1.
Wilhelm Dilthey
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Wilhelm Dilthey was a German historian, psychologist, sociologist, and hermeneutic philosopher, who held G. W. F. Hegels Chair in Philosophy at the University of Berlin. Dilthey was born in 1833 as the son of a Reformed pastor in the village of Biebrich in the Duchy of Nassau, now in Hesse, as a young man he followed family traditions by studying theology at Heidelberg University, where his teachers included the young Kuno Fischer. He then moved to the University of Berlin and was taught by, amongst others, Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg and August Boeckh, both former pupils of Friedrich Schleiermacher. In 1864, he received his doctorate from Berlin with a thesis in Latin on the ethics of Schleiermacher and he became a Privatdozent at Berlin in 1865. In 1859, he edited Schleiermachers letters and soon after he was commissioned to write a biography—the first volume of which was eventually published in 1870. In 1867 he took up a professorship at the University of Basel, in 1874, he married Katherine Puttmann, and the couple had one son and two daughters. Dilthey took some of his inspiration from the works of Friedrich Schleiermacher on hermeneutics, both figures are linked to German Romanticism. Schleiermacher was strongly influenced by German Romanticism which led him to more emphasis on human emotion. Dilthey, in his turn, as the author of a vast monograph on Schleiermacher, responds to the questions raised by Droysen and he argues that scientific explanation of nature must be completed with a theory of how the world is given to human beings through symbolically mediated practices. To provide such a theory is the aim of the philosophy of the field of study to which Dilthey dedicated his entire academic career. However, Dilthey remains distinct from other German Romantics and life philosophers through his emphasis on “historicality. ”Dilthey understood man as a historical being. However, history is not described in terms of an object of the past, but “a series of world views. ”Dilthey wants to emphasize the “intrinsic temporality of all understanding, ” that man’s understanding is dependent on past worldviews, interpretations, and a shared world. Schleiermacher saw the approaches to interpreting sacred scriptures and Classical texts as more specific forms of what he proposed as general hermeneutics, Schleiermacher approached hermeneutics as the “art of understanding” and recognized both the importance of language, and the thoughts of an author, to interpreting a text. Dilthey saw understanding as the key for the sciences in contrast with the natural sciences. The natural sciences observe and explain nature, but the humanities understand human expressions of life, so long as a science is “accessible to us through a procedure based on the systematic relation between life, expression, and understanding” Dilthey considered it a part of the human sciences. Along with Friedrich Nietzsche, Georg Simmel and Henri Bergson, Diltheys work influenced early twentieth-century Lebensphilosophie and Existenzphilosophie, Diltheys students included Bernhard Groethuysen, Hans Lipps, Herman Nohl, Theodor Litt, Eduard Spranger, Georg Misch und Erich Rothacker. Diltheys philosophy also influenced the religious philosopher Martin Buber, Diltheys works informed the early Martin Heideggers approach to hermeneutics in his early lecture courses, in which he developed a hermeneutics of factical life, and in Being and Time. Heidegger grew increasingly critical of Dilthey, arguing for a more radical temporalization of the possibilities of interpretation, the distinction is based on the more general distinction between explanatory/explanative sciences, on the one hand, and descriptive/interpretive sciences, on the other—see below
2.
Psychosexual development
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Each stage – the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive. He argued that adult neurosis often is rooted in childhood sexuality, sexual infantilism, in pursuing and satisfying his or her libido, the child might experience failure and thus might associate anxiety with the given erogenous zone. e. The tendency to place objects in the mouth, the id dominates, because neither the ego nor the super ego is yet fully developed, and, since the infant has no personality, every action is based upon the pleasure principle. Nonetheless, the ego is forming during the oral stage, two factors contribute to its formation, in developing a body image, he or she is discrete from the external world. Weaning is the key experience in the oral stage of psychosexual development. In the case of too little gratification, the infant might become passive upon learning that gratification is not forthcoming, the style of parenting influences the resolution of the id–ego conflict, which can be either gradual and psychologically uneventful, or which can be sudden and psychologically traumatic. If the child obeys the id, and the yield, he or she might develop a self-indulgent personality characterized by personal slovenliness. If the parents respond to that, the child must comply, but might develop a sense of self, because it was the parents will, and not the childs ego. The third stage of development is the phallic stage, spanning the ages of three to six years, wherein the childs genitalia are his or her primary erogenous zone. In the phallic stage, a boys decisive psychosexual experience is the Oedipus complex and this psychological complex derives from the 5th-century BC Greek mythologic character Oedipus, who unwittingly killed his father, Laius, and sexually possessed his mother, Jocasta. Analogously, in the stage, a girls decisive psychosexual experience is the Electra complex. The boy focuses his libido upon his mother, and focuses jealousy, Electra, Whereas boys develop castration anxiety, girls develop penis envy that is rooted in anatomic fact, without a penis, she cannot sexually possess mother, as the infantile id demands. As a result, the girl redirects her desire for sexual union upon father, thus, moreover, after the phallic stage, the girls psychosexual development includes transferring her primary erogenous zone from the infantile clitoris to the adult vagina. Freud thus considered a girls Oedipal conflict to be more intense than that of a boy, resulting, potentially. Psychologic defense, In both sexes, defense mechanisms provide transitory resolutions of the conflict between the drives of the Id and the drives of the Ego. The first defense mechanism is repression, the blocking of memories, emotional impulses, in a boy, a phallic-stage fixation might lead him to become an aggressive, over-ambitious, vain man. The genital stage affords the person the ability to confront and resolve his or her remaining psychosexual childhood conflicts, as in the phallic stage, the genital stage is centered upon the genitalia, but the sexuality is consensual and adult, rather than solitary and infantile. Hence, the stage proved controversial, for being based upon clinical observations of the Oedipus complex
3.
Unconscious mind
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The unconscious mind consists of the processes in the mind which occur automatically and are not available to introspection, and include thought processes, memories, interests, and motivations. Even though these processes exist well under the surface of conscious awareness they are theorized to exert an impact on behavior, the term was coined by the 18th-century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The concept was popularized by the Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, in psychoanalytic theory, unconscious processes are understood to be directly represented in dreams, as well as in slips of the tongue and jokes. Thus the unconscious mind can be seen as the source of dreams and automatic thoughts, the repository of forgotten memories, and it has been argued that consciousness is influenced by other parts of the mind. These include unconsciousness as a habit, being unaware. Phenomena related to semi-consciousness include awakening, implicit memory, subliminal messages, trances, hypnagogia, while sleep, sleepwalking, dreaming, delirium, and comas may signal the presence of unconscious processes, these processes are seen as symptoms rather than the unconscious mind itself. Some critics have doubted the existence of the unconscious, the term unconscious was coined by the 18th-century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Some rare earlier instances of the term unconsciousness can be found in the work of the 18th-century German physician, the idea of internalised unconscious processes in the mind was also instigated in antiquity and has been explored across a wide variety of cultures. Unconscious aspects of mentality were referred to between 2500 and 600 BC in the Hindu texts known as the Vedas, found today in Ayurvedic medicine, william Shakespeare explored the role of the unconscious in many of his plays, without naming it as such. In 1880, Edmond Colsenet supports at the Sorbonne, a thesis on the unconscious. Elie Rabier and Alfred Fouillee perform syntheses of the unconscious at a time when Freud was not interested in the concept, psychologist Jacques Van Rillaer points out that, the unconscious was not discovered by Freud. Sigmund Freud and his followers developed an account of the unconscious mind and it plays an important role in psychoanalysis. Freud divided the mind into the mind and the unconscious mind. Later was then divided into the id and the superego. In this theory, the unconscious refers to the processes of which individuals make themselves unaware. Freud proposed a vertical and hierarchical architecture of human consciousness, the mind, the preconscious. He believed that significant psychic events take place below the surface in the unconscious mind and he interpreted such events as having both symbolic and actual significance. In psychoanalytic terms, the unconscious does not include all that is not conscious, Freud viewed the unconscious as a repository for socially unacceptable ideas, wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of mind by the mechanism of psychological repression
4.
Consciousness
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Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness, or, of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. Despite the difficulty in definition, many believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is. Western philosophers, since the time of Descartes and Locke, have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness, the majority of experimental studies assess consciousness in humans by asking subjects for a verbal report of their experiences. The origin of the concept of consciousness is often attributed to John Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Locke defined consciousness as the perception of what passes in a mans own mind and his essay influenced the 18th-century view of consciousness, and his definition appeared in Samuel Johnsons celebrated Dictionary. Consciousness is also defined in the 1753 volume of Diderot and dAlemberts Encyclopédie, the earliest English language uses of conscious and consciousness date back, however, to the 1500s. This phrase had the meaning of knowing that one knows. In its earliest uses in the 1500s, the English word conscious retained the meaning of the Latin conscius. For example, Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan wrote, Where two, or more men, know of one and the fact, they are said to be Conscious of it one to another. The Latin phrase conscius sibi, whose meaning was more related to the current concept of consciousness, was rendered in English as conscious to oneself or conscious unto oneself. For example, Archbishop Ussher wrote in 1613 of being so conscious unto myself of my great weakness, Lockes definition from 1690 illustrates that a gradual shift in meaning had taken place. A related word was conscientia, which primarily means moral conscience, in the literal sense, conscientia means knowledge-with, that is, shared knowledge. The word first appears in Latin juridical texts by such as Cicero. Here, conscientia is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else, rené Descartes is generally taken to be the first philosopher to use conscientia in a way that does not fit this traditional meaning. Descartes used conscientia the way modern speakers would use conscience, in Search after Truth he says conscience or internal testimony. The dictionary meaning of the word consciousness extends through several centuries, B. inward awareness of an external object, state, or fact. The philosophy of mind has given rise to many stances regarding consciousness, something within ones mind is introspectively conscious just in case one introspects it. Introspection is often thought to deliver ones primary knowledge of ones mental life, an experience or other mental entity is phenomenally conscious just in case there is something it is like for one to have it
5.
Id, ego and super-ego
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The super-ego can stop one from doing certain things that ones id may want to do. The super-ego is observable in how someone can view themselves as guilty, bad, pathetic, shameful, weak, Freud in The Ego and the Id discusses the general character of harshness and cruelty exhibited by the ideal – its dictatorial Thou shalt. At the time at which the Oedipus complex gives place to the super-ego they are something quite magnificent, the earlier in development, the greater the estimate of parental power. When one defuses into rivalry with the imago, then one feels the dictatorial thou shalt to manifest the power the imago represents. Four general levels are found in Freuds work, the auto-erotic, the narcissistic, the anal, and these different levels of development and the relations to parental imagos correspond to specific id forms of aggression and affection. Freuds proposal was influenced by the ambiguity of the term unconscious, the id is the disorganized part of the personality structure that contains a humans basic, instinctual drives. Id is the component of personality that is present from birth. It is the source of our needs, wants, desires. The id contains the libido, which is the source of instinctual force that is unresponsive to the demands of reality. We approach the id with analogies, we call it a chaos, in the id, …contrary impulses exist side by side, without cancelling each other out. There is nothing in the id that could be compared with negation, nothing in the id which corresponds to the idea of time. Developmentally, the id precedes the ego, i. e. the psychic apparatus begins, at birth, as an undifferentiated id, part of which then develops into a structured ego. The mind of a child is regarded as completely id-ridden, in the sense that it is a mass of instinctive drives and impulses. The id knows no judgements of value, no good and evil, instinctual cathexes seeking discharge—that, in our view, is all there is in the id. It is regarded as the reservoir of libido, the instinctive drive to create—the life instincts that are crucial to pleasurable survival. For Freud, the death instinct would thus seem to express itself—though probably only in part—as an instinct of destruction directed against the external world, Freud considered that the id, the whole person. Originally includes all the instinctual impulses, the destructive instinct as well, as eros or the life instincts. The reality principle that operates the ego is a mechanism that enables the individual to delay gratifying immediate needs
6.
Libido
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Libido, colloquially known as sex drive, is a persons overall sexual drive or desire for sexual activity. Sex drive is influenced by biological, psychological and social factors, biologically, the sex hormones and associated neurotransmitters that act upon the nucleus accumbens regulate libido in humans. Social factors, such as work and family, and internal factors, like personality and stress. Sex drive can also be affected by conditions, medications, lifestyle and relationship issues. A person who has extremely frequent or a suddenly increased sex drive may be experiencing hypersexuality, while the opposite condition is hyposexuality. A person may have a desire for sex, but not have the opportunity to act on that desire, psychologically, a persons urge can be repressed or sublimated. On the other hand, a person can engage in activity without an actual desire for it. Multiple factors affect human sex drive, including stress, illness, pregnancy, Sexual desires are often an important factor in the formation and maintenance of intimate relationships in humans. A lack or loss of desire can adversely affect relationships. Changes in the desires of any partner in a sexual relationship, if sustained and unresolved. The infidelity of a partner may be an indication that a partners changing sexual desires can no longer be satisfied within the current relationship, problems can arise from disparity of sexual desires between partners, or poor communication between partners of sexual needs and preferences. A person is sex starved or sexually frustrated when they have a libido, sigmund Freud defined libido as the energy, regarded as a quantitative magnitude. Of those instincts which have to do all that may be comprised under the word love. It is the energy or force, contained in what Freud called the id. Freud pointed out that these drives can conflict with the conventions of civilised behavior. Excessive use of ego defenses results in neurosis, a primary goal of psychoanalysis is to bring the drives of the id into consciousness, allowing them to be met directly and thus reducing the patients reliance on ego defenses. Freud viewed libido as passing through a series of stages within the individual. According to Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, the libido is identified as psychic energy, defined more narrowly, libido also refers to an individuals urge to engage in sexual activity, and its antonym is the force of destruction termed mortido or destrudo
7.
Defence mechanisms
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A defence mechanism is an unconscious psychological mechanism that reduces anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful stimuli. Sigmund Freud was one of the first proponents of this construct, defence mechanisms may result in healthy or unhealthy consequences depending on the circumstances and frequency with which the mechanism is used. In psychoanalytic theory, repression is considered as the basis for defence mechanisms. Healthy persons normally use different defences throughout life, an ego defence mechanism becomes pathological only when its persistent use leads to maladaptive behaviour such that the physical or mental health of the individual is adversely affected. Among the purposes of ego defence mechanisms is to protect the mind/self/ego from anxiety and/or social sanctions and/or to provide a refuge from a situation with which one cannot currently cope, one resource used to evaluate these mechanisms is the Defense Style Questionnaire. The concept of id impulses comes from Sigmund Freud’s structural model, according to this theory, id impulses are based on the pleasure principle, instant gratification of ones own desires and needs. Sigmund Freud believed that the id represents biological instinctual impulses in humans, such as aggression, for example, when the id impulses conflict with the superego, unsatisfied feelings of anxiousness or feelings of anxiety come to the surface. To reduce these unpleasant feelings, the ego might use defence mechanisms, Freud believed that conflicts between these two structures resulted in conflicts associated with psychosexual stages. Freud proposed three structures of the psyche or personality, Id, The id is the reservoir of the libido. It is a selfish, childish, pleasure-oriented part of the personality with no ability to delay gratification, superego, The superego contains internalised societal and parental standards of good and bad, right and wrong behaviour. They include conscious appreciations of rules and regulations as well as those incorporated unconsciously, ego, The ego acts as a moderator between the pleasure sought by the id and the morals of the superego, seeking compromises to pacify both. It can be viewed as the sense of time and place. In the ego, there are two ongoing processes, there is no logic and no time line. Lust is important for this process, by contrast, there is the conscious secondary process, where strong boundaries are set and thoughts must be organised in a coherent way. The superego forms as the child grows and learns parental and social standards, when anxiety becomes overwhelming, it is the egos place to protect the person by employing defence mechanisms. Guilt, embarrassment and shame often accompany anxiety, the signaling function of anxiety is thus seen as a crucial one and biologically adapted to warn the organism of danger or a threat to its equilibrium. Defence mechanisms work by distorting the id impulses into acceptable forms, the list of defence mechanisms is huge and there is no theoretical consensus on the exact number. Classifying defence mechanisms according to some of their properties has been attempted, different theorists have different categorizations and conceptualizations of defence mechanisms
8.
Karl Abraham
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Karl Abraham was an early important and influential German psychoanalyst, and a collaborator of Sigmund Freud, who called him his best pupil. He was born in Bremen, Germany and his parents were Nathan Abraham, a Jewish religion teacher and his wife Ida. His studies in medicine enabled him to take a position at the Burghölzli Swiss Mental Hospital, the setting of this hospital initially introduced him to the psychoanalysis of Carl Gustav Jung. In 1907, he had his first contact with Sigmund Freud, returning to Germany, he founded the Berliner Society of Psychoanalysis in 1910. He was the president of the International Psychoanalytical Association from 1914 to 1918, Karl Abraham collaborated with Freud on the understanding of manic-depressive illness, leading to Freuds paper on Mourning and Melancholia in 1917. He was the analyst of Melanie Klein during 1924–1925, and of a number of other British psychoanalysts, including Edward Glover, James Glover and he was a mentor for an influential group of German analysts, including Karen Horney, Helene Deutsch, and Franz Alexander. He described the personality traits and psychopathology that result from the oral and anal stages of development, in the oral stage of development, the first relationships children have with objects determine their subsequent relationship to reality. Oral satisfaction can result in self-assurance and optimism, whereas oral fixation can lead to pessimism, moreover, a person with an oral fixation will present a disinclination to take care of him/herself and will require others to look after him/her. This may be expressed through extreme passivity or through a highly active oral-sadistic behaviour, in the anal stage, when the training in cleanliness starts too early, conflicts may result between a conscious attitude of obedience and an unconscious desire for resistance. This can lead to such as frugality, orderliness and obstinacy. This disturbance is linked with disappointing incidents of early childhood, in the case of men always with the mother and this concept of the prooedipal “bad” mother was a new development in contrast to Freud’s oedipal mother and paved the way for the theories of Melanie Klein. Moreover, Abraham investigated child sexual trauma and, like Freud, furthermore, he argued that dementia praecox is associated with child sexual trauma, based on the relationship between hysteria and child sexual trauma demonstrated by Freud. Abraham also showed interest in cultural issues and he analyzed various myths suggesting their relation to dreams and wrote an interpretation of the spiritual activities of the Egyptian monotheistic Pharaoh Amenhotep IV. Abraham died prematurely on December 25,1925, from complications of a lung infection, normentafeln zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Wirbeltiere, Heft 2. Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Delirium tremens der Morphinisten, ber Versuche mit Veronal bei Erregungszuständen der Paralytiker. On the significance of Sexual Trauma in Childhood for the Symptomatology of Dementia Praecox, Abraham, M. D. Clinical Papers and Essays on Psycho-Analysis. London, The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psychoanalysis, dreams and Myths, A study in folk-Psychology. Abraham, M. D. Clinical Papers and Essays on Psycho-Analysis, london, The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psychoanalysis
9.
Alfred Adler
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Alfred W. Adler was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology. His emphasis on the importance of feelings of inferiority—the inferiority complex—is recognized as an element which plays a key role in personality development. Alfred Adler considered human beings as a whole, therefore he called his psychology Individual Psychology. Adler was the first to emphasize the importance of the element in the re-adjustment process of the individual. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Adler as the 67th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Alfred Adler was born at Mariahilfer Straße 208 in Rudolfsheim, then a village on the fringes of Vienna, and today part of Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus. He was third of the seven children of a Hungarian-born, Jewish grain merchant, others contend that he was the second of the children. Alfreds younger brother died in the bed next to him, when Alfred was only three years old, Alfred was an active, popular child and an average student who was also known for his competitive attitude toward his older brother, Sigmund. Early on, he developed rickets, which kept him from walking until he was four years old, at the age of four, he developed pneumonia and heard a doctor say to his father, Your boy is lost. At that point, he decided to be a physician and he was very interested in the subjects of psychology, sociology and philosophy. After studying at University of Vienna, he specialized as an eye doctor and his clients included circus people, and it has been suggested that the unusual strengths and weaknesses of the performers led to his insights into organ inferiorities and compensation. In 1902 Adler received an invitation from Sigmund Freud to join an informal group that included Rudolf Reitler. The group, the Wednesday Society, met regularly on Wednesday evenings at Freuds home and was the beginning of the psychoanalytic movement, a long-serving member of the group, Adler became president of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society eight years later. He remained a member of the Society until 1911, when he and a group of his supporters formally disengaged from Freuds circle and this departure suited both Freud and Adler, since they had grown to dislike each other. During his association with Freud, Adler frequently maintained his own ideas which diverged from Freuds. While Adler is often referred to as a pupil of Freuds, in fact this was never true, they were colleagues, in 1929 Adler showed a reporter with the New York Herald a copy of the faded postcard that Freud had sent him in 1902. He wanted to prove that he had never been a disciple of Freuds, Adler founded the Society for Individual Psychology in 1912 after his break from the psychoanalytic movement. Adlers group initially included some orthodox Nietzschean adherents and their enmity aside, Adler retained a lifelong admiration for Freuds ideas on dreams and credited him with creating a scientific approach to their clinical utilization
10.
Wilfred Bion
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Wilfred Ruprecht Bion DSO was an influential British psychoanalyst, who became president of the British Psychoanalytical Society from 1962 to 1965. Wilfred Bion was a potent and original contributor to psychoanalysis and he was one of the first to analyze patients in psychotic states using an unmodified analytic technique, he extended existing theories of projective processes and developed new conceptual tools. Bions ideas are highly unique, so that he remained larger than life to almost all who encountered him and he has been considered by Neville Symington as possibly the greatest psychoanalytic thinker. after Freud. Bion was born in Mathura, North-Western Provinces, India, and he was demobilised on 1 September 1921, and was granted the rank of captain. The full citation for his DSO reads, Awarded the Distinguished Service Order, T. /2nd Lt, Wilfred Ruprecht Bion, Tank Corps. For conspicuous gallantry, and devotion to duty, when in command of his tank in an attack he engaged a large number of enemy machine guns in strong positions, thus assisting the infantry to advance. When his tank was put out of action by a hit he occupied a section of trench with his men and machine guns. He moved about in the open, giving directions to other tanks when they arrived and he also got a captured machine gun into action against the enemy, and when reinforcements arrived he took command of a company of infantry whose commander was killed. He showed magnificent courage and initiative in a most difficult situation, after World War I, Bion studied history at The Queens College, Oxford, earning a bachelor of arts degree in 1922, then studying medicine at University College London. This was to prove an important influence on Bions interest in group behavior and it did, however, bring him into fruitful contact with Samuel Beckett. He wanted to train in Psychoanalysis and in 1938 he began an analysis with John Rickman. These ideas on the psychoanalysis of groups were taken up and developed by others such as S. H. Foulkes, Rickman, Bridger, Main. It was less a guide for the therapy of individuals within or by the group, the book quickly became a touchstone work for applications of group theory in a wide variety of fields. During the war Bions wife, Betty Jardine, gave birth to a daughter and his daughter, Parthenope, became a highly regarded psychoanalyst In Italy. She died prematurely, in a car crash in Italy in 1998, as his interest in psychoanalysis increased, he underwent training analysis, between 1946 and 1952, with Melanie Klein. He met his wife, Francesca, at the Tavistock in 1951. He joined a group of Kleins students, who were developing Kleins theory of the paranoid-schizoid. He produced a series of original and influential papers on the analysis of schizophrenia, and the specifically cognitive, perceptual
11.
Josef Breuer
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Born in Vienna, his father, Leopold Breuer, taught religion in Viennas Jewish community. Breuers mother died when he was young, and he was raised by his maternal grandmother. He graduated from the Akademisches Gymnasium of Vienna in 1858 and then studied at the university for one year before enrolling in the school of the University of Vienna. He passed his exams in 1867 and went to work as assistant to the internist Johann Oppolzer at the university. Breuer, working under Ewald Hering at the medical school in Vienna, was the first to demonstrate the role of the vagus nerve in the reflex nature of respiration. This was a departure from previous physiological understanding, and changed the way scientists viewed the relationship of the lungs to the nervous system, the mechanism is now known as the Hering–Breuer reflex. That the sense of balance depends on the three semicircular canals was discovered in 1870 by the physiologist Friedrich Goltz, but Goltz did not discover how the balance-sensing apparatus functions. Breuer is perhaps best known for his work in the 1880s with Anna O. a woman suffering from paralysis of her limbs, Breuer observed that her symptoms reduced or disappeared after she described them to him. Anna O. humorously called this procedure chimney sweeping and she also coined the more serious appellation for this form of therapy, talking cure. Breuer later referred to it as the “cathartic method”, Breuer was then a mentor to the young Sigmund Freud, and had helped set him up in medical practice. Never before had anyone removed a hysterical symptom by such a method, Freud and Breuer documented their discussions of Anna O. and other case studies in their 1895 book, Studies in Hysteria. He also gives others, such as Pierre Janet, credit and argues for “eclecticism”, the two men became increasingly estranged. In 1894 Breuer was elected a Corresponding Member of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, Breuer married Mathilde Altmann in 1868, and they had five children. His daughter Dora later committed suicide rather than be deported by the Nazis, another one of his daughters, Margarete Schiff, perished in Theresienstadt on September 9,1942. Breuers granddaughter, Hanna Schiff, died imprisoned by the Nazis. Das Verhalten der Eigenwärme in Krankheiten, die Selbststeuerung der Athmung durch den Nervus vagus. In, Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften Wien, math. -naturw, bemerkungen zu Senators „Beiträge zur Lehre von der Eigenwärme und dem Fieber“. Über die Function der Bogengänge des Ohrlabyrinthes, beiträge zur Lehre vom statischen Sinne
12.
Max Eitingon
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Max Eitingon was a Belarusian-German medical doctor and psychoanalyst, instrumental in establishing the institutional parameters of psychoanalytic education and training. Eitingon was cofounder and president from 1920 to 1933 of the Berlin Psychoanalytic Polyclinic, Eitingon was born to an extremely wealthy orthodox Jewish family in Mohilev, Imperial Russia, the son of a successful fur trader Chaim Eitingon. When he was twelve the family moved to Leipzig, before completing his dissertation, Eitingon worked as an intern at Eugen Bleulers Burghölzli Clinic in Zurich. In 1907 he was sent by Bleuler to meet Freud, and in 1908-9 underwent five weeks of analysis with Freud and he completed his dissertation, Effect of an epileptic attack on mental associations, with Carl Jungs help, and settled in Berlin. In 1913 he married Mirra Jacovleina Raigorodsky, an actress with the Moscow Art Theater, during World War I Eitingon became an Austrian citizen, joining the army as a doctor and using hypnosis to treat soldiers with war trauma. Settling in Berlin after the war, he was invited by Freud to join the secret Psychoanalytic Committee, Eitingon financed the building of a polyclinic, using Freuds son Ernst Freud as architect. Eitingon, Karl Abraham and Ernst Simmel ran the clinic until the rise of Nazism in 1933, at the 1925 Bad Homburg Congress, Eitingon proposed that the Berlin system of psychoanalytic training should be made an international standard under an International Training Commission. Eitingon was appointed president of the ITC, and kept the position until his death in 1943, after the family business suffered in the US Great Depression, Eitingon was forced for the first time to take a patient to earn his living. In 1932 he had a cerebral thrombosis, on Freuds advice, Eitingon left Germany in September 1933 and emigrated to Palestine. In 1934 he founded the Palestine Psychoanalytic Association in Jerusalem, however, despite Freuds recommendation, he did not manage to gain a chair in psychoanalysis at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Eitingon died on 30 July 1943 in Jerusalem, and is buried on Mount Scopus, genie, Talent und Psychoanalyse, Zentralblatt für Psychoanalyse 2 539-540. Gott und Vater, Imago 3, 90-93 Ein Fall von Verlesen, Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse 3, zur psychoanalytischen Bewegung, Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse 8, 103-106. Report of the Berlin Psychoanalytical Polyclinic, Bulletin of the International Psychoanalytical Association 4,254
13.
Erik Erikson
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Erik Homburger Erikson was a German-born American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis and his son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist. Although Erikson lacked even a bachelors degree, he served as a professor at prominent institutions such as Harvard, a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Erikson as the 12th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Eriksons mother, Karla Abrahamsen, came from a prominent Jewish family in Copenhagen and she was married to Jewish stockbroker Valdemar Isidor Salomonsen, but had been estranged from him for several months at the time Erik was conceived. Little is known about Eriks biological father except that he was a Danish gentile, on discovering her pregnancy, Karla fled to Frankfurt, Germany, where Erik was born on June 15,1902 and was given the surname Salomonsen. Following Eriks birth, Karla trained to be a nurse and moved to Karlsruhe, in 1905 she married Eriks Jewish pediatrician, Theodor Homberger. In 1908, Erik Salomonsens name was changed to Erik Homberger, the development of identity seems to have been one of Eriksons greatest concerns in his own life as well as in his theory. As an older adult, he wrote about his adolescent “identity confusion” in his European days. “My identity confusion, ” he wrote was at times on “the borderline between neurosis and adolescent psychosis. ”Erikson’s daughter writes that her father’s “real psychoanalytic identity” was not established until he “replaced his stepfather’s surname with a name of his own invention. ”During his childhood and early adulthood he was known as Erik Homberger, and his parents kept the details of his birth a secret. He was a tall, blond, blue-eyed boy who was raised in the Jewish religion, at temple school, the kids teased him for being a Nordic, at grammar school, they teased him for being Jewish. At Das Humanistische Gymnasium his main interests were art, history and languages, after graduation, instead of attending medical school, as his stepfather had desired, he attended art school in Munich, but soon dropped out. Uncertain about his vocation and his fit in society, Erikson began a period of roaming about Germany and Italy as a wandering artist with his childhood friend Peter Blos. During this period he continued to contend with questions about his father and competing ideas of ethnic, religious and he specialized in child analysis and underwent a training analysis with Anna Freud. Helene Deutsch and Edward Bibring supervised his initial treatment of an adult, simultaneously he studied the Montessori method of education, which focused on child development and sexual stages. In 1933 he received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute and this and his Montessori diploma were to be Eriksons only earned academic credentials for his lifes work. In 1931 Erikson married Joan Mowat Serson, a Canadian dancer, during their marriage Erikson converted to Christianity. Unable to regain Danish citizenship because of requirements, the family left for the United States. In 1936, Erikson left Harvard and joined the staff at Yale University, while at Yale he became a naturalized citizen of the United States and changed his familys surname from his adoptive fathers name of Homberger to Erikson
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Anna Freud
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Anna Freud was an Austrian-British psychoanalyst. She was the 6th and last child of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays and she followed the path of her father and contributed to the field of psychoanalysis. Compared to her father, her work emphasized the importance of the ego, a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Freud as the 99th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Anna Freud was born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary on 3 December 1895 and she was the youngest daughter of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays. She grew up in comfortable bourgeois circumstances and she had difficulties getting along with her siblings, specifically with her sister Sophie Freud. It seems that in general, she was competitive with her siblings. The close relationship between Anna and her father was different from the rest of her family and she was a lively child with a reputation for mischief. Freud wrote to his friend Wilhelm Fliess in 1899, Anna has become downright beautiful through naughtiness, Freud is said to refer to her in his diaries more than others in the family. Later on Anna Freud would say that she didn’t learn much in school, instead she learned from her father and this was how she picked up Hebrew, German, English, French and Italian. At the age of 15, she started reading her father’s work, commentators have noted how in the dream of little Anna. little Anna only hallucinates forbidden objects. Anna finished her education at the Cottage Lyceum in Vienna in 1912, suffering from a depression and anorexia, she was very insecure about what to do in the future. In 1914 she passed the test to work as an apprentice at her old school. From 1915 to 1917, she worked as an apprentice for third, fourth. She finally quit her career in 1920, due to multiple episodes of illness. Her first analysis was conducted by her father Sigmund Freud from 1918 to 1922, jacques Van Rillaer describes this incestuous analysis. She presented the paper Beating Fantasies and Daydreams to the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, in 1923, Anna Freud began her own psychoanalytical practice with children and two years later she was teaching at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Training Institute on the technique of child analysis. From 1925 until 1934, she was the Secretary of the International Psychoanalytical Association while she continued child analysis and seminars and it became a founding work of ego psychology and established Freud’s reputation as a pioneering theoretician. In 1938 the Freuds had to flee from Austria as a consequence of the Nazis intensifying harassment of Jews in Vienna following the Anschluss by Germany
15.
Sigmund Freud
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Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg and he qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna. Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology, Freud lived and worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. In 1938 Freud left Austria to escape the Nazis and he died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939. In creating psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference, Freuds redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with models for the analysis of symptom formation. On this basis Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id, in his later work Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture. Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy, nonetheless, Freuds work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture. In the words of W. H. Audens 1940 poetic tribute, by the time of Freuds death, Freud was born to Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the first of eight children. Both of his parents were from Galicia, in modern-day Ukraine and his father, Jakob Freud, a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel and Philipp, by his first marriage. Jakobs family were Hasidic Jews, and although Jakob himself had moved away from the tradition and he and Freuds mother, Amalia Nathansohn, who was 20 years younger and his third wife, were married by Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimer on 29 July 1855. They were struggling financially and living in a room, in a locksmiths house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born. He was born with a caul, which his mother saw as an omen for the boys future. In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg, Freuds half brothers emigrated to Manchester, England, parting him from the inseparable playmate of his early childhood, Emanuels son, John. Jakob Freud took his wife and two children firstly to Leipzig and then in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and a brother were born, Rosa, Marie, Adolfine, Paula, in 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. He proved an outstanding pupil and graduated from the Matura in 1873 with honors and he loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Latin and Greek. Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17, in 1876, Freud spent four weeks at Clauss zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs. He graduated with an MD in 1881, in 1882, Freud began his medical career at the Vienna General Hospital
16.
Erich Fromm
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Erich Seligmann Fromm was a German social psychologist, psychoanalyst, sociologist, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist. He was associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory, Erich Fromm was born on March 23,1900, at Frankfurt am Main, the only child of Orthodox Jewish parents. He started his studies in 1918 at the University of Frankfurt am Main with two semesters of jurisprudence. During the summer semester of 1919, Fromm studied at the University of Heidelberg, where he began studying sociology under Alfred Weber, psychiatrist-philosopher Karl Jaspers, Fromm received his PhD in sociology from Heidelberg in 1922. During the mid-1920s, he trained to become a psychoanalyst through Frieda Reichmanns psychoanalytic sanatorium in Heidelberg and he began his own clinical practice in 1927. In 1930 he joined the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research and completed his psychoanalytical training, after the Nazi takeover of power in Germany, Fromm moved first to Geneva and then, in 1934, to Columbia University in New York. Together with Karen Horney and Harry Stack Sullivan, Fromm belongs to a Neo-Freudian school of psychoanalytical thought, Horney and Fromm each had a marked influence on the others thought, with Horney illuminating some aspects of psychoanalysis for Fromm and the latter elucidating sociology for Horney. Their relationship ended in the late 1930s and he was on the faculty of Bennington College from 1941 to 1949, and taught courses at the New School for Social Research in New York from 1941 to 1959. When Fromm moved to Mexico City in 1949, he became a professor at the National Autonomous University of Mexico and he taught at UNAM until his retirement, in 1965, and at the Mexican Society of Psychoanalysis until 1974. In 1974 he moved from Mexico City to Muralto, Switzerland, all the while, Fromm maintained his own clinical practice and published a series of books. Indeed, Escape from Freedom is viewed as one of the works of political psychology. His second important work, Man for Himself, An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics, first published in 1947, taken together, these books outlined Fromms theory of human character, which was a natural outgrowth of Fromms theory of human nature. Central to Fromms world view was his interpretation of the Talmud and he began studying Talmud as a young man under Rabbi J. Horowitz and later under Rabbi Salman Baruch Rabinkow, a Chabad Hasid. While working towards his doctorate in sociology at the University of Heidelberg, Fromm studied the Tanya by the founder of Chabad, Fromm also studied under Nehemia Nobel and Ludwig Krause while studying in Frankfurt. Fromms grandfather and two great grandfathers on his fathers side were rabbis, and an uncle on his mothers side was a noted Talmudic scholar. However, Fromm turned away from orthodox Judaism in 1926, towards secular interpretations of scriptural ideals, the cornerstone of Fromms humanistic philosophy is his interpretation of the biblical story of Adam and Eves exile from the Garden of Eden. However, Fromm distinguished his concept of love from unreflective popular notions as well as Freudian paradoxical love. Fromm also asserted that few people in society had respect for the autonomy of their fellow human beings
17.
Karen Horney
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Karen Horney was a German psychoanalyst who practiced in the United States during her later career. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views and this was particularly true of her theories of sexuality and of the instinct orientation of psychoanalysis. She is credited with founding feminist psychology in response to Freuds theory of penis envy and she disagreed with Freud about inherent differences in the psychology of men and women, and she traced such differences to society and culture rather than biology. As such, she is classified as Neo-Freudian. Karen Horney was born Karen Danielsen on 16 September 1885 in Blankenese, Germany and her father, Berndt Wackels Danielsen, was Norwegian but had German citizenship. He was a captain in the merchant marine, and a Protestant traditionalist. Her mother, Clotilde, née van Ronzelen, known as Sonni, was also Protestant and she was said to be more open-minded than Berndt, and yet she was depressed, irritable, and domineering toward Karen. Karens elder brother was also named Berndt, and Karen cared for him deeply and she also had four elder half-siblings from her fathers previous marriage. However, there was no contact between the children of her father’s two marriages, according to Horneys adolescent diaries her father was a cruel disciplinary figure, who also held his son Berndt in higher regard than Karen. Instead of being offended or feeling indignation over Karens perceptions of him, despite this, Karen always felt deprived of her fathers affection and instead became attached to her mother. From roughly the age of nine Karen became ambitious and somewhat rebellious and she felt that she could not become pretty, and instead decided to vest her energies into her intellectual qualities — despite the fact she was seen by most as pretty. At this time she developed a crush on her older brother and she suffered the first of several bouts of depression — an issue that would plague her for the rest of her life. In 1904, when Karen was 19, her left her father. Against her parents wishes, Horney entered medical school in 1906, the University of Freiburg was in fact one of the first institutions throughout Germany to enroll women in medical courses—with higher education only becoming available to women in Germany in 1900. By 1908, Horney had transferred to the University of Göttingen, attending several universities was common at the time to gain a basic medical education. Through her fellow student Carl Müller-Braunschweig - who later became a psychoanalyst - she met the business student Oskar Horney, the couple moved to Berlin together, where Oskar worked in industry while Karen continued her studies at Charité. Within the space of one year, Karen gave birth to her first child and she entered psychoanalysis to help her cope. Her first analyst was Karl Abraham in 1910, then she moved to Hanns Sachs, Karen and Oskar had three daughters
18.
Ernest Jones
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Alfred Ernest Jones, FRCP, MRCS was a British neurologist and psychoanalyst. A lifelong friend and colleague of Sigmund Freud from their first meeting in 1908, Jones was the first English-speaking practitioner of psychoanalysis and became its leading exponent in the English-speaking world. Ernest Jones was born in Gowerton, Wales, a village on the outskirts of Swansea. His father was a colliery engineer who went on to establish himself as a successful business man, becoming accountant. His mother, Mary Ann, was from a Welsh-speaking Carmarthenshire family which had relocated to Swansea, Jones was educated at Swansea Grammar School, Llandovery College, and Cardiff University in Wales. Jones studied at University College London and meanwhile he obtained the Conjoint diplomas LRCP, a year later, in 1901, he obtained an M. B. degree with honours in medicine and obstetrics. Within five years he received an MD degree and a Membership of the Royal College of Physicians in 1903 and he was particularly pleased to receive the Universitys gold medal in obstetrics from his distinguished fellow-Welshman, Sir John Williams. After obtaining his degrees, Jones specialised in neurology and took a number of posts in London hospitals. It was through his association with the surgeon Wilfred Trotter that Jones first heard of Freuds work, having worked together as surgeons at University College Hospital, he and Trotter became close friends, with Trotter taking the role of mentor and confidant to his younger colleague. They had in common a wide-ranging interest in philosophy and literature, as well as a growing interest in Continental psychiatric literature, by 1905 they were sharing accommodation above Harley Street consulting rooms with Joness sister, Elizabeth, installed as housekeeper. Trotter and Elizabeth Jones later married, appalled by the treatment of the mentally ill in institutions, Jones began experimenting with hypnotic techniques in his clinical work. Jones first encountered Freuds writings directly in 1905, in a German psychiatric journal in which Freud published the famous Dora case-history, Joness early attempts to combine his interest in Freuds ideas with his clinical work with children resulted in adverse effects on his career. In 1906 he was arrested and charged with two counts of indecent assault on two adolescent girls whom he had interviewed in his capacity as an inspector of schools for mentally defective children. At the court hearing Jones maintained his innocence, claiming the girls were fantasising about any inappropriate actions by him, the magistrate concluded that no jury would believe the testimony of such children and Jones was acquitted. In 1908, employed as a pathologist at a London hospital, Jones duly obliged but, before conducting the interview, he omitted to inform the girl’s consultant or arrange for a chaperone. Subsequently, he faced complaints from the parents over the nature of the interview. Joness first serious relationship was with Loe Kann, a wealthy Dutch émigré referred to him in 1906 after she had become addicted to morphine during treatment for a kidney condition. It ended with Kann in analysis with Freud and Jones, at Freuds behest, a tentative romance with Freuds daughter, Anna, did not survive the disapproval of her father
19.
Carl Jung
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Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. His work has been not only in psychiatry but also in anthropology, archaeology, literature, philosophy. As a notable research scientist based at the famous Burghölzli hospital, under Eugen Bleuler, he came to the attention of the Viennese founder of psychoanalysis, the two men conducted a lengthy correspondence and collaborated on an initially joint vision of human psychology. Freud saw in the man the potential heir he had been seeking to carry on his new science of psychoanalysis. Jungs researches and personal vision, however, made it impossible for him to bend to his older colleagues dogma and this break was to have historic as well as painful personal repercussions that have lasted to this day. Jung was also an artist, craftsman and builder as well as a prolific writer, many of his works were not published until after his death and some are still awaiting publication. Among the central concepts of analytical psychology is individuation—the lifelong psychological process of differentiation of the out of each individuals conscious and unconscious elements. Jung considered it to be the task of human development. He created some of the best known psychological concepts, including synchronicity, archetypal phenomena, the unconscious, the psychological complex. Carl Gustav Jung was born in Kesswil, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau, on 26 July 1875 as the second and first surviving son of Paul Achilles Jung and their first child, born in 1873 was a boy named Paul who survived only a few days. Emilie was the youngest child of a distinguished Basel churchman and academic, Samuel Preiswerk, and his second wife. Preiswerk was antistes, the given to the head of the Reformed clergy in the city, as well as a Hebraist, author and editor. When Jung was six months old, his father was appointed to a prosperous parish in Laufen. Emilie Jung was an eccentric and depressed woman, she spent considerable time in her bedroom where she said that spirits visited her at night, although she was normal during the day, Jung recalled that at night his mother became strange and mysterious. He reported that one night he saw a luminous and indefinite figure coming from her room with a head detached from the neck. Jung had a relationship with his father. Jungs mother left Laufen for several months of hospitalization near Basel for a physical ailment. His father took the boy to be cared for by Emilie Jungs unmarried sister in Basel, Emilie Jungs continuing bouts of absence and often depressed mood influenced her sons attitude towards women — one of innate unreliability
20.
Melanie Klein
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Melanie Reizes Klein was an Austrian-British psychoanalyst who devised novel therapeutic techniques for children that influenced child psychology and contemporary psychoanalysis. She was an innovator in object relations theory. Born in Vienna of Jewish heritage, Klein first sought psychoanalysis for herself from Sándor Ferenczi when she was living in Budapest during World War I, there she became a psychoanalyst and began analysing children in 1919. Allegedly two of the first children she analysed were her son and daughter, in 1921 she moved to Berlin, where she studied with and was analysed by Karl Abraham. Although Abraham supported her work with children, neither Klein nor her ideas received much support in Berlin. However, impressed by her work, British psychoanalyst Ernest Jones invited Klein to come to London in 1926. Klein had a influence on the theory and technique of psychoanalysis. As a divorced woman whose academic qualifications did not even include a bachelors degree, after the arrival of Sigmund Freud and his psychoanalyst daughter, Anna Freud, in London in 1938, Klein’s ideas came into conflict with those of Continental analysts who were migrating to Britain. This division remains to the current time, apart from her professional successes, Klein’s life had a number of tragic events. She was youngest of four children and her much loved elder sister died at the age of eight, when Klein was four, and she was made to feel responsible for her brother’s death. Her academic studies were interrupted by marriage and children and her daughters analyst at the time, Edward Glover, openly challenged Klein in the British Society meetings. Mother and daughter were not reconciled before Kleins death, and Schmideberg did not attend Kleins funeral and she was an atheist, but she never forgot her Jewish roots. Although Klein questioned some of the assumptions of Sigmund Freud. Klein was the first person to use traditional psychoanalysis with young children and she was innovative in both her techniques and her theories on infant development. Strongly opinionated, and demanding loyalty from her followers, Klein established an influential training program in psychoanalysis. She is considered one of the co-founders of object relations theory, in psychological terms, Eros, the postulated sustaining and uniting principle of life, is thereby presumed to have a companion force, Thanatos, which seeks to terminate and disintegrate life. Both Freud and Klein regarded these forces as the foundations of the psyche. These primary unconscious forces, whose matrix is the id
21.
Jacques Lacan
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Jacques Marie Émile Lacan was a French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist who has been called the most controversial psycho-analyst since Freud. Giving yearly seminars in Paris from 1953 to 1981, Lacan influenced many leading French intellectuals in the 1960s and his ideas had a significant impact on post-structuralism, critical theory, linguistics, 20th-century French philosophy, film theory and clinical psychoanalysis. Lacan was born in Paris, the eldest of Émilie and Alfred Lacans three children and his father was a successful soap and oils salesman. His mother was ardently Catholic – his younger brother went to a monastery in 1929, during the early 1920s, Lacan attended right-wing Action Française political meetings, of which he would later be highly critical, and met the founder, Charles Maurras. By the mid-1920s, Lacan had become dissatisfied with religion and became an atheist and he quarreled with his family over this issue. In 1920, after being rejected for service on the grounds that he was too thin. During that period, he was interested in the philosophies of Karl Jaspers and Martin Heidegger. In 1932, after a year at Saint Annes Clinique de Maladies Mentales et de lEncéphale. In 1932 he was awarded the Diplôme dÉtat de docteur en médecine for his thesis On Paranoiac Psychosis in its Relations to the Personality. It had a reception in the 1930s because it was not published until four decades later. This thesis is thought to mark Lacans entry into psychoanalysis and it shows Lacan’s dissatisfaction with traditional psychiatry and the growing influence of Sigmund Freud on his works. ‘Paranoid Psychosis and its Relation to the Personality’ was based on observations of patients with a primary focus on one female patient whom Lacan called Aimee. It was published in the Revue française de psychanalyse, in Autumn of that same year, Lacan began his training analysis with Rudolph Lowenstein, which was to last until 1938. Two years later Lacan was elected to the Société psychanalytique de Paris, in January 1934 he married Marie-Louise Blondin, and in January 1937 they had their first child, a daughter named Caroline. Their second child, a son named Thibaut, was born in August 1939, in 1936, Lacan presented his first analytic report at the Congress of the International Psychoanalytical Association in Marienbad on the Mirror Phase. The congress chairman, Ernest Jones, terminated the lecture before its conclusion, insulted, Lacan left the congress to witness the Berlin Olympic Games. No copy of the original lecture remains, Lacan was an active intellectual of the inter-war period—he was associated with André Breton, Georges Bataille, Salvador Dalí, and Pablo Picasso. He attended the mouvement Psyché that Maryse Choisy founded and he published in the Surrealist journal Minotaure and attended the first public reading of James Joyces Ulysses
22.
R. D. Laing
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Ronald David Laing, usually cited as R. D. Laing, was a Scottish psychiatrist who wrote extensively on mental illness – in particular, the experience of psychosis. Laing was associated with the movement, although he rejected the label. Politically, he was regarded as a thinker of the New Left, Laing was born in the Govanhill district of Glasgow on 7 October 1927, the only child of David Park MacNair Laing and Amelia Glen Laing. Laing described his parents – his mother especially – as being somewhat odd and he was educated initially at Sir John Neilson Cuthbertson Public School and after four years transferred to Hutchesons Grammar School. Described variously as clever, competitive or precocious, he studied mainly Classics, particularly philosophy and he was also a musician, being made an Associate of the Royal College of Music. He chose to go on to study medicine at the University of Glasgow, during his medical degree he set up a Socratic Club, of which the philosopher Bertrand Russell agreed to be President. Laing failed his final exams on his first attempt, in 1950, in 1953 Laing left the Army and worked at the Glasgow Royal Mental Hospital, becoming the youngest consultant in the country. During this period Laing also participated in a discussion group in Glasgow, organised by Karl Abenheimer. In 1956 Laing went on to train on a grant at the Tavistock Institute in London, widely known as a centre for the study, at this time, he was associated with John Bowlby, D. W. Winnicott and Charles Rycroft. He remained at the Tavistock Institute until 1964, in 1965 Laing and a group of colleagues created the Philadelphia Association and started a psychiatric community project at Kingsley Hall, where patients and therapists lived together. The Norwegian author Axel Jensen contacted Laing at Kingsley Hall after reading his book The Divided Self, Jensen was treated by Laing and subsequently they became close friends. Laing often visited Jensen onboard his ship Shanti Devi, which was his home in Stockholm, in October 1972, Laing met Arthur Janov, author of the popular book The Primal Scream. Though Laing found Janov modest and unassuming, he thought of him as a jig man, Laing sympathized with Janov, but regarded his primal therapy as a lucrative business, one which required no more than obtaining a suitable space and letting people hang it all out. Many former colleagues regarded him as a brilliant mind gone wrong, Laing was seen as an important figure in the anti-psychiatry movement, along with David Cooper, although he never denied the value of treating mental distress. Hence, according to Laing, psychiatry was founded on an epistemology, illness diagnosed by conduct. His attitude to recreational drugs was quite different, privately, he advocated an anarchy of experience and his mother Amelia, according to some speculation and rumour about her behaviour, has been described as psychologically peculiar. These admissions were to have consequences for Laing as they formed part of the case against him by the General Medical Council which led to him ceasing to practise medicine. He died at age 61 of an attack while playing tennis with his colleague
23.
Otto Rank
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Otto Rank was an Austrian psychoanalyst, writer, and teacher. In 1926, Otto Rank left Vienna for Paris, for the remaining 14 years of his life, Rank had a successful career as a lecturer, writer and therapist in France and the United States. Rank thus became the first paid member of the psychoanalytic movement, Freud considered Rank, with whom he was more intimate intellectually than his own sons, to be the most brilliant of his Viennese disciples. Encouraged and supported by Freud, Rank, completed the Gymnasium or college-preparatory high school, attended the University of Vienna and his thesis, on the Lohengrin Saga, was published as a book in 1911, the first Freudian doctoral dissertation to be published as a book. Rank was one of Freuds six collaborators brought together in a committee or ring to defend the psychoanalytic mainstream as disputes with Adler. Rank was the most prolific author in the ring besides Freud himself, extending psychoanalytic theory to the study of legend, myth, art and he worked closely with Freud, contributing two chapters on myth and legend to later editions of The Interpretation of Dreams. Ranks name appeared underneath Freuds on the page of Freuds greatest work from 1914 until 1930. Between 1915 and 1918, Rank served as Secretary of the International Psychoanalytical Association which Freud had founded in 1910, everyone in the small psychoanalytic world understood how much Freud respected Rank and his prolific creativity in expanding psychoanalytic theory. Freud announced to the circle, full of jealous rivals. But there was no such phase in Freud’s theories, the Oedipus complex, Freud explained, was the nucleus of the neurosis and the foundational source of all art, myth, religion, philosophy, therapy – indeed of all human culture and civilization. It was the first time anyone in the inner circle had dared to suggest that the Oedipus complex might not be the supreme causal factor in psychoanalysis. Rank was the first to use the term “pre-Oedipal” in a public forum in 1925. In a 1930 self-analysis of his own writings, Rank observes that the pre-Oedipal super-ego has since been overemphasized by Melanie Klein, without any reference to me. After some hesitation, Freud distanced himself from The Trauma of Birth, I am boiling with rage, Freud told Sándor Ferenczi then Ranks best friend. The characteristic of that time, remembers Sándor Radó, who was in analysis with Karl Abraham from 1922 to 1925, was a neglect of a human emotional life. Adds Rado, Everybody was looking for oral, pregenital, All emotional experience by human beings was being reduced by analysis to a derivative, no matter how disguised, of libido. For Freud, emotion was always sexual, derived from a dangerous Id that must be uprooted, Where Id was, Freud said famously. “Libido, ” according to Freud’s 1921 work on Group Psychology, increases in emotion, according to Freud, are unpleasurable
24.
Wilhelm Reich
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Wilhelm Reich was an Austrian psychoanalyst, a member of the second generation of analysts after Sigmund Freud. His writing influenced generations of intellectuals, he coined the phrase the sexual revolution, during the 1968 student uprisings in Paris and Berlin, students scrawled his name on walls and threw copies of The Mass Psychology of Fascism at police. After graduating in medicine from the University of Vienna in 1922, Reich became deputy director of Freuds outpatient clinic and he said he wanted to attack the neurosis by its prevention rather than treatment. From the 1930s he became a controversial figure, and from 1932 until his death in 1957 all his work was self-published. In 1940 he started building orgone accumulators, devices that his patients sat inside to harness the reputed health benefits, leading to newspaper stories about sex boxes that cured cancer. Charged with contempt in 1956 for having violated the injunction, Reich was sentenced to two years imprisonment, and that summer over six tons of his publications were burned by order of the court. He died in prison of heart failure just over a year later, Reich was born the first of two sons to Leon Reich, a farmer, and his wife Cäcilie in Dobzau, Galicia, then part of Austria-Hungary, now in Ukraine. There was a sister too, born one year after Reich, shortly after his birth the family moved to Jujinetz, a village in Bukovina, where his father ran a cattle farm leased by his mothers uncle, Josef Blum. His father was by all accounts a cold and jealous man, both parents were Jewish, but decided against raising the boys as Jews. Reich and his brother, Robert, were brought up to speak only German, were punished for using Yiddish expressions, as an adult Reich wrote extensively, in his diary, about his sexual precocity. He wrote of visits to brothels, the first when he was 15. He also developed sexual fantasies about his mother, writing when he was 22 that he masturbated while thinking about her, Reich was taught at home until he was 12, when his mother was discovered having an affair with his live-in tutor. Reich wrote about the affair in 1920 in his first published paper, Über einen Fall von Durchbruch der Inzestschranke, presented in the third person as though about a patient. He wrote that he would follow his mother when she went to the bedroom at night, feeling ashamed and jealous. He briefly thought of forcing her to have sex with him, in the end, he did tell his father, and after a protracted period of beatings, his mother committed suicide in 1910, for which Reich blamed himself. With the tutor ordered out of the house, Reich was sent to a gymnasium in Czernowitz. It was during this period that a skin condition appeared, diagnosed as psoriasis and he visited brothels every day and wrote in his diary of his disgust for the women. His father died of tuberculosis in 1914, and because of rampant inflation the fathers insurance was worthless, Reich managed the farm and continued with his studies, graduating in 1915 with Stimmeneinhelligkeit
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