued his goals by submitting poetry and prose to various newspapers and magazines
36.
Coolidge Corner
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Coolidge Corner is a neighborhood of Brookline, Massachusetts, centered on the intersection of Beacon Street and Harvard Street. Coolidge Corner developed as a streetcar suburb, and retains a pedestrian-friendly. Many popular coffee shops, pharmacies, small independent boutiques, an independent bookstore, in recent years, an influx of national bank chains has taken over several prime storefronts, detracting from the traditional neighborhood retail mix. There is a community backlash against this trend. The neighborhood has a significant Jewish population, and there are large synagogues located on both Beacon and Harvard streets, near Coolidge Corner, at 83 Beals Street, is the birthplace of President John F. Kennedy. It is a National Historic Site operated by the National Park Service, Coolidge Corner is also home of the Coolidge Corner Theatre, a restored Art Deco movie palace that has been showing movies since 1933. It is an arts institution, featuring first run arthouse films, including independent films, international cinema. It is one of the last remaining original big screen movie houses in the country, the main theatre has a recessed theatrical stage, and seats 700 with classic elegance and cinematic style. The S. S. Pierce Building, constructed in 1897 and it has accommodated a number of businesses over the years, and is recognized by its large clock tower, visible from nearly all points in Coolidge Corner. The Brookline Booksmith is an independent bookstore in Coolidge Corner. It hosts author readings several times a week and it also sells used books in the basement, where most author readings are held. Coolidge Corner contains several restaurants, including a crêperie, two falafel joints, and several Asian food restaurants, many different events, including author readings, family game nights and seasonal sidewalks sales, are regularly hosted by members of the Coolidge Corner Merchants Association. Coolidge Corner also hosts a weekly farmers market on Thursdays from June through October. Coolidge Corner is served by the Coolidge Corner station of the MBTAs Green Line C Branch that runs in a central median along Beacon Street. The #66 MBTA crosstown bus route runs through Coolidge Corner along Harvard Street on its way from Dudley to Harvard Square, the route is considered one of the MBTAs 15 key bus routes that have high ridership and higher frequency standards than other bus lines. Coolidge Corner is home to an elementary school, the Edward Devotion School
37.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
38.
Livestock
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Livestock are domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber, and labor. The term is used to refer solely to those raised for food. In recent years, some organizations have also raised livestock to promote the survival of rare breeds, animal husbandry practices have varied widely across cultures and time periods. Originally, livestock were not confined by fences or enclosures, but these practices have largely shifted to intensive animal farming and these practices increase yield of the various commercial outputs, but have led to increased concerns about animal welfare and environmental impact. Livestock production continues to play an economic and cultural role in numerous rural communities. Livestock as a word was first used between 1650 and 1660, as a merger between the live and stock. Older English sources, such as the King James Version of the Bible, the word cattle is derived from Old North French catel, which meant all kinds of movable personal property, including livestock, which was differentiated from immovable real estate. In later English, sometimes smaller livestock such as chickens and pigs were referred to as small cattle, today, the modern meaning of cattle, without a modifier, usually refers to domesticated bovines, but sometimes livestock refers only to this subgroup. Legal definition United States federal legislation sometimes more narrowly defines the term to make specified agricultural commodities either eligible or ineligible for a program or activity, for example, the Livestock Mandatory Reporting Act of 1999 defines livestock only as cattle, swine, and sheep. Animal-rearing originated during the transition to settled farming communities from hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animals are domesticated when their breeding and living conditions are controlled by humans, over time, the collective behaviour, lifecycle and physiology of livestock have changed radically. Many modern farm animals are unsuited to life in the wild, dogs were domesticated in East Asia about 15,000 years ago. Goats and sheep were domesticated around 8000 BC in Asia, swine or pigs were domesticated by 7000 BC in the Middle East and China. The earliest evidence of horse domestication dates to around 4000 BC, the term livestock is nebulous and may be defined narrowly or broadly. Broadly, livestock refers to any breed or population of animal kept by humans for a useful and this can mean domestic animals, semidomestic animals, or captive wild animals. Semidomesticated refers to animals which are only lightly domesticated or of disputed status and these populations may also be in the process of domestication. Some people may use the term livestock to refer to only used for red meat. Livestock are used by humans for a variety of purposes, many of which have an economic value, Livestock products include, Meat A useful form of dietary protein and energy, meat is the edible tissue of the animal carcass
39.
CSX Transportation
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CSX Transportation is a Class I railroad in the United States. The main subsidiary of the CSX Corporation, the railroad is headquartered in Jacksonville, Florida, CSX operates one of the three Class I railroads serving most of the East Coast, the other two being the Norfolk Southern Railway and Canadian Pacific Railway. It also serves the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec, together CSX and Norfolk Southern Railway have a duopoly over all east-west freight rail traffic east of the Mississippi River. As of October 1,2014, CSXs total public stock value was slightly over $32 billion, CSX Transportation was formed on July 1,1986, by combining the Chessie System and Seaboard System Railroad. The origin of the Chessie System was the former Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, which had merged with the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, on June 6,1998, the STB approved the CSX–NS application and set August 22,1998, as the effective date of its decision. CSX acquired 42 percent of Conrails assets, and NS received the remaining 58 percent, as a result of the transaction, CSXs rail operations grew to include some 3,800 miles of the Conrail system. CSX began operating its trains on its portion of the Conrail network on June 1,1999, CSX now serves much of the eastern U. S. with a few routes into nearby Canadian cities. The name came about during merger talks between Chessie System, Inc. and Seaboard System Railroad, Inc. commonly called Chessie, the company chairmen said it was important for the new name to include neither of those names because it was a partnership. Employees were asked for suggestions, most of which consisted of combinations of the initials, at the same time a temporary shorthand name was needed for discussions with the Interstate Commerce Commission. CSC was chosen but belonged to a company in Virginia. The lawyers decided to use CSX, and the name stuck, in the public announcement, it was said that CSX is singularly appropriate. C can stand for Chessie, S for Seaboard, and X, however, in the August 9,2016 article on the Railway Age website stated that. And the X was for Consolidated, the T had to be added to CSX when used as a reporting mark because reporting marks that end in X means that the car is owned by a leasing company or private car owner. Its current slogan, How Tomorrow Moves, appeared in 2008, in 2014 Canadian Pacific Railway approached CSX with an offer to merge the two companies, but CSX declined and in 2015 Canadian Pacific made an attempt to purchase and merge with Norfolk Southern. In 2017 CSX announced Hunter Harrison as its new chief executive, CSX added 5 new directors to their board, including Harrison and Mantle Ridge founder Paul Hilal. Mantle Ridge owns 4.9 percent of CSX, CSX operates two regions of five divisions each, the Northern, based in Calumet City, Illinois, and Southern, based in Jacksonville, Florida. The CEO of CSX is Hunter Harrison as of Feb 2017, o823, Q740 and Q741, Q743, and Q745—which consists of Tropicana cars that carry fresh orange juice between Bradenton, Florida, and the Greenville section of Jersey City, New Jersey. The train also runs from Bradenton to Fort Pierce, Florida, in the 21st century, the Juice Train has been studied as a model of efficient rail transportation that can compete with trucks and other modes in the perishable-goods trade
40.
Rail yard
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A rail yard, railway yard or railroad yard is the US term for a complex series of railroad tracks for storing, sorting, or loading/unloading, railroad cars and/or locomotives. Railroad yards have many tracks in parallel for keeping rolling stock stored off the mainline, railroad cars are moved around by specially designed yard switchers, a type of locomotive. Cars in a railroad yard may be sorted by categories, including railroad company, loaded or unloaded, destination, car type. Railroad yards are built where there is a need to store cars while they are not being loaded or unloaded. Large yards may have a tower to control operations, many railway yards are located at strategic points on a main line. Main line yards are often composed of an Up yard and a Down yard, there are different types of yards, and different parts within a yard, depending on how they are built. They are decoupled and let to accelerate into the classification equipment lower down, a flat yard has no hump, and relies on locomotives for all car movements. A large sub-group of such yards are known as Staging yards, the long haul carrier makes the round trip with a minimal turn around time, and the local switch engine transfers empties to the loading yard when the industries output is ready to be shipped. In the staging yard, the locomotive is most likely operated by industry, since overall throughput speed matters, many have small pneumatic, hydraulic or spring driven braking retarders to adjust and slow speed both before and after yard switch points. Along with car tracking and load tracking to destination technologies such as RFID long trains can be broken down and reconfigured in transfer yards or operations in remarkable time. Transfer yard is a yard where consists are dropped off or picked up as a group by through service such as a Unit Train, but managed locally by local switching service locomotives. Unit tracks may be reserved for Unit trains, which carry a block of all of the same origin and destination. Such consists often stop in a yard for other purposes, inspection. Freight yards may have multiple industries adjacent to them where railroad cars are loaded or unloaded and then stored before they move on to their new destination. Major freight yards in the U. S. Major U. K. goods yards include those in Crewe, Reading and Bescot, near Walsall, coach yards are used for sorting, storing and repairing passenger cars. These yards are located in areas near large stations or terminals. An example of a major U. S. coach yard is Sunnyside Yard in New York City and those that are principally used for storage, such as the West Side Yard in New York, are called layup yards or stabling yards. Major U. K. coach stabling yards include those in Crewe and Longsight, Manchester, which are operated by various regional train companies
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Slaughterhouse
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A slaughterhouse or abattoir /ˈæbətwɑːr/ is a facility where animals are slaughtered for consumption as food for humans. Slaughtering animals on a large scale poses significant logistical problems, animal welfare problems, public health requirements, due to public aversion in many cultures, determining where to build slaughterhouses is also troubling. Until modern times, the slaughter of animals took place in a haphazard. Early maps of London show numerous stockyards in the periphery of the city, the slaughterhouse emerged as a coherent institution in the nineteenth century. An additional motivation for eliminating private slaughter was to impose a system of regulation for the morally dangerous task of putting animals to death. As a result of tension, meat markets within the city were closed. An early framework for the establishment of public slaughterhouses was put in place in Paris in 1810, five areas were set aside on the outskirts of the city and the feudal privileges of the guilds were curtailed. As the meat requirements of the number of residents in London steadily expanded. Meat had been traded at Smithfield Market as early as the 10th century, by 1726, it was regarded as without question, the greatest in the world, by Daniel Defoe. In 1843, the Farmers Magazine published a petition signed by bankers, salesmen, aldermen, butchers, an Act of Parliament was finally passed in 1852. Under its provisions, a new cattle-market was constructed in Copenhagen Fields, the market was designed by architect Sir Horace Jones and was completed in 1868. A cut and cover tunnel was constructed beneath the market to create a triangular junction with the railway between Blackfriars and Kings Cross. This allowed animals to be transported into the slaughterhouse by train and these slaughterhouses were regulated by law to ensure good standards of hygiene, the prevention of the spread of disease and the minimization of needless animal cruelty. The slaughterhouse had to be equipped with a water supply system to effectively clean the operating area of blood. Veterinary scientists, notably George Fleming and John Gamgee, campaigned for stringent levels of inspection to ensure that such as rinderpest would not be able to spread. By 1874, three meat inspectors were appointed for the London area, and the Public Health Act 1875 required local authorities to provide central slaughterhouses. Yet the appointment of inspectors and the establishment of centralised abattoirs took place much earlier in the British colonies, such as the colonies of New South Wales. Attempts were also made throughout the British Empire to reform the practice of slaughter itself, the eminent physician, Benjamin Ward Richardson, spent many years in developing more humane methods of slaughter
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Kenmore Square
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Kenmore Square is close to or abuts Boston University and Fenway Park, and it features Lansdowne Street, a center of Boston nightlife, and the iconic Citgo sign. It is also the terminus of U. S. Route 20. The land that is now Kenmore Square was originally the swampy, uninhabited corner of the mainland and it was part of the colonial settlement of Boston until 1705, when the hamlet of Muddy River incorporated as the independent town of Brookline. The land ended up in Brookline because the Muddy River - several blocks to the east - formed the border of the new city. The Boston and Worcester Rail Road and the Charles River Branch Railroad combined here to cross the Back Bay on a railroad bridge. The railroad lines still exist on more or less their original alignments, minor adjustments have been made for the construction of South Station, what is now the MBTA Green Line, and the Massachusetts Turnpike. The city of Brighton was merged with Boston in 1874, even as late as 1880, Kenmore Square was only sparsely developed. By 1890, the Back Bay landfill project had reached Kenmore Square, streetcar tracks were laid on Beacon Street in 1888, passing through Kenmore Square on the surface, from Coolidge Corner to Massachusetts Avenue. These would eventually become the Green Line C Branch, tracks were laid on what by then was called Commonwealth Avenue in 1896, from Union Square in Brighton. These would later serve the Green Line A Branch and Green Line B Branch, the Boylston Street Subway was extended to Kenmore Square in 1914, where it rose above ground. In 1932, the Kenmore Square portion of the Green Line was put underground, in 1915, the Kenmore Apartments were built on the corner of Kenmore and Commonwealth Avenue. Later, the became the Hotel Kenmore with 400 guest rooms. The Kenmore was owned by Bertram Druker, a prominent Boston developer and was known as the baseball hotel and it housed every one of the 14 teams after World War II. From the 1960s to 1979 it was used by Grahm Junior College as a hall, cafeteria, library. Later, after Grahm Junior College closed and larger hotels like the Sheraton were built and it is now called Kenmore Abbey. Gary Cherone reminisces about the Kenmore Square music scene in the 1980s on disc one of Extreme’s 2010 live album Take Us Alive. The Mighty Mighty Bosstones reminisce about the closing of The Rathskeller on Kenmore Square in I Want My City Back, a track on A Jacknife to a Swan
