1.
Hayward, CA
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Hayward is a city located in Alameda County, California in the East Bay subregion of the San Francisco Bay Area. With a 2014 population of 149,392, Hayward is the sixth largest city in the Bay Area, Hayward was ranked as the 37th most populous municipality in California. It is included in the San Francisco-Oakland-Fremont Metropolitan Statistical Area by the US Census and it is located primarily between Castro Valley and Union City, and lies at the eastern terminus of the San Mateo-Hayward Bridge. The city was devastated early in its history by the 1868 Hayward earthquake, from the early 20th century until the beginning of the 1980s, Haywards economy was dominated by its now defunct food canning and salt production industries. Human habitation of the greater East Bay, including Hayward, dates from at least 4000 B. C, the most recent pre-European inhabitants of the Hayward area were the Native American Ohlone people. In the 19th century, the land that is now Hayward became part of Rancho San Lorenzo, most of the citys structures were destroyed in the earthquake, the last major earthquake on the fault. In 1930, that site was chosen for the construction of the City Hall, William Dutton Hayward arrived during the gold rush and squatted, started building a house, next to the creek at the site of the old Polamares School. Guillermo Castros Vaqueros came by one day and told Hayward to get off of Castros property, William did leave, but went to Guillermo Castro directly and asked to buy a piece of his land. Castro sold him the area of what was east of Castro Street, now Mission Blvd, William Hayward built a grand hotel on the property. He and his wife ran the hotel, which burned to the ground around 1916. Hayward was originally known as Haywards, then as Haywood, later as Haywards, there is some disagreement as to how it was named. Most historians believe it was named for William Dutton Hayward, who opened a hotel there in 1852, the U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System states the city was named after Alvinza Hayward, a millionaire from the California Gold Rush. Regardless of which Hayward the area was named for, the name was changed to Haywood when the post office was first established in 1860, Castro emigrated to Chile with most of his family in 1864, after he lost his land in a card game. His name survives in the community of Castro Valley, located in the next to Hayward. The ranch was split up and sold to locals, William Hayward among them. William Haywards fortunes took a turn for the grander when he constructed a resort hotel, the surrounding area came to be called Haywards after the hotel. William Hayward eventually became the commissioner for Alameda County. He used his authority to influence the construction of roads in his own favor and he was also an Alameda County supervisor
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Portmanteau
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In linguistics, a portmanteau is defined as a single morph that represents two or more morphemes. A portmanteau also differs from a compound, which not involve the truncation of parts of the stems of the blended words. For instance, starfish is a compound, not a portmanteau, of star and fish, whereas a hypothetical portmanteau of star and fish might be stish. Humpty Dumpty explains the practice of combining words in various ways by telling Alice, for instance, take the two words fuming and furious. Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first … if you have the rarest of gifts, in then-contemporary English, a portmanteau was a suitcase that opened into two equal sections. The etymology of the word is the French porte-manteau, from porter, to carry, in modern French, a porte-manteau is a clothes valet, a coat-tree or similar article of furniture for hanging up jackets, hats, umbrellas and the like. It has also used especially in Europe as a formal description for hat racks from the French words porter. An occasional synonym for portmanteau word is frankenword, an autological word exemplifying the phenomenon it describes, blending Frankenstein, many neologisms are examples of blends, but many blends have become part of the lexicon. In Punch in 1896, the word brunch was introduced as a portmanteau word, in 1964, the newly independent African republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar chose the portmanteau word Tanzania as its name. Similarly Eurasia is a portmanteau of Europe and Asia, a scientific example is a liger, which is a cross between a male lion and a female tiger. Jeoportmanteau. is a category on the American television quiz show Jeopardy. The categorys name is itself a portmanteau of the words Jeopardy, responses in the category are portmanteaus constructed by fitting two words together. The term gerrymander has itself contributed to portmanteau terms bjelkemander and playmander, oxbridge is a common portmanteau for the UKs two oldest universities, those of Oxford and Cambridge. Many portmanteau words receive some use but do not appear in all dictionaries, for example, a spork is an eating utensil that is a combination of a spoon and a fork, and a skort is an item of clothing that is part skirt, part shorts. On the other hand, turducken, a made by inserting a chicken into a duck. Similarly, the word refudiate was first used by Sarah Palin when she misspoke, though initially a gaffe, the word was recognized as the New Oxford American Dictionarys Word of the Year in 2010. The business lexicon is replete with newly coined portmanteau words like permalance, advertainment, advertorial, infotainment, a company name may also be portmanteau as well as a product name. By contrast, the public, including the media, use portmanteaux to refer to their favorite pairings as a way to. giv people an essence of who they are within the same name and this is particularly seen in cases of fictional and real-life supercouples
4.
Reel-to-reel tape recorder
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Reel-to-reel or open-reel audio tape recording is the form of magnetic tape audio recording in which the recording medium is held on a reel, rather than being securely contained within a cassette. Reel-to-reel systems use a tape that is 1⁄4 inches in width and this compares to 0.15 inches wide and 1.875 inches per second for a cassette. By writing out the audio signal across more tape, reel-to-reel systems offer much higher fidelity. In spite of the tapes, less convenient use and generally higher cost media. Studer, Stellavox and Denon still produced reel to reel tape recorders in the 1990s, but as of 2014, only Nagra, Otari, originally, this format had no name, since all forms of magnetic tape recorders used it. The earliest machines produced distortion during the process which German engineers significantly reduced during the Nazi era by applying a bias signal to the tape. In 1939 one machine was found to make consistently better recordings than other ostensibly identical models, and when it was taken apart a minor flaw was noticed. It was introducing an AC signal to the tape, and this was adapted to new models using a high-frequency AC bias that has remained a part of audio tape recording to this day. American audio engineer Jack Mullin was a member of the U. S. Army Signal Corps during World War II and he acquired two Magnetophon recorders and 50 reels of I. G. Farben recording tape and shipped them home, over the next two years, he worked to develop the machines for commercial use, hoping to interest the Hollywood film studios in using magnetic tape for movie soundtrack recording. Crosby invested $50,000 in an electronics company, Ampex. Ampex went on to develop the first practical videotape recorders in the early 1950s to pre-record Crosbys TV shows, inexpensive reel-to-reel tape recorders were widely used for voice recording in the home and in schools before the Philips compact cassette, introduced in 1963, gradually took over. Cassettes eventually displaced reel-to-reel recorders for consumer use, however, the narrow tracks and slow recording speeds used in cassettes compromised fidelity. Columbia House carried pre-recorded reel-to-reel tapes from 1960 to 1984, even today, some artists of all genres prefer analog tapes musical, natural and especially warm sound. Due to harmonic distortion, bass can thicken up, creating a fuller-sounding mix, in addition, high end can be slightly compressed, which is more natural to the human ear. It is common for artists to record to digital and re-record the tracks to analog reels for this effect of natural sound. In addition to all of these attributes of tape, tape saturation is a form of distortion that many rock, blues. For the first time, audio could be manipulated as a physical entity, Tape editing is performed simply by cutting the tape at the required point, and rejoining it to another section of tape using adhesive tape, or sometimes glue
5.
Magnetophon
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AEG created the worlds first practical tape recorder, the K1, first demonstrated in Germany in 1935 at the Berlin Radio Show. Later models introduced the concept of AC tape bias, and thereby improved the quality by largely eliminating background hiss. The resulting reproduction was so great an advance on any existing recording method that even those well acquainted with the industry could not tell the recordings from live play, adolf Hitler used these machines to perform what appeared to be live broadcasts from one city while he was in another. A cache of 350 of these tapes was released years later when they were found in Koblenz, two later model Magnetophons were taken to the United States after the war, having been found in Frankfurt. These included both the newer oxide coated PVC tape developed by I. G, farben as well as the AC bias system. Attending the SF demo were Ampex engineers Harold Lindsey and Myron Stolaroff, Mullins friend, Richard Ranger, had also designed his own take on the Mullinized Magnetophon called the Rangertone, however, a demonstration of that machine to Bing Crosby didnt go well. Mullin then arranged for Crosby to experience a demonstration of the machine designed by Lindsey and Stolaroff, although an initial showcase of the Ampex machine was unable to demonstrate recording, the audio quality of its playback was good enough to get Crosby to agree to work with them. With Bing Crosby arranging financial support for manufacturing, the Ampex 200A went into production. The Magnetophon tape recorder was one of the first recording machines to use magnetic tape in preserving voice, however, early Magnetophons gave disappointing results. One of the first concerts to be recorded on a Magnetophon was Mozarts 39th Symphony played by the London Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Sir Thomas Beecham, the recording was made on an AEG K2 Magnetophon running at 100 cm/s. The tape used was the black iron oxide Fe3O4 type. When Beecham and the musicians heard the playback they were disappointed with the distortion. This recording survived until the 1990s and has been transferred, some other surviving tapes show a tendency toward overmodulation. Adding a direct-current bias to the head gave some improvement. The discovery was made when a Magnetophone producing recordings of extraordinary quality was sent for repair, the machine was found to have an oscillating DC bias amplifier. The Magnetophon became a high fidelity recording system because in so many respects it outperformed gramophone recording, many speeches, concerts, and operatic performances were recorded. Since many of the recordings survived World War II they were issued on LPs. AEG engineers made rapid strides in perfecting the system and had practical stereo recorders by 1943, until 1945, about 250 stereophonic tape recordings were known to exist, including some Richard Strauss and Furtwängler
6.
Bing Crosby
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Harry Lillis Bing Crosby, Jr. was an American singer and actor. The first multimedia star, from 1931 to 1954 Crosby was a leader in sales, radio ratings. His early career coincided with technical recording innovations such as the microphone and this allowed him to develop a laid-back, intimate singing style that influenced many of the popular male singers who followed him, including Perry Como, Frank Sinatra, Dick Haymes, and Dean Martin. Also in 1948, the Music Digest estimated that Crosby recordings filled more than half of the 80,000 weekly hours allocated to recorded radio music, in 1963, Crosby received the first Grammy Global Achievement Award. He is one of only 33 people to have three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, in the categories of motion pictures, radio, Crosby influenced the development of the postwar recording industry. He became the first performer to pre-record his radio shows and master his commercial recordings onto magnetic tape. In addition to his work with early tape recording, he helped to finance the development of videotape, bought television stations, bred racehorses, Crosby died at the age of 74 on October 14,1977, from a sudden heart attack in Alcobendas, Spain. Crosby was born on May 2,1903 in Tacoma, Washington, in 1906, Crosbys family moved to Spokane, and in 1913, Crosbys father built a house at 508 E. Sharp Avenue. The house now sits on the campus of Crosbys alma mater Gonzaga University and he was the fourth of seven children, brothers Larry, Everett, Ted, and Bob, and two sisters, Catherine and Mary Rose. His parents were Harry Lowe Crosby, Sr. a bookkeeper, Crosbys mother was a second generation Irish-American. In 1910, seven-year-old Harry Crosby Jr. was forever renamed, the Sunday edition of the Spokesman-Review published a feature called The Bingville Bugle. Written by humorist Newton Newkirk, The Bingville Bugle was a parody of a hillbilly newsletter filled with gossipy tidbits, minstrel quips, creative spelling, and mock ads. A neighbor, 15-year-old Valentine Hobart, shared Crosbys enthusiasm for The Bugle, and noting Crosbys laugh, took a liking to him, eventually, the last vowel was dropped and the nickname stuck. Crosby later described Jolsons delivery as electric, Crosby graduated from Gonzaga High School in 1920 and enrolled at Gonzaga University. He attended Gonzaga for three years, but did not earn a bachelors degree, as a freshman, he played on the universitys baseball team. The university granted him a doctorate in 1937. In 1923, Crosby was invited to join a new band composed of school students a few years younger than himself. Al Rinker, Miles Rinker, James Heaton, Claire Pritchard and Robert Pritchard, along with drummer Crosby, formed the Musicaladers, the group performed on Spokane radio station KHQ, but disbanded after two years
7.
Video tape recorder
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A video tape recorder is a tape recorder designed to record video material on magnetic tape. The first practical tape recorder, using transverse tape head scanning, was developed by Ampex Corporation in 1956. The early VTRs were reel to reel devices which recorded on reels of 2 inch wide magnetic tape. They were used in studios, serving as a replacement for motion picture film stock. Beginning in 1963, videotape machines made instant replay during televised sporting events possible, improved formats, in which the tape was contained inside a videocassette, were introduced around 1969, the machines which play them are called videocassette recorders. The first efforts at recording, using recorders similar to audio recorders with fixed heads, were unsuccessful. The problem was that a signal has a much wider bandwidth than an audio signal. One of the first efforts was the Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus and this machine used a thin steel tape on a 21-inch reel traveling at over 200 inches per second. Despite 10 years of research and improvements, it was never used due to the immense length of tape required for each minute of recorded video. Many other fixed-head recording systems were tried but all required impractically high tape speed and it became clear that practical video recording technology depended on finding some way of recording the wide-bandwidth video signal without the high tape speed required by linear-scan machines. The Ampex VRX-1000 became the worlds first commercially successful videotape recorder in 1956 and it used the 2 Quadruplex format, using two-inch tape. Because of its US$50,000 price, the Ampex VRX-1000 could be afforded only by the television networks and the largest individual stations. In 1963, Philips introduced its EL34001 helical scan recorder and Sony marketed the 2 PV-100, its first reel-to-reel VTR intended for business, medical, airline and educational use. The Telcan, produced by the Nottingham Electronic Valve Company and demonstrated on June 24,1963, was the first home video recorder and it could be bought as a unit or in kit form for £60. However, there were drawbacks, it was expensive, not easy to put together. The Sony model CV-2000, first marketed in 1965, was its first VTR intended for use and was based on half-inch tape. Ampex and RCA followed in 1965 with its own reel-to-reel monochrome VTRs priced under US $1,000 for the consumer market. Prerecorded movies for home replay became available in 1967, the EIAJ format was a standard half-inch format used by various manufacturers
8.
Helical scan
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Helical scan is a method of recording high frequency signals on magnetic tape. It is used in video tape recorders, video cassette recorders, digital audio tape recorders. In a fixed tape head recording system, magnetic tape is drawn past the head at a constant speed. The head creates a magnetic field in response to the signal to be recorded. As the tape moves away, the magnetic particles carry an imprint of the signal in their magnetic orientation. If the tape moves too slowly, a frequency signal will not be imprinted. Thus the bandwidth capacity of the recorded signal can be seen to be related to tape speed, the faster the speed. Digital video and digital audio need considerably more bandwidth than analog audio and this is impractical, since tapes of immense length would be required. The generally adopted solution is to rotate the head against the tape at high speed, so that the velocity is high. To accomplish this, the head must be tilted so that at each rotation of the head, each segment of the signal is recorded as a diagonal stripe across the tape. This is known as a helical scan because the tape wraps around the drum at an angle. The difference between the writing speed and linear tape speed is vast, for example,13 mph versus 35 mm/s. The helical scan method of recording was first developed by Eduard Schüller, with the advent of television broadcasting in Japan in the early 1950s, they saw the need for magnetic television signal recording just as engineers in the United States and Europe did. Thus, when tape motion was stopped, only a segment of the picture recording was present at the playback heads. The motivation to overcome this limitation led, in part, to the development of the helical scan system, toshiba introduced helical scan technology to the television industry in 1959. During the 1960s and 1970s, helical scan recording machines were introduced by many manufacturers and these factors also made it possible eventually to bring video recording to users at home, in a cassette format. There were a number of problems to be overcome with this system, the high tape/head speed could lead to rapid wear of both the tape and the head, so both need to be highly polished, and the head made of a hard, wear resistant material. Most systems operate with an air bearing separating the heads from the surface of the drum, supplying signals to a rotating head is also problematic, This is usually accomplished by coupling the signal inductively through a rotary transformer
9.
San Carlos, California
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San Carlos is a city in San Mateo County, California on the San Francisco Peninsula, about halfway between San Francisco and San Jose. It is an affluent residential suburb located between Belmont to the north and Redwood City to the south. The population was 28,406 at the 2010 census, San Carlos, The City of Good Living, aims for a small town feel. Its main downtown area is composed mostly of small shops and restaurants, San Carlos was the first city in California to open a charter school, and its schools rank consistently well in statewide lists. San Carlos is home to San Carlos Airport and two museums, located downtown, the San Carlos History Museum is dedicated to the display of the history of the town from early Native American history to the space age. This museum is open every Saturday from 1,00 PM to 4,00 PM, transportation options include membership in the SamTrans bus system and a Caltrain station. The administrative headquarters of both agencies are located at 1250 San Carlos Avenue, however, voters rejected a parcel tax which placed 100% of the financial burden on property owners and the S. C. O. O. T program was dismantled on June 17,2005. City Hall was once located at 666 Elm Street, the address number was later changed to 600 Elm Street due to pressure from residents. San Carlos was also home of the Circle Star Theater where performers such as Richard Marx. It was torn down and replaced by office buildings, San Carlos also once boasted the 2,500 student San Carlos High School which was closed in 1982 due to declining enrollment. Today, students travel to Belmonts Carlmont High School or Redwood Citys Sequoia High School to receive their secondary education. Every May, the hosts the Hometown Days carnival in Burton Park. In October, the Chamber of Commerce hosts the San Carlos Art & Wine Faire, October 2015 marked the 25th year it has been held. Thursday evenings during the summer Laurel street is home to a farmers market known as Hot Harvest Nights. However, most people call it Farmers Market, prior to the Spanish arrival in 1769, the land of San Carlos was occupied by a group of Native Americans who called themselves the Lamchins. While they considered themselves to have a separate identity from other local tribes, the Lamchins referred to the area of their primary residence—probably on the north bank of Pulgas creek—as Cachanihtac, which included their word for vermin. When the Spanish arrived, they translated this as the fleas, or las Pulgas, giving many places, the Native American life was one of traditional hunting and gathering. There was plentiful game and fowl available, and fish could be caught in the San Francisco Bay, there were also grasses, plants and oak trees, and archaeological finds of mortars and pestles indicate that these source were processed for food
10.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
11.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
12.
Alnico
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Alnico is an acronym referring to a family of iron alloys which in addition to iron are composed primarily of aluminium, nickel and cobalt, hence al-ni-co. They also include copper, and sometimes titanium, Alnico alloys are ferromagnetic, with a high coercivity and are used to make permanent magnets. Before the development of rare-earth magnets in the 1970s, they were the strongest type of permanent magnet, other trade names for alloys in this family are, Alni, Alcomax, Hycomax, Columax, and Ticonal. The composition of alnico alloys is typically 8–12% Al, 15–26% Ni, 5–24% Co, up to 6% Cu, up to 1% Ti, Alnico alloys can be magnetised to produce strong magnetic fields and have a high coercivity, thus making strong permanent magnets. Of the more commonly available magnets, only rare-earth magnets such as neodymium, Alnico magnets produce magnetic field strength at their poles as high as 1500 gausses, or about 3000 times the strength of Earths magnetic field. Some brands of alnico are isotropic and can be magnetized in any direction. Other types, such as alnico 5 and alnico 8, are anisotropic, with each having a direction of magnetization. Anisotropic alloys generally have greater capacity in a preferred orientation than isotropic types. Alnicos remanence may exceed 12,000 G, its coercivity can be up to 1000 oersteds and this means that alnico can produce a strong magnetic flux in closed magnetic circuits, but has relatively small resistance against demagnetization. The field strength at the poles of any permanent magnet depends very much on the shape and is well below the remanence strength of the material. Alnico alloys have some of the highest Curie temperatures of any material, around 800 °C. They are the only magnets that have useful magnetism even when heated red-hot and this property, as well as its brittleness and high melting point, is the result of the strong tendency toward order due to intermetallic bonding between aluminium and other constituents. They are also one of the most stable if they are handled properly. Alnico magnets are electrically conductive, unlike ceramic magnets, as of 2008, Alnico magnets cost about 44 USD/kg or 4.30 USD/BHmax. Alnico magnets are traditionally classified using numbers assigned by the Magnetic Materials Producers Association, for example and these classifications indicate chemical composition and magnetic properties. Alnico magnets are produced by casting or sintering processes, anisotropic alnico magnets are oriented by heating above a critical temperature and cooling in the presence of a magnetic field. After the heat treatment alnico becomes a material, named precipitation material—it consists of iron-. Without an external field there are local anisotropies of different orientations due to spontaneous magnetization, the precipitate structure is a barrier against magnetization changes, as it prefers few magnetization states requiring much energy to get the material into any intermediate state
13.
General Electric
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General Electric, often abbreviated as GE, is an American multinational conglomerate corporation incorporated in New York and headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts. In 2011, GE ranked among the Fortune 500 as the 68th-largest firm in the U. S. by gross revenue, as of 2012, the company was listed the fourth-largest in the world among the Forbes Global 2000, further metrics being taken into account. The Nobel Prize has twice been awarded to employees of General Electric, Irving Langmuir in 1932, on January 13,2016, it was announced that GE will be moving its corporate headquarters from Fairfield, Connecticut to the South Boston Waterfront neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. The first group of workers arrived in the summer of 2016, morgan and the Vanderbilt family for Edisons lighting experiments. The new company also acquired Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company in the same year, both plants continue to operate under the GE banner to this day. The company was incorporated in New York, with the Schenectady plant used as headquarters for years thereafter. Around the same time, General Electrics Canadian counterpart, Canadian General Electric, was formed, in 1896, General Electric was one of the original 12 companies listed on the newly formed Dow Jones Industrial Average. After 120 years, it is the one of the original companies still listed on the Dow index. In 1911, General Electric absorbed the National Electric Lamp Association into its lighting business, GE established its lighting division headquarters at Nela Park in East Cleveland, Ohio. Nela Park is still the headquarters for GEs lighting business, owen D. Young, through GE, founded the Radio Corporation of America in 1919 to further international radio. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, in 1927, Ernst Alexanderson of GE made the first demonstration of his television broadcasts at his General Electric Realty Plot home at 1132 Adams Rd, Schenectady, NY. The sound was broadcast on GEs WGY, experimental television station W2XAD evolved into station WRGB which—along with WGY and WGFM —was owned and operated by General Electric until 1983. GEs history of working with turbines in the field gave them the engineering know-how to move into the new field of aircraft turbosuperchargers. Led by Sanford Alexander Moss, GE introduced the first superchargers during World War I, superchargers became indispensable in the years immediately prior to World War II, and GE was the world leader in exhaust-driven supercharging when the war started. This experience, in turn, made GE a natural selection to develop the Whittle W.1 jet engine that was demonstrated in the United States in 1941, GE ranked ninth among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. In 2002, GE acquired the assets of Enron during its bankruptcy proceedings. Some consumers boycotted GE light bulbs, refrigerators and other products in the 1980s and 1990s to protest GEs role in weapons production. With IBM, Burroughs, NCR, Control Data Corporation, Honeywell, RCA and UNIVAC, GE had a line of general purpose and special purpose computers
14.
Tape bias
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Tape bias is the term for two techniques, AC bias and DC bias, that improve the fidelity of analogue magnetic tape sound recordings. DC bias is the addition of a current to the audio signal that is being recorded. AC bias is the addition of an inaudible high-frequency signal to the audio signal, magnetic tape without AC bias has a nonlinear response at low signal strengths, as measured by its coercivity. Bias increases the quality of most audio recordings significantly by pushing the signal into the linear zone of the tapes transfer function. Magnetic recording was proposed as early as 1888 by Oberlin Smith, by 1898 Valdemar Poulsen had demonstrated a magnetic recorder and proposed magnetic tape. The earliest magnetic recording systems simply applied the unadulterated input signal to a head, resulting in recordings with poor low-frequency response. Within short order, the addition of a direct current to the signal. The principal disadvantage of DC bias was that it left the tape with a net magnetization, Some early DC-bias systems used a permanent magnet that was placed near the record head. It had to be out of the way for replay. DC bias was replaced by AC bias but was later re-adopted by some very low-cost cassette recorders, although the improvements are marked with such DC bias, even more dramatic improvement results if an alternating-current bias is used instead. While several people around the world rediscovered AC bias, it was the German developments that were used in practice. The original patent for AC bias was filed by W. L. Carlson and Glenn L. Carpenter in 1921, the value of AC bias was somewhat masked by the primitive state of other aspects of magnetic recording, however, and Carlson and Carpenters achievement was largely ignored. Teiji Igarishi, Mokoto Ishikawa, and Kenzo Nagai of Japan published a paper on AC biasing in 1938, marvin Camras also rediscovered high-frequency bias independently in 1941 and received US2351004. The reduction in distortion and noise provided by AC bias was rediscovered in 1940 by Walter Weber, the German pair received several related patents, including DE743411 for high-frequency treatment of the sound carrier. Possibly independently of Weber and Braunmühl, the UK company Boosey & Hawkes produced a steel-wire recorder under government contract during the Second World War that was equipped with AC bias, examples still surface from time to time, many having been disposed of as government surplus stock. After the war, Boosey and Hawkes also produced a Reporter tape recorder in the early 1950s using magnetic tape, rather than wire, which was based on German wartime technology. The AC bias level is quite critical and, after being adjusted for a particular tape formulation with a recording machine, was usually left unchanged. A quantitative explanation of ac bias has been given by Bertram The characteristics of the system change quite markedly as the level of the bias current is changed
15.
BASF
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BASF SE is a German chemical company and the largest producer in the world. Its headquarters is located in Ludwigshafen, Germany, BASF has customers in over 200 countries and supplies products to a wide variety of industries. Despite its size and global presence, BASF has received little public attention since abandoning its consumer product lines in the 1990s. At the end of 2015, the company employed more than 122,000 people, in 2015, BASF posted sales of €70.4 billion and income from operations before special items of about €6.7 billion. The company is expanding its international activities with a particular focus on Asia. Between 1990 and 2005, the company invested €5.6 billion in Asia, for example in sites near Nanjing and Shanghai, China, BASF is listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange, London Stock Exchange, and Zurich Stock Exchange. The company delisted its ADR from the New York Stock Exchange in September 2007, the company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. BASF was founded on 6 April 1865 in Mannheim, in the German-speaking country of Baden by Friedrich Engelhorn and it had been responsible for setting up a gasworks and street lighting for the town council in 1861. The gasworks produced tar as a byproduct, and Engelhorn used this for the production of dyes, BASF was set up in 1865 to produce other chemicals necessary for dye production, notably soda and acids. In 1866 the dye production processes were also moved to the BASF site, BASF recruited Heinrich Caro, a German chemist with experience of the dyestuffs industry in England, to be the first head of research. Caro developed a synthesis for alizarin, and applied for a British patent on 25 June 1869, coincidentally Perkin applied for a virtually identical patent on 26 June 1869, and the two companies came to a mutual commercial agreement about the process. In 1901, some 80% of the BASF production was dyestuffs, sodium carbonate was produced by the Leblanc process until 1880, when the much cheaper Solvay process became available. BASF ceased to make its own and bought it from the Solvay company thereafter, sulfuric acid was initially produced by the lead chamber process, but in 1890 a unit using the contact process was brought on stream, producing the acid at higher concentration and at lower cost. This followed extensive research and development by Rudolf Knietsch, for which he received the Liebig Medal in 1904, BASF also acquired and began mining anhydrite for gypsum at the Kohnstein in 1917. In 1925, BASF merged with Bayer, Hoechst and three companies to form I. G. Farben played a role in the Nazi economy. During World War II, the company manufactured poison gas, Zyklon B, used at camps and employed forced. Several company directors and senior managers were tried for war crimes and crimes against humanity, as a result of this monopoly, BASF was able to start operations at a new site in Leuna in 1916, where explosives were produced during the First World War
16.
NBC
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The National Broadcasting Company is an American commercial broadcast television network that is the flagship property of NBCUniversal, a subsidiary of Comcast. The network is part of the Big Three television networks, founded in 1926 by the Radio Corporation of America, NBC is the oldest major broadcast network in the United States. Following the acquisition by GE, Bob Wright served as executive officer of NBC, remaining in that position until his retirement in 2007. In 2003, French media company Vivendi merged its entertainment assets with GE, Comcast purchased a controlling interest in the company in 2011, and acquired General Electrics remaining stake in 2013. Following the Comcast merger, Zucker left NBC Universal and was replaced as CEO by Comcast executive Steve Burke, during a period of early broadcast business consolidation, radio manufacturer Radio Corporation of America acquired New York City radio station WEAF from American Telephone & Telegraph. Westinghouse, a shareholder in RCA, had an outlet in Newark, New Jersey pioneer station WJZ. This station was transferred from Westinghouse to RCA in 1923, WEAF acted as a laboratory for AT&Ts manufacturing and supply outlet Western Electric, whose products included transmitters and antennas. The Bell System, AT&Ts telephone utility, was developing technologies to transmit voice- and music-grade audio over short and long distances, the 1922 creation of WEAF offered a research-and-development center for those activities. WEAF maintained a schedule of radio programs, including some of the first commercially sponsored programs. In an early example of chain or networking broadcasting, the station linked with Outlet Company-owned WJAR in Providence, Rhode Island, AT&T refused outside companies access to its high-quality phone lines. The early effort fared poorly, since the telegraph lines were susceptible to atmospheric. In 1925, AT&T decided that WEAF and its network were incompatible with the companys primary goal of providing a telephone service. AT&T offered to sell the station to RCA in a deal that included the right to lease AT&Ts phone lines for network transmission, the divisions ownership was split among RCA, its founding corporate parent General Electric and Westinghouse. NBC officially started broadcasting on November 15,1926, WEAF and WJZ, the flagships of the two earlier networks, were operated side-by-side for about a year as part of the new NBC. On April 5,1927, NBC expanded to the West Coast with the launch of the NBC Orange Network and this was followed by the debut of the NBC Gold Network, also known as the Pacific Gold Network, on October 18,1931. The Orange Network carried Red Network programming, and the Gold Network carried programming from the Blue Network, initially, the Orange Network recreated Eastern Red Network programming for West Coast stations at KPO in San Francisco. The Orange Network name was removed from use in 1936, at the same time, the Gold Network became part of the Blue Network. In the 1930s, NBC also developed a network for shortwave radio stations, in 1927, NBC moved its operations to 711 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, occupying the upper floors of a building designed by architect Floyd Brown
17.
American Broadcasting Company
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The network is headquartered on Columbus Avenue and West 66th Street in Manhattan, New York City. There are additional offices and production facilities elsewhere in New York City, as well as in Los Angeles and Burbank. Since 2007, when ABC Radio was sold to Citadel Broadcasting, ABC originally launched on October 12,1943, as a radio network, separated from and serving as the successor to the NBC Blue Network, which had been purchased by Edward J. Noble. It extended its operations to television in 1948, following in the footsteps of established broadcast networks CBS, in the mid-1950s, ABC merged with United Paramount Theatres, a chain of movie theaters that formerly operated as a subsidiary of Paramount Pictures. Leonard Goldenson, who had been the head of UPT, made the new television network profitable by helping develop, in 1996, most of Capital Cities/ABCs assets were purchased by The Walt Disney Company. The television network has eight owned-and-operated and over 232 affiliated television stations throughout the United States, most Canadians have access to at least one U. S. ABC News provides news and features content for radio stations owned by Citadel Broadcasting. In the 1930s, radio in the United States was dominated by three companies, the Columbia Broadcasting System, the Mutual Broadcasting System and the National Broadcasting Company. The last was owned by electronics manufacturer Radio Corporation of America, in 1938, the FCC began a series of investigations into the practices of radio networks and published its report on the broadcasting of network radio programs in 1940. The report recommended that RCA give up control of either NBC Red or NBC Blue, at that time, the NBC Red Network was the principal radio network in the United States and, according to the FCC, RCA was using NBC Blue to eliminate any hint of competition. Once Mutuals appeals against the FCC were rejected, RCA decided to sell NBC Blue in 1941, the newly separated NBC Red and NBC Blue divided their respective corporate assets. Investment firm Dillon, Read & Co. offered $7.5 million to purchase the network, Edward John Noble, the owner of Life Savers candy, drugstore chain Rexall and New York City radio station WMCA, purchased the network for $8 million. Due to FCC ownership rules, the transaction, which was to include the purchase of three RCA stations by Noble, would require him to resell his station with the FCCs approval, the Commission authorized the transaction on October 12,1943. Soon afterward, the Blue Network was purchased by the new company Noble founded, Noble subsequently acquired the rights to the American Broadcasting Company name from George B. Meanwhile, in August 1944, the West Coast division of the Blue Network, both stations were then managed by Don Searle, the vice-president of the Blue Networks West Coast division. The ABC Radio Network created its audience slowly, the network also became known for such suspenseful dramas as Sherlock Holmes, Gang Busters and Counterspy, as well as several mid-afternoon youth-oriented programs. S. From Nazi Germany after its conquest, to pre-record its programming, while its radio network was undergoing reconstruction, ABC found it difficult to avoid falling behind on the new medium of television. To ensure a space, in 1947, ABC submitted five applications for television station licenses, the ABC television network made its debut on April 19,1948, with WFIL-TV in Philadelphia becoming its first primary affiliate
18.
3M
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The 3M Company, formerly known as the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company, is an American multinational conglomerate corporation based in Maplewood, Minnesota, a suburb of St. Paul. 3M has operations in more than 65 countries including 29 international companies with manufacturing operations and 35 companies with laboratories, 3M products are available for purchase through distributors and retailers, and online directly from the company. Five businessmen founded 3M in Two Harbors, Minnesota, in 1902, originally a mining venture, the goal was to mine corundum, but this failed because the mines mineral holdings were anorthosite, which had no commercial value. Co-founder John Dwan solicited funds in exchange for stock and Edgar Ober, the company moved to Duluth and began research and producing sandpaper products. William L. McKnight, later a key executive, joined the company in 1907, 3M finally became financially stable in 1916 and was able to pay dividends. The company moved to St. Paul in 1910, where it remained for 52 years before outgrowing the campus and moving to its current headquarters at 3M Center in Maplewood, Minnesota in 1962. The new Maplewood campus is 475 acres and has over 50 buildings, the company began by mining stone from quarries for use in grinding wheels. Struggling with quality and marketing of its products, management supported its workers to innovate and develop new products, twelve years after its inception, 3M developed its first exclusive product, Three-M-ite cloth. Other innovations in this era included masking tape, waterproof sandpaper, by 1929, 3M had made its first moves toward international expansion by forming Durex to conduct business in Europe. The same year, the stock was first traded over the counter. The company is currently a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average, the founders original plan was to sell the mineral corundum to manufacturers in the East for making grinding wheels. In reality, however, Dwan and his associates were not selling what they thought, failing to make sandpaper with the anorthosite, the founders decided to import minerals like Spanish garnet, after which sale of sandpapers grew. In 1914, customers complained that the garnet was falling off the paper, the founders discovered that the stones had traveled across the Atlantic Ocean packed near olive oil, and the oil had penetrated the stones. Unable to take the loss of selling expensive inventory, they roasted the stones over fire to remove the olive oil, the companys late innovations include waterproof sandpaper and masking tape, as well as cellophane Scotch Tape and sound-deadening materials for cars. In 1947, 3M began producing PFOA by electrochemical fluorination, during the 1950s, the company expanded worldwide with operations in Canada, Mexico, France, Germany, Australia, and the United Kingdom in large part by Clarence Sampair. DuPont referred to PFOA as C8, in 1951, international sales were approximately $20 million. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, 3M published a line of board games and these games were marketed to adults and sold through department stores, with easily learned simple rules but complex game play and depth and with uniformly high-quality components. As such, they are the ancestors of the German Eurogames, the games covered a variety of topics, from business and sports simulations to word and abstract strategy games
19.
Broadcast delay
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In radio and television, broadcast delay refers to the practice of intentionally delaying broadcast of live material. A short delay is used to prevent profanity, bloopers, violence, or other undesirable material from making it to air. In this instance, it is referred to as a seven-second delay or profanity delay. Longer delays can also be introduced, often to allow a show to air at the time for the local market as is sometimes done with nationally broadcast programs in countries with multiple time zones. That can sometimes be achieved with a video tape recorder or similar technology. In the context of digital video recorders, this can now be considered a class of time shifting. This includes Southern California, despite the fact that Southern California is where many live televised events take place, nationally telecast morning news shows in the US typically are aired live only in the Eastern time zone, while on tape delay in the remaining time zones. This allows post-production staff to edit out any glitches that occurred during the live broadcast, tape delay also refers to the process of broadcasting an event at a later scheduled time. This is because either a scheduling conflict prevents a live telecast and this can also be done due to time constraints where certain portions are edited out, or availability of hosts or other key production staff only at certain times of the day. Sporting events aired on tape delay are often edited down for time considerations, highlighting what the broadcaster feels are the most interesting portions of the event, a system of rollers guided the tape over the playback head before it wound up on the take up reel. This system was introduced in 1952 when WKAP started a show called Open Mic. It is believed that this was the first time a telephone call-in show was broadcast with the telephone conversation live on the air, the FCC rules at the time prohibited the broadcasting of a live phone conversation. However, there was no rule prohibiting a taped playback of a phone call, the six-second delay constituted a taped phone conversation, thus complying with FCC regulations, that being a legal fiction. The broadcast profanity delay was invented by C, frank Cordaro who was Chief Engineer of WKAP, originally on AM1320, in Allentown, Pennsylvania, during the 1950s and early 1960s. This new device was to be used on the Open Mic radio talk show, the device Cordaro developed was the first tape delay system. WKAP was one of stations owned by the Rahal brothers of West Virginia. First tested and used at WKAP, this system for broadcast profanity delay was then installed at the other Rahal-owned radio stations. From the Rahal brothers stations, the broadcast profanity delay went into common usage throughout the US, john Nebel, who began a pioneering radio talk show in New York City in 1954, was one of the early users of a tape delay system
20.
Radio
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When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form, Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it, for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation. Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves, an antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected, the electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna. Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, a radio communication system sends signals by radio. The term radio is derived from the Latin word radius, meaning spoke of a wheel, beam of light, however, this invention would not be widely adopted. The switch to radio in place of wireless took place slowly and unevenly in the English-speaking world, the United States Navy would also play a role. Although its translation of the 1906 Berlin Convention used the terms wireless telegraph and wireless telegram, the term started to become preferred by the general public in the 1920s with the introduction of broadcasting. Radio systems used for communication have the following elements, with more than 100 years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialised for different communications purposes. Each system contains a transmitter, This consists of a source of electrical energy, the transmitter contains a system to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle such as amplitude, frequency, phase. Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave works by varying the strength of the signal in proportion to the information being sent. For example, changes in the strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker. It was the used for the first audio radio transmissions. Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. FM has the capture effect whereby a receiver only receives the strongest signal, Digital data can be sent by shifting the carriers frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at Very high frequency radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music, analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Angle modulation alters the phase of the carrier wave to transmit a signal
21.
Orradio Industries
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Quantegy Recording Solutions was a manufacturer of magnetic tape and professional external hard drives based in Opelika, Alabama. The company was created at the end of World War II by Major John Herbert Orr as Orradio Industries and this was a result of the US Army requiring an American supplier of magnetic tape. Magnetic tape was a German invention and after the war, the German manufacturing ability was destroyed, in 1959, Ampex acquired Orradio Industries and it became the Ampex Magnetic Tape Division. In 1995, Ampex divested this division, then called the Ampex Recording Media Corporation, at the same time, 3M was also spinning off its magnetic media division. Equitable Life Insurance acquired these combined entities, which became Quantegy, in January 2005, having previously filed for bankruptcy protection, Quantegy closed its manufacturing facility in Opelika. This event received media attention. On April 18,2005, Quantegy resumed operations under new ownership, in January 2007, Quantegy announced that it will cease production of magnetic tape in April 2007 and is taking orders up until February 22. The only remaining manufacturers of new magnetic tape for sound recording are RMGI, in April 2007, Reel Deal Pro Audio purchased the majority of Quantegys reel to reel audio tape and accessories and began to sell it on their web site Reel Deal Pro Audio. In June 2007, Quantegy ceased sales of the FHD and Black Diamond FHD3 series of hard drive products to the audio recording industry. But as of 2012, no progress had been made, most of the tape production facilities were sold or dismantled following the 2007 bankruptcy. Thus a third revival of Quantegy products looks to be in much doubt, Reel Deal Offers Last Quantegy Tapes
22.
Opelika, Alabama
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Opelika is a city in and the county seat of Lee County in the east central part of the State of Alabama. It is a city of the Auburn-Opelika Metropolitan Area. According to the 2013 Census Estimate, the population of Opelika was 28,635, the first white settlers in the area now known as Opelika arrived in the late 1830s and established a community called Lebanon. After the removal of the native Creek peoples by federal troops in 1836-37 and this word taken from the Muskogee language means large swamp. Settlement was sporadic until the late 1840s, when the reached the town. This stimulated development of Opelika as a commercial center and this line was the only direct rail route between New Orleans and the Eastern Seaboard. It rapidly became one of the trade lines for shipments of raw cotton from Southern plantations to the North. The Montgomery & West Point was soon joined by a connection to Columbus, Georgia in 1855. Almost overnight, Opelika became a hub for commerce. To manage this growth, Opelika was incorporated as a town on February 9,1854. As a result of Opelikas transportation infrastructure, many warehouses for storing cotton, with the onset of the Civil War these warehouses were converted to Confederate supply depots. In 1864 and 1865, Union raids commanded by Lovell Rousseau and James H. Wilson attacked Opelika, tearing up the railroads and destroying all government property, including Opelikas warehouses. Soon after the end of the war, the Alabama state legislature created a new county out of parts of Macon, Russell, Chambers, in 1866, citizens of the new Lee County voted Opelika as the county seat. The town was technically unincorporated after having its charter revoked for abetting the rebellion against the United States, after Opelika received a new charter in 1870, rapid growth resumed. The town nearly doubled in size between 1870 and 1900, during this time, Opelika began to gain a reputation as a wild, lawless town. Soon after receiving the new charter, city officials attempted to scam outside investors by issuing fake railroad bonds, for this, the towns charter was revoked again in 1872, and the town was administered as a police district by the state legislature for the following year. Opelikas downtown was packed with saloons catering to railroad workers and other men, frequent gunfire in the street by intoxicated patrons resulted in railroads directing their passengers to duck beneath the windows when their trains passed through the town. In 1882, two claimed to rule the city government, one known as the Bar room headed by Mayor Dunbar, a saloon keeper
23.
Recording studio
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A recording studio is a facility for sound recording and mixing. Ideally both the recording and monitoring spaces are designed by an acoustician or audio engineer to achieve optimum acoustic properties. The engineers and producers listen to the music and the recorded tracks on monitor speakers and/or headphones. Major recording studios typically have a range of large, heavy, Isolation booths are small sound-insulated rooms with doors, designed for instrumentalists. This equipment may interfere with the recording process, Recording studios are carefully designed around the principles of room acoustics to create a set of spaces with the acoustical properties required for recording sound with precision and accuracy. This will consist of both room treatment and soundproofing to prevent sound from leaving the property. Even though sound isolation is a key goal, the musicians, singers, audio engineers and record producers still need to be able to see other, to see cue gestures. As such, the room, isolation booths, vocal booths. Some smaller studios do not have instruments, and bands and artists are expected to bring their own instruments, having musical instruments and equipment in the studio creates additional costs for a studio, as pianos have to be tuned and instruments need to be maintained. However, it makes it convenient for recording artists, as they do not have to bring in large. As well, less costly studio time is spent moving in gear, drummers bring their own snare drum, cymbals and sticks/brushes. The types and brands of equipment owned by a studio depends on the styles of music for the bands. A studio that mainly records heavy metal music will be likely to have large, powerful guitar amp heads, in contrast, a studio which mainly records country bands will likely have a selection of small, vintage combo amps. A studio that records a lot of 1970s-style funk may have an electric piano. General purpose computers have rapidly assumed a role in the recording process. A computer thus outfitted is called a Digital Audio Workstation, or DAW, other software applications include Ableton Live, Mixcraft, Cakewalk Sonar, ACID Pro, FL Studio, Adobe Audition, Auto-Tune, Audacity, and Ardour. While Apple Macintosh is used for most studio work, there is a breadth of available for Microsoft Windows. If no mixing console is used and all mixing is done using only a keyboard and mouse, the OTB is used when mixing with other hardware and not just the PC software
24.
Mike Todd
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Michael Mike Todd was an American theater and film producer, best known for his 1956 production of Around the World in 80 Days, which won an Academy Award for Best Picture. He is known as the third of Elizabeth Taylors seven husbands and is the one whom she did not divorce. He was the force behind the development of the eponymous Todd-AO widescreen film format. Todd was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, to Chaim Goldbogen and Sophia Hellerman and he was one of nine children in a poor family, the youngest son, and his siblings nicknamed him Toat to mimic his difficulty pronouncing the word coat. It was from this that his name was derived, the family later moved to Chicago, arriving on the day World War I ended. Todd was expelled in the grade for running a game of craps inside the school. In high school, he produced the play, The Mikado. He eventually dropped out of school and worked at a variety of jobs, including shoe salesman. One of his first jobs was as a soda jerk, Todd began his career in the construction business, where he made, and subsequently lost, a fortune. He opened the College of Bricklaying of America, buying the materials to teach bricklaying on credit, the school was forced to close when the Bricklayers Union did not view the college as an accepted place of study. Todd and his brother, Frank, next opened their own construction company and his first flirtation with the film industry was when he served as a contractor to Hollywood studios, soundproofing production stages during the transition from silent pictures to sound. The company he owned with his brother went bankrupt when its financial backing failed in early days of the Great Depression, not yet twenty-one, Todd had lost over $1 million. Having married the former Bertha Freshman on February 14,1927, Todds subsequent business career was volatile, and failed ventures left him bankrupt many times. During the 1933–1934 Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago, Todd produced an attraction called the Flame Dance, in this number, gas jets were designed to burn part of a dancers costume off, leaving her naked in appearance. The act attracted enough attention to bring an offer from the Casino de Paree nightclub in New York City, Todd got his first taste of Broadway with the engagement and was determined to find a way to work there. The Hot Mikado, starring Bill Bojangles Robinson, opened on Broadway March 23,1939, the subsequent success of Todds production, at the expense of the Chicago production, contributed to the financial crisis and ultimate demise of the Federal Theatre Project unit in Chicago. Todds Broadway success gave him the nerve to try taking on showman Billy Rose, Todd visited Grover Whalen, president of the 1939 New York Worlds Fair, with a proposal to bring the Broadway show to the Fair. Whelan, eager to have the show at the fair, covered Todds Broadway early closing costs, Rose, who had an exclusivity clause in his fair contract, met Todd at Lindys, where Rose learned his contract covered new forms of entertainment only
25.
CinemaScope
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CinemaScope is an anamorphic lens series used, from 1953 to 1967, for shooting widescreen movies. Its creation in 1953 by Spyros P. Skouras, the president of 20th Century Fox, marked the beginning of the modern anamorphic format in both principal photography and movie projection. The anamorphic lenses theoretically allowed the process to create an image of up to a 2.66,1 aspect ratio, although the CinemaScope lens system was made obsolete by new technological developments, primarily advanced by Panavision, the CinemaScope anamorphic format has continued to this day. Bausch & Lomb won a 1954 Oscar for its development of the CinemaScope lens, french inventor Henri Chrétien developed and patented a new film process that he called Anamorphoscope in 1926. It was this process that would form the basis for CinemaScope. He attempted to interest the motion picture industry in his invention, by 1950, however, cinema attendance seriously declined with the advent of a new competitive rival, television. The optical company Bausch & Lomb was asked to produce a prototype anamorphoser lens, test footage shot with these lenses was screened for Skouras, who gave the go-ahead for development of a widescreen process based on Chrétiens invention, which was to be known as CinemaScope. Twentieth Century-Foxs pre-production of The Robe, originally committed to Technicolor Three-Strip origination, was halted so that the film could be changed to a CinemaScope production, two other CinemaScope productions were also planned, How to Marry a Millionaire and Beneath the Twelve-Mile Reef. The introduction of CinemaScope enabled Fox and other studios to reassert its distinction from the new competitor, Chrétiens Hypergonars proved to have significant optical and operational defects. Ultimately Bausch & Lomb formula combined lens designs incorporated both the lens and the anamorphic lens in one unit. These combined lenses continue to be used to day, particularly in special effects units. Other manufacturers lenses are preferred for so-called production applications that benefit from significantly lighter weight or lower distortion. When, however, developers found that magnetic stripes could be added to the film to produce a composite picture/sound print and this reduction was kept to a minimum by reducing the width of the normal KS perforations so that they were nearly square, but of DH height. This was the CinemaScope, or CS, perforation, known colloquially as fox-holes, later still an optical soundtrack was added, reducing the aspect ratio further to 2.35,1. This change also meant a shift in the center of the projected image. All of Foxs CinemaScope films were made using an aperture for the negatives, as was this studios practice for all films. In order to better hide so-called negative assembly splices, the ratio of the image was changed by others to 2.39,1 and, finally. All professional cameras are capable of shooting 2.55,1 or 2.66,1, Fox selected The Robe as the first film to start production in CinemaScope, a project chosen because of its epic nature
26.
Todd-AO
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Todd-AO is an American post-production company founded in 1953, providing sound-related services to the motion picture and television industries. The company operates three facilities in the Los Angeles area, Todd-AO is also the name of the widescreen,70 mm film format that was developed by Mike Todd and the American Optical Company in the mid-1950s. Todd-AO had been founded to promote and distribute this system, Todd-AO began as a high resolution widescreen film format. It was co-developed in the early 1950s by Mike Todd, a Broadway producer, in partnership with the American Optical Company in Buffalo, New York. It was developed to provide a high definition single camera widescreen process to compete with Cinerama, or as characterized by its creator, where Cinerama used a complicated setup of three separate strips of film photographed simultaneously, Todd-AO required only a single camera and lens. The companys focus began to shift after Mike Todds sudden death in an accident in 1958. The 70 mm Todd-AO process was adopted by Panavision, Cinerama, in May 2014, Todd-AOs parent company, Todd Soundelux, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. As part of the proceedings, they closed their Hollywood and Santa Monica facilities. On November 17,2014 the Todd-Soundelux Trademarks and Copyrights were acquired in Federal Bankruptcy Court by Rob Nokes of Sounddogs. com, Inc. The Todd-AO process uses two separate stocks, a 65 mm negative is used during production and then used to produce the 70 mm positives for distribution. The image size and sprocket perforations on the two are the same, and the positives are printed using contact printing with the centered on the larger 70 mm film. The extra space on the 70 mm positive lies outside the perforations and this allows the Todd-AO format to support six sound channels and much better fidelity. Four lens options covered a 128,64,48 or 37 degree field of view. The aspect ratio of this format was 2.20,1. Both film sizes had been used in the past, in the 70 mm Fox Grandeur process in 1929–1930, the use of 65 mm photography and 70 mm printing became the standard adopted by others, Super Panavision 70 and Ultra Panavision 70 are both 65/70 processes. The Soviet film industry also copied Todd-AO with their own Sovscope 70 process, identical, the IMAX format also uses 65 mm camera and lab film to create 70 mm prints for projection, conforming to the pitch and perforation standard for 70 mm Todd-AO film. However, IMAX frame is 15-perfs long and runs horizontally through the projector, whereas the Todd-AO frame is only 5-perfs high, the original version of the Todd-AO process used a frame rate of 30 frames per second, faster than the 24 frames per second that was the standard. The original system generated an image that was almost twice as intense as any ever seen onscreen before, only the first two Todd-AO films, Oklahoma. And Around the World in Eighty Days, employed 30 frames per second photography, because of the need for conventional versions at 24 frames per second, every scene of the former film was shot twice in succession, once in Todd-AO and once in 35 mm CinemaScope
27.
The Robe (film)
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The Robe is a 1953 American Biblical epic film that tells the story of a Roman military tribune who commands the unit that crucifies Jesus. The film was released by 20th Century Fox and is notable for being the first film released in the widescreen process CinemaScope, like other early CinemaScope films, The Robe was shot with Henri Chrétiens original Hypergonar anamorphic lenses. The picture was directed by Henry Koster and produced by Frank Ross, the screenplay was adapted by Gina Kaus, Albert Maltz, and Philip Dunne from Lloyd C. Douglas eponymous 1942 novel. The music score was composed by Alfred Newman, and the cinematography was by Leon Shamroy. This first widescreen movie in more than two decades stars Richard Burton, Jean Simmons, Victor Mature, and Michael Rennie, with Dean Jagger, Jay Robinson, Richard Boone, the Robe had one sequel, Demetrius and the Gladiators. The action takes place in Ancient Rome, Judaea, Capri, Marcellus Gallio, son of an important Roman senator and himself a military tribune, begins the film in a prologue that introduces the viewer to the might and scope of the Roman empire. He is notoriously known as a man but is captivated by the reappearance of a childhood sweetheart, Diana. Diana is unofficially pledged in marriage to Tiberius regent, Caligula, in a slave market, Marcellus bids against Caligula for a defiant Greek slave Demetrius and wins. Angrily, Caligula issues orders for Marcellus to receive a transfer to Jerusalem. Marcellus has Demetrius released and orders him to go on his own to the Gallio home, Marcellus is surprised to find Demetrius waiting for him when he gets home. Unofficially, Marcellus had freed Demetrius, but Demetrius feels honor bound to compensate Marcellus by being his servant. Demetrius accompanies Marcellus to Palestine, but before the sails, Diana comes to see Marcellus, pledging her love for him. Marcellus declares his love for Diana and asks her to make the promise not to give her in marriage to Caligula. Marcellus rides into Jerusalem with the centurion Paulus on the day as Jesus triumphal entry on Palm Sunday. Demetrius locks gazes with Jesus and feels compelled to follow him, Jesus is arrested and condemned by Pontius Pilate, the procurator. Marcellus reports to Pilate, who informs him that the emperor has sent for him, before Marcellus departs, he is ordered to take charge of the detail of Roman soldiers assigned to crucify Jesus. Marcellus wins the robe worn by Jesus in a game and is told it will be a reminder of Marcellus first crucifixion. Demetrius has had enough, he curses Marcellus and the Roman Empire and runs away, Marcellus now behaves like a madman haunted by nightmares of the crucifixion
28.
Oklahoma! (1955 film)
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Is a 1955 musical film based on the 1943 stage musical Oklahoma. The production was the musical directed by Fred Zinnemann. Was the first feature photographed in the Todd-AO70 mm widescreen process. The film received a review from The New York Times. Was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being culturally, historically, Curly rides his horse through the cornfield. He arrives at Aunt Ellers farm, Laurey Williams, is Aunt Ellers niece, with whom Curly is in love. Laurey clearly feels the way, but is loath to admit it. Curly has come to ask her to a party that night, to make him jealous, she agrees to go with Jud, Aunt Ellers surly hired hand, though she is afraid of him. Aunt Eller meets roving cowboy Will Parker at the station, who has just returned from Kansas City, meanwhile, Laurey meets up with Ado Annie, who is with another man, a traveling salesman named Ali Hakim. Laurey reminds her that Will Parker is returning from Kansas, Ado Annie is in a dilemma, unable to decide between Will and Ali. She explains to Laurey that she can never resist a romantic man, will is reunited with Ado Annie, and meets Ali Hakim, unaware that he has been spending time with Ado Annie. He reminds Ado Annie that her father has agreed to let him marry her in exchange for $50 and he has managed to earn $50 – but has spent it all on presents for Ado Annie. She initially tries to resist, but Will wins her over, several local families arrive at Aunt Ellers ranch to prepare for the party that night. When Gertie flirts with Curly, he is uninterested, but uses the flirtation to make Laurey jealous, Laurey is hurt, but, as she and the other girls freshen up for the party, she tries to convince them, and herself, that she doesnt care. Ado Annies father learns that Will has spent all his money, in the orchard, Laurey tells Curly to keep his distance, but Curly is quick to point out that she is as much to blame for the rumours as he is. Curly asks Laurey if she will go to the party with him instead, in anger, Curly goes to confront Jud about his feelings for Laurey. At first, things seem harmless enough, Curly teases Jud about his reputation, and Jud joins in. But Jud deduces why Curly has come to see him, as the party draws near, Laurey is miserable
29.
Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
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The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences is a professional honorary organization with the stated goal of advancing the arts and sciences of motion pictures. The Academys corporate management and general policies are overseen by a Board of Governors, the roster of the Academys approximately 6,000 motion picture professionals is a closely guarded secret. While the great majority of its members are based in the United States, the Academy is known around the world for its annual Academy Awards, now officially known as The Oscars. The Academy plans to open the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures in Los Angeles in 2017, the notion of the Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences began with Louis B. He said he wanted to create an organization that would mediate labor disputes without unions and he met with actor Conrad Nagel, director Fred Niblo, and the head of the Association of Motion Picture Producers, Fred Beetsonto to discuss these matters. The idea of this elite club having a banquet was discussed. They also established that membership into the organization would only be open to people involved in one of the five branches of the industry, actors, directors, writers, technicians, and producers. That evening Mayer presented to those guests what he called the International Academy of Motion Picture Arts, everyone in the room that evening became a founder of the Academy. Several organizational meetings were held prior to the first official meeting held on May 6,1927 and their first organizational meeting was held on May 11. At that meeting Douglas Fairbanks, Sr. was elected as the first president of the Academy, while Fred Niblo was the first vice-president and that night, the Academy also bestowed its first honorary membership, to Thomas Edison. Initially, the Academy was broken down into five groups, or branches. The original five were, Producers, Actors, Directors, Writers, the initial concerns of the group had to do with labor. However, as went on, the organization moved further away from involvement in labor-management arbitrations and negotiations. By July 1928 the board of directors had approved a list of 12 awards to be presented, during July the voting system for the Awards was established, and the nomination and selection process began. This award of merit for distinctive achievement is what we know now as the Academy Award, the initial location of the organization was 6912 Hollywood Boulevard. In May 1928, the Academy authorized the construction of a state of the art screening room, the screening room was not completed until April 1929. With the publication of Report on Incandescent Illumination in 1928, the Academy began a history of publishing books to assist its members. Another early initiative concerned training Army Signal Corps officers, in 1929 Academy members in a joint venture with the University of Southern California created Americas first film school to further the art and science of moving pictures
30.
Academy Award
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The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette, officially called the Academy Award of Merit, which has become commonly known by its nickname Oscar. The awards, first presented in 1929 at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel, are overseen by AMPAS, the awards ceremony was first broadcast on radio in 1930 and televised for the first time in 1953. It is now live in more than 200 countries and can be streamed live online. The Academy Awards ceremony is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and its equivalents – the Emmy Awards for television, the Tony Awards for theater, and the Grammy Awards for music and recording – are modeled after the Academy Awards. The 89th Academy Awards ceremony, honoring the best films of 2016, were held on February 26,2017, at the Dolby Theatre, in Los Angeles, the ceremony was hosted by Jimmy Kimmel and was broadcast on ABC. A total of 3,048 Oscars have been awarded from the inception of the award through the 88th, the first Academy Awards presentation was held on May 16,1929, at a private dinner function at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with an audience of about 270 people. The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel, the cost of guest tickets for that nights ceremony was $5. Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the industry of the time. The ceremony ran for 15 minutes, winners were announced to media three months earlier, however, that was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then, for the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11,00 pm on the night of the awards. The first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings, for his performances in The Last Command and he had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier, this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, for the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years. At the 29th ceremony, held on March 27,1957, until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award. The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, since 1973, all Academy Awards ceremonies always end with the Academy Award for Best Picture. The Academy also awards Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting, see also § Awards of Merit categories The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. The five spokes represent the branches of the Academy, Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers. The model for the statuette is said to be Mexican actor Emilio El Indio Fernández, sculptor George Stanley sculpted Cedric Gibbons design. The statuettes presented at the ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze
31.
Les Paul
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Lester William Polsfuss, known as Les Paul, was an American jazz, country, and blues guitarist, songwriter, luthier, and inventor. He was one of the pioneers of the electric guitar. Paul taught himself how to play guitar and while he is known for jazz and popular music. He is credited with many recording innovations and he recorded with his wife Mary Ford in the 1950s, and they sold millions of records. Among his many honors, Paul is one of a handful of artists with a permanent, stand-alone exhibit in the Rock and he is prominently named by the music museum on its website as an architect and a key inductee with Sam Phillips and Alan Freed. Les Paul is the person to be included in both the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and the National Inventors Hall of Fame. Les Paul was born Lester William Polsfuss in Waukesha, Wisconsin, to George and his family was of German ancestry. Pauls mother was related to the founders of Milwaukees Valentin Blatz Brewing Company and his parents divorced when he was a child. His mother simplified their Prussian family name first to Polfuss, then to Polfus, before taking the stage name Les Paul, he also performed as Red Hot Red and Rhubarb Red. At the age of eight, Paul began playing the harmonica, after trying to learn the piano, he switched to the guitar. It was during this time that he invented a neck-worn harmonica holder and it is still manufactured using his basic design. By age thirteen, Paul was performing semi-professionally as a singer, guitarist. While playing at the Waukesha area drive-ins and roadhouses, Paul began his first experiment with sound. Wanting to make himself heard by people at the local venues, he wired a phonograph needle to his guitar and connected it to a radio speaker. As a teen Paul created his first solid body electric guitar using a 2-foot piece of rail from a train line. At age seventeen, Paul played with Rube Tronsons Texas Cowboys, Paul moved to Chicago in 1934, where he continued to perform on radio stations WBBM and WLS. He met pianist Art Tatum, whose playing influenced him to stick with the rather than original plans of taking on the piano. His first two records were released in 1936, credited to Rhubarb Red, Pauls hillbilly alter ego and he also served as an accompanist for a few other bands signed to Decca
32.
History of multitrack recording
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Because they are carried on the same medium, the tracks stay in perfect synchronisation, while allowing multiple sound sources to be recorded asynchronously. The first system for creating stereophonic sound was demonstrated by Clément Ader in Paris in 1881, british EMI engineer Alan Blumlein patented systems for recording stereophonic sound and surround sound on disc and film in 1933. The history of modern multitrack audio recording using magnetic tape began in 1943 with the invention of stereo tape recording, stereo sound recording on tape was perfected in 1943 by German audio engineers working for the AEG corporation. Around 250 stereo tape recordings were made during this period, after the war, American audio engineer John T. Stereo quickly became the norm for commercial recordings and radio broadcasts, although many pop music. Much of the credit for the development of multitrack recording goes to guitarist, composer and technician Les Paul, thus, Page became the first pop artist to overdub her vocals on a song. This was months before Les Paul and Mary Ford had their first multi-voiced release, Paul was the first to make use of the technique of multitracking to record separate elements of a musical piece asynchronously — that is, separate elements could be recorded at different times. Pauls technique enabled him to listen to the tracks he had already taped, multitrack recording was immediately taken up in a limited way by Ampex, who soon produced a commercial 3-track recorder. These proved extremely useful for popular music, since they enabled backing music to be recorded on two tracks while the track was reserved for the lead vocalist. The next important development was 4-track recording, the advent of this improved system gave recording engineers and musicians vastly greater flexibility for recording and overdubbing, and 4-track was the studio standard for most of the later 1960s. Engineer Tom Dowd was among the first to utilize 4-track recording for music production while working for Atlantic Records during the 1950s. In this way, it was possible to record dozens of separate tracks. All of the Beatles classic mid-1960s recordings, including the albums Revolver, 4-track tape also led to a related development, quadraphonic sound, in which each of the four tracks was used to simulate a complete 360-degree surround sound. Although it is now considered a gimmick, it was the direct precursor of the surround sound technology that has become standard in many modern home theater systems. In a professional setting today, such as a recording studio, audio engineers may use 64 tracks or more for their recordings. The combination of the ability to edit via tape splicing, and it became common studio recording practice to record on multiple tracks, and mix down afterward. The convenience of editing and multitrack recording led to the rapid adoption of magnetic tape as the primary technology for commercial musical recordings. The original Ampex 8-track recorder, model 5258, was an internal Ampex project and it was based on an Ampex 1 data recorder transport with modified Ampex model 350 electronics
33.
Music Center Incorporated
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Music Center Incorporated is the former name of a United States manufacturer of professional audio equipment that operated from 1955 until 1982 when it was acquired by the Sony Corporation. The company is credited with a number of firsts, commercialising the 24-track multi-track recorder. During the late 1950s Grover Jeep Harned, the founder of MCI, owned and operated a record and stereo servicing outlet in Ft. Lauderdale. Harneds growing list of industry contacts led in time to regular referrals. In addition he installed commercial sound systems for the Parker Playhouse, Pirates Worlds, consequently, in 1965 Harned established the company Music Center Incorporated. Many years later Harned recounted the change in direction during an interview I got into the tape recorder business in an interesting way, I had built a console for Sidney Nathan, owner of King Records in Cincinnati. Sid, Mack Emmerman, and Bob Richardson had a bunch of Ampex 350 tape recorders with transports that still ran well, so in 1968 Sid, Bob and Mack got together and hired me to design and build some new solid state electronics for the old transports. My electronics proved to be quieter, had lower distortion, hidley had recently modified an Ampex 300 tape machine to accommodate 2-inch open reel magnetic tape and required multitrack audio. Harned delivered a custom built 24-track machine — a modified Ampex 300 — which was commissioned later that year and this unit became the prototype for a new MCI product line, the JH-5 tape recorder. The JH designation is attributed to Jeeps first wife, Joyce Harned, mrs. Harned ran the office bookkeeping and files assigning her own numbering system. In the late 1960s MCI established a network of dealerships across the United States to sell and service a line of preamps, recording electronics, Studio Supply, one of these dealerships was operated by audio engineer Dave Harrison. He asked Harned if he could design a device to enable an audio engineer to quickly and easily between monitoring audio input and track mixdown modes. In 1972 MCI introduced the MCI JH-400 series console, the worlds first commercial in-line mixing console, unlike split mixing console models, the in-line JH-400 series consoles offered the user a choice of options and incorporated Harris 911 IC op-amps, at a lower cost than its competitors. With the release in 1975 of its JH-500 series mixing consoles, console automation became a necessity at a time when the number of mixing channels grew and there were more faders than a single operator could manage. With VCAs, the engineer could adjust multiple channels simultaneously and doing so with less scratchy audio by moving a fader, VCA technology cost a fraction of the price of Moving Fader Automation, the competing standard of the time. This proved to be a time saver during the overdubbing process. The MCI JH-45 Autolock enabled a person with average technical experience to quickly configure two JH-24 multi-track recorders for synchronized recording, other companies incorporated these features into their products but in many cases, MCI innovated first. MCIs success could also be contributable to its pricing strategy as MCIs marketing Vice President Lutz Meyer later attested
34.
SMPTE time code
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SMPTE revised the standard in 2008, turning it into a two-part document, SMPTE 12M-1 and SMPTE 12M-2, including new explanations and clarifications. Timecodes are added to film, video or audio material, and have also adapted to synchronize music. They provide a reference for editing, synchronization and identification. Timecode is a form of media metadata, the invention of timecode made modern videotape editing possible, and led eventually to the creation of non-linear editing systems. SMPTE timecodes contain binary coded decimal hour, minute, second, there are also drop-frame and color framing flags and three extra binary group flag bits used for defining the use of the user bits. The formats of other varieties of SMPTE time codes are derived from that of the longitudinal timecode, Time codes may use a number of frame rates. The interpretation of several bits, including the framing and drop frame bits. In particular, the drop frame bit is only valid for a frame rate of 30 frame/s. More complex timecodes such as vertical interval timecode can also include extra information in a variety of encodings, timecodes are generated as a continuous stream of sequential data values. In some applications wall clock time is used, in others the time encoded is a notional time, after making a series of recordings, or after crude editing, recorded timecodes may consist of discontinuous segments. In general it is not possible to know the linear timecode of the current frame until the frame has already gone by, by time it is too late to make an edit. Practical systems watch the sequence of the timecode, and infer the time of the current frame from that. Thus, a boundary between discontinuous timecode ranges cannot be determined exactly until several subsequent frames or discontinuous sequences of them have passed. For this reason, most videotape editing attempts to keep the timecode of the recorded material continuous, drop frame timecode originates from a compromise invented when color NTSC video was invented. The NTSC designers wanted to retain compatibility with existing monochrome televisions, to minimise subcarrier visibility on a monochrome receiver it was necessary to make the color subcarrier an odd multiple of half the line scan frequency, the multiple originally chosen was 495. With a 30 Hz frame rate the line frequency is =15750 Hz. So the subcarrier frequency would have been =3.898125 MHz and this latter change could have been achieved by raising the sound intercarrier by 0. 1% to 4. 1% instead. Thus the NTSC color subcarrier ended up as 3.57954545 MHz, the line scan frequency as 15734.27 Hz, to correct this, drop frame SMPTE timecode was invented
35.
Studer
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Studer is a designer and manufacturer of advanced audio equipment for recording studios and broadcasters. The company was founded in Zürich, Switzerland in 1948 by Dr. Willi Studer and it initially became famous in the 1950s for its professional tape recorders. In the 1990s the company moved into the console business. Management, sales, engineering, R&D and customer service are based in Regensdorf, Switzerland while manufacturing and marketing are part of the Soundcraft facility in Potters Bar, Studer is now a subsidiary of Harman International Industries. Dr. Studer started in 1948 making high-tension oscilloscopes and these products were in production until 1968. In March 1951 Studer introduced the Revox brand name subsidiary, in 1990 Studer sold the Studer-Revox group to Motor-Columbus AG, including all subsidiary companies. In 1991 Motor-Columbus split the Studer-Revox Group into separate Studer, Revox, Motor-Columbus sold several subsidiaries and plants. The extensive reorganization culminated in the sale of the Studer group to Harman International Industries in March 1994, the Revox group was excluded and sold to private investors. On March 17,1994 Harman completed its acquisition and acquired from Motor-Columbus AG 100% of Studer-Revox AG, Harman paid 100 Swiss Francs for all of the issued and outstanding stock in Studer-Revox. Harman assumed post-acquisition indebtedness of Studer-Revox of approximately 23 million Swiss Francs, Harman later moved some of its Studer business operations to England and merged them with operations of its Soundcraft subsidiary. Dr. Willi Studer died on March 1,1996, in 1949 Studer branched out into the audio business by modifying imported tape recorders from the United States. By 1950 they had developed their own line of tape recorders, studers analog tape recorders were widely considered to be among the best in the world by audio engineers due to their excellent reliability and sound quality. The company has built a variety of 2-track recorder models throughout its history for stereo recording, several Studer components were sold under the Revox name, with slight modifications, at a lower price. The Revox variants were designed for use, with features such as IR remote control. The core circuitry of the two was otherwise substantially identical, one of the companys most successful models was the Revox A77 recorder, which was introduced in 1967. Studer was also an innovator in the design and production of multitrack recorders, studer’s first multi-track machine, the model J37, was released in 1964. It recorded 4 tracks on one inch tape, the machine was a true technological breakthrough, embodying versatility, functionality and simplicity in what was then a state-of-the-art machine. A pair of J37s were used by The Beatles to record Sgt, peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band in 1967
36.
Quadruplex videotape
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2-inch quadruplex videotape is the first practical and commercially successful analog recording videotape format. It was developed and released for the broadcast television industry in 1956 by Ampex, the first videotape recorder using this format was built and created in the same year. Broadcasters also sought a medium that was not as costly or time-consuming to edit. Faced with these challenges, broadcasters sought to adapt magnetic tape recording technology for use with television as well and this method was called quadrature scanning, as opposed to the helical scan transport used by later videotape formats. The cue track was used either as an audio track. A typical 4,800 ft reel of 2 in quad tape holds approximately one hour of recorded material at 15 inches per second, the quadruplex format employs segmented recording, each transversely recorded video track on a 2-inch quad videotape holds one-sixteenth or one-twentieth of a field of video. This meant that 2-inch quad did not support trick-play functions, such as still, shuttle, most quad machines made later in the 1960s and 1970s by Ampex could play back both low and high-band 2-inch quad tape. Time-shifting of television programming for the West Coast of the United States by the networks in the 1950s using kinescope films was quite a rushed and this usually meant the kinescope was aired almost immediately after it came straight out of the developing equipment, still warm from the film dryer. These were referred to by the networks as hot kines, by 1954, the networks used more raw film stock for kinescopes than all of the Hollywood film studios combined, spending up to $4,000 per half hour. They were desperate to obtain a quicker, less expensive, in the early 1950s, Ampex and several other companies such as Bing Crosby Enterprises and RCA were competing to release a videotape format. RCA and BCE did release working prototypes of their recorders, but their downfall was that all used a longitudinal method of recording. At the same time, the BBC developed a similar stationary-head video tape recorder system that saw some on-air use, starting in 1952, Ampex built the Mark I prototype VTR, using 2 in -wide tape. Ampex decided that instead of having the tape move fast across the head to record enough bandwidth for video and this resulted in the Mark I using arcuate scanning, which consisted of a spinning disk with a face which contacted the tape. This resulted in a track being recorded across the width of the tape. Ampex continued through the mid-1950s with the Mark II and Mark III prototype recorders, the Mark II used frequency modulation for recording video to tape, resulting in a much-improved, but still noisy, video image. The Mark III had improved signal-processing and servo electronics, resulting in much better video reproduction, the Mark III worked well, but its appearance was quite that of a prototype, and not a finished, saleable product. It was in a wooden case, with several parts of its chassis externally mounted in partially filled racks. Ampex then built the Mark IV by putting Mark III components into a sleek metal console, the Mark IV was the machine first publicly demonstrated at the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters convention in Chicago on April 14,1956
37.
Analog video
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Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of moving visual media. Video systems vary greatly in the resolution of the display and refresh rate, video can be carried on a variety of media, including radio broadcast, tapes, DVDs, computer files etc. Video was originally exclusively a live technology, charles Ginsburg led an Ampex research team developing one of the first practical video tape recorder. In 1951 the first video tape recorder captured live images from television cameras by converting the electrical impulses. Video recorders were sold for $50,000 in 1956, however, prices gradually dropped over the years, in 1971, Sony began selling videocassette recorder decks and tapes into the consumer market. The use of techniques in video created digital video, which allowed higher quality and, eventually. After the invention of the DVD in 1997 and Blu-ray Disc in 2006, sales of videotape, the advent of digital broadcasting and the subsequent digital television transition is in the process of relegating analog video to the status of a legacy technology in most parts of the world. PAL standards and SECAM specify 25 frame/s, while NTSC standards specify 29.97 frames, film is shot at the slower frame rate of 24 frames per second, which slightly complicates the process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame rate to achieve a comfortable illusion of an image is about sixteen frames per second. Video can be interlaced or progressive, analog display devices reproduce each frame in the same way, effectively doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. NTSC, PAL and SECAM are interlaced formats, abbreviated video resolution specifications often include an i to indicate interlacing. For example, PAL video format is specified as 576i50, where 576 indicates the total number of horizontal scan lines, i indicates interlacing. In progressive scan systems, each refresh period updates all scan lines in each frame in sequence, when displaying a natively progressive broadcast or recorded signal, the result is optimum spatial resolution of both the stationary and moving parts of the image. Deinterlacing cannot, however, produce video quality that is equivalent to true progressive scan source material, aspect ratio describes the dimensions of video screens and video picture elements. All popular video formats are rectilinear, and so can be described by a ratio between width and height, the screen aspect ratio of a traditional television screen is 4,3, or about 1.33,1. High definition televisions use a ratio of 16,9. The aspect ratio of a full 35 mm film frame with soundtrack is 1.375,1. Therefore, a 720 by 480 pixel NTSC DV image displayes with the 4,3 aspect ratio if the pixels are thin, the popularity of viewing video on mobile phones has led to the growth of vertical video
38.
Magnetic tape
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Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin, magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. It was developed in Germany, based on magnetic wire recording, devices that record and play back audio and video using magnetic tape are tape recorders and video tape recorders. A device that stores data on magnetic tape is a tape drive. Magnetic tape revolutionized broadcast and recording, when all radio was live, it allowed programming to be recorded. At a time when gramophone records were recorded in one take, it allowed recordings to be made in multiple parts, which were then mixed and edited with tolerable loss in quality. It was a key technology in computer development, allowing unparalleled amounts of data to be mechanically created, stored for long periods. Nowadays, other technologies can perform the functions of magnetic tape, in many cases, these technologies are replacing tape. Despite this, innovation in the technology continues, and Sony, over years, magnetic tape made in the 1970s and 1980s can suffer from a type of deterioration called sticky-shed syndrome. Caused by hydrolysis of the binder of the tape, it can render the tape unusable, the oxide side of a tape is the surface that can be magnetically manipulated by a tape head. This is the side that stores the information, the side is simply a substrate to hold the tape together. The name originates from the fact that the side of most tapes is made of an oxide of iron. Magnetic tape was invented for recording sound by Fritz Pfleumer in 1928 in Germany, based on the invention of magnetic wire recording by Oberlin Smith in 1888, pfleumers invention used a ferric oxide powder coating on a long strip of paper. This invention was developed by the German electronics company AEG, which manufactured the recording machines and BASF. In 1933, working for AEG, Eduard Schuller developed the ring-shaped tape head, previous head designs were needle-shaped and tended to shred the tape. An important discovery made in this period was the technique of AC biasing, due to the escalating political tensions, and the outbreak of World War II, these developments were largely kept secret. A wide variety of recorders and formats have developed since, most significantly reel-to-reel, the practice of recording and editing audio using magnetic tape rapidly established itself as an obvious improvement over previous methods. Many saw the potential of making the same improvements in recording television, television signals are similar to audio signals. A major difference is that video signals use more bandwidth than audio signals, existing audio tape recorders could not practically capture a video signal
39.
Ray Dolby
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Ray Milton Dolby OBE was an American engineer and inventor of the noise reduction system known as Dolby NR. He helped develop the video tape recorder while at Ampex and was the founder of Dolby Laboratories, Dolby was born in Portland, Oregon, the son of Esther Eufemia and Earl Milton Dolby, an inventor. He was raised in San Francisco and attended Sequoia High School in Redwood City, as a teenager in the decade following World War II, he held part-time and summer jobs at Ampex in Redwood City, working with their first audio tape recorder in 1949. While at San Jose State College and later at Stanford University, he worked on prototypes of video tape recorder technologies for Alexander M. Poniatoff. As a non degree-holding consultant, Dolby played a key role in the effort that led Ampex to unveil their prototype Quadruplex videotape recorder in April 1956 which soon entered production, in 1957, Dolby received his B. S. in electrical engineering from Stanford. He subsequently won a Marshall Scholarship for a Ph. D. in physics from the University of Cambridge, where he was a Research Fellow at Pembroke College. After Cambridge, Dolby acted as an advisor to the United Nations in India, until 1965 when he returned to England. In that same year,1965, he invented the Dolby Sound System. The filter was first used by Decca Records in the UK, Dolby was a Fellow and past president of the Audio Engineering Society. Dolby died of leukemia on September 12,2013, at his home in San Francisco at the age of 80, Dolby was survived by his wife Dagmar, two sons, Tom and David, and four grandchildren. Kevin Yeaman, president and chief executive of Dolby Laboratories, said Today we lost a friend, mentor, in his will, Dolby bequeathed more than $52 million to Pembroke College at the University of Cambridge, the largest single donation received by the Universitys current fundraising campaign. The analog Dolby B noise-reduction system works by compressing and increasing the volume of low-level high-frequency sounds during recording and this high-frequency round turn reduces the audible level of tape hiss. S. S. Patent 3,631,365, Signal compressor, filed 1969
40.
2 inch Quadruplex videotape
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2-inch quadruplex videotape is the first practical and commercially successful analog recording videotape format. It was developed and released for the broadcast television industry in 1956 by Ampex, the first videotape recorder using this format was built and created in the same year. Broadcasters also sought a medium that was not as costly or time-consuming to edit. Faced with these challenges, broadcasters sought to adapt magnetic tape recording technology for use with television as well and this method was called quadrature scanning, as opposed to the helical scan transport used by later videotape formats. The cue track was used either as an audio track. A typical 4,800 ft reel of 2 in quad tape holds approximately one hour of recorded material at 15 inches per second, the quadruplex format employs segmented recording, each transversely recorded video track on a 2-inch quad videotape holds one-sixteenth or one-twentieth of a field of video. This meant that 2-inch quad did not support trick-play functions, such as still, shuttle, most quad machines made later in the 1960s and 1970s by Ampex could play back both low and high-band 2-inch quad tape. Time-shifting of television programming for the West Coast of the United States by the networks in the 1950s using kinescope films was quite a rushed and this usually meant the kinescope was aired almost immediately after it came straight out of the developing equipment, still warm from the film dryer. These were referred to by the networks as hot kines, by 1954, the networks used more raw film stock for kinescopes than all of the Hollywood film studios combined, spending up to $4,000 per half hour. They were desperate to obtain a quicker, less expensive, in the early 1950s, Ampex and several other companies such as Bing Crosby Enterprises and RCA were competing to release a videotape format. RCA and BCE did release working prototypes of their recorders, but their downfall was that all used a longitudinal method of recording. At the same time, the BBC developed a similar stationary-head video tape recorder system that saw some on-air use, starting in 1952, Ampex built the Mark I prototype VTR, using 2 in -wide tape. Ampex decided that instead of having the tape move fast across the head to record enough bandwidth for video and this resulted in the Mark I using arcuate scanning, which consisted of a spinning disk with a face which contacted the tape. This resulted in a track being recorded across the width of the tape. Ampex continued through the mid-1950s with the Mark II and Mark III prototype recorders, the Mark II used frequency modulation for recording video to tape, resulting in a much-improved, but still noisy, video image. The Mark III had improved signal-processing and servo electronics, resulting in much better video reproduction, the Mark III worked well, but its appearance was quite that of a prototype, and not a finished, saleable product. It was in a wooden case, with several parts of its chassis externally mounted in partially filled racks. Ampex then built the Mark IV by putting Mark III components into a sleek metal console, the Mark IV was the machine first publicly demonstrated at the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters convention in Chicago on April 14,1956
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Television network
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Until the mid-1980s, television programming in most countries of the world was dominated by a small number of broadcast networks. Many early television networks evolved from earlier radio networks, such networks are commonly referred to by terms such as specialty channels in Canada or cable networks in the U. S. A network may or may not produce all of its own programming, if not, production companies can distribute their content to the various networks, and it is common that a certain production firm may have programs that air on two or more rival networks. Similarly, some networks may import television programs from other countries, some stations have the capability to interrupt the network through the local insertion of television commercials, station identifications and emergency alerts. Others completely break away from the network for their own programming and this is common where small networks are members of larger networks. The majority of television stations are self-owned, even though a variety of these instances are the property of an owned-and-operated television network. The commercial television stations can also be linked with an educational broadcasting agency. It is also important to note that some countries have launched national television networks, on the other hand, television networks also undergo the impending experience of major changes related to cultural varieties. The emergence of television has made available in major media markets. Such a diverse captive audience presents an occasion for the networks and this is explained by author Tim P. Vos notes that policymakers did not expressly intend to create a broadcast order dominated by commercial networks. In fact, legislative attempts were made to limit the networks preferred position, as to individual stations, modern network operations centers usually use broadcast automation to handle most tasks. A major international network is the British Broadcasting Corporation, which is perhaps most well known for its news agency BBC News. Owned by the Crown, the BBC operates primarily in the United Kingdom and it is funded by the television licence paid by British residents that watch terrestrial television and as a result, no commercial advertising appears on its networks. Outside of the UK, advertising is broadcast because the licence fee applies to the BBCs British operations. 23,000 people worldwide are employed by the BBC and its subsidiary, other networks are dedicated to specialized programming, such as religious content or programs presented in languages other than English, particularly Spanish. The largest television network in the United States, however, is the Public Broadcasting Service, some public television outlets, such as PBS, carry separate digital subchannel networks through their member stations. This works as each network sends its signal to many local affiliated stations across the country. These local stations then carry the feed, which can be viewed by millions of households across the country
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