1.
Orne
–
Orne is a department in the northwest of France, named after the river Orne. Orne is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution, on 4 March 1790 and it was created from parts of the former provinces of Normandy and Perche. Orne is in the region of Normandy neighbouring Eure, Eure-et-Loir, Sarthe, Manche, Mayenne and it is the only department of Normandy to be landlocked. The largest town by a margin is the prefecture, Alençon which is an administrative. There are no industrial centres, agriculture remains the economic focus of Orne. The inhabitants of the department are called Ornais, the recorded population level peaked at 443,688 in 1836. Once motor car ownership started to surge in the 1960s employment opportunities became less restricted, the two major cities in the Orne are Alençon, the prefecture, and Flers. Alençon is the town of the Orne department. Camembert, the village where Camembert cheese is made, is located in Orne, the local dialect is known as Augeron
Orne
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Prefecture building of the Orne department, in Alençon
Orne
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Château de Carrouges
Orne
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Château de Domfront
Orne
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Abbey of
Saint-Evroult-Notre-Dame-du-Bois
2.
Surrealism
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Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and is best known for its visual artworks and writings. The aim was to resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream, leader André Breton was explicit in his assertion that Surrealism was, above all, a revolutionary movement. Surrealism developed out of the Dada activities during World War I, the word surrealist was coined by Guillaume Apollinaire and first appeared in the preface to his play Les Mamelles de Tirésias, which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917. The Dadaists protested with anti-art gatherings, performances, writings and art works, after the war, when they returned to Paris, the Dada activities continued. Meeting the young writer Jacques Vaché, Breton felt that Vaché was the son of writer. He admired the young writers anti-social attitude and disdain for established artistic tradition, later Breton wrote, In literature, I was successively taken with Rimbaud, with Jarry, with Apollinaire, with Nouveau, with Lautréamont, but it is Jacques Vaché to whom I owe the most. Back in Paris, Breton joined in Dada activities and started the literary journal Littérature along with Louis Aragon and they began experimenting with automatic writing—spontaneously writing without censoring their thoughts—and published the writings, as well as accounts of dreams, in the magazine. Breton and Soupault delved deeper into automatism and wrote The Magnetic Fields, continuing to write, they came to believe that automatism was a better tactic for societal change than the Dada form of attack on prevailing values. They also looked to the Marxist dialectic and the work of such theorists as Walter Benjamin, freuds work with free association, dream analysis, and the unconscious was of utmost importance to the Surrealists in developing methods to liberate imagination. They embraced idiosyncrasy, while rejecting the idea of an underlying madness, as Salvador Dalí later proclaimed, There is only one difference between a madman and me. Beside the use of analysis, they emphasized that one could combine inside the same frame, elements not normally found together to produce illogical. The more the relationship between the two juxtaposed realities is distant and true, the stronger the image will be−the greater its emotional power, the group aimed to revolutionize human experience, in its personal, cultural, social, and political aspects. They wanted to people from false rationality, and restrictive customs. Breton proclaimed that the aim of Surrealism was long live the social revolution. To this goal, at various times Surrealists aligned with communism and anarchism, in 1924 two Surrealist factions declared their philosophy in two separate Surrealist Manifestos. That same year the Bureau of Surrealist Research was established, leading up to 1924, two rival surrealist groups had formed. Each group claimed to be successors of a revolution launched by Guillaume Apollinaire, the other group, led by Breton, included Louis Aragon, Robert Desnos, Paul Éluard, Jacques Baron, Jacques-André Boiffard, Jean Carrive, René Crevel and Georges Malkine, among others. Goll and Breton clashed openly, at one point literally fighting, at the Comédie des Champs-Élysées, in the end, Breton won the battle through tactical and numerical superiority
Surrealism
–
Max Ernst,
The Elephant Celebes (1921),
Tate, London
Surrealism
–
Cover of the first issue of
La Révolution surréaliste, December 1924.
Surrealism
–
Yvan Goll, Surréalisme, Manifeste du surréalisme, Volume 1, Number 1, October 1, 1924, cover by
Robert Delaunay
Surrealism
–
André Masson. Automatic Drawing. 1924. Ink on paper, 23.5 x 20.6 cm.
Museum of Modern Art, New York.
3.
Surrealist cinema
–
Surrealist cinema is a modernist approach to film theory, criticism, and production with origins in Paris in the 1920s. The movement used shocking, irrational, or absurd imagery and Freudian dream symbolism to challenge the traditional function of art to represent reality. Other films include Un Chien Andalou and LAge dOr by Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí, Buñuel went on to many more films. In his 2006 book Surrealism and Cinema, Michael Richardson argues that surrealist works cannot be defined by style or form, many critics fail to recognize the distinctive qualities that make up the surrealist attitude. The problem is that goes against the very essence of surrealism. It is not a thing but a relation between things and therefore needs to be treated as a whole, Surrealists are not concerned with conjuring up some magic world that can be defined as surreal. Their interest is almost exclusively in exploring the conjunctions, the points of contact, Surrealism is always about departures rather than arrivals. Rather than an aesthetic, Richardson defines surrealism as a shifting point of magnetism around which the collective activity of the surrealists revolves. Surrealism draws upon irrational imagery and the subconscious mind, Surrealists should not, however, be mistaken as whimsical or incapable of logical thought, rather, most Surrealists promote themselves as revolutionaries. Surrealism was the first literary and artistic movement to become associated with cinema, though it has also been a movement largely neglected by film critics. Highly influenced by Freudian psychology, surrealism sought to bring the mind to visual life. Balanced between symbolism and realism, surrealist cinema commentated on themes of life, death, modernity, politics, religion, the foundations of the movement began in France and coincided with the birth of motion pictures. France served as the birthplace of surrealist cinema because of a combination of easy access to film equipment, film financing. The Surrealists who participated in the movement were among the first generation to have grown up with film as a part of daily life. According to Breton, he and Vaché ignored movie titles and times, preferring to drop in at any given moment, when they grew bored, they left and visited the next theater. Bretons movie-going habits supplied him with a stream of images with no constructed order about them and he could juxtapose the images of one film with those of another, and from the experience craft his own interpretation. Referring to his experiences with Vaché, he remarked, I think what we most in it. Breton believed that film could help one abstract himself from real life whenever he felt like it, serials, which often contained cliffhanger effects and hints of other worldliness, were attractive to early Surrealists
Surrealist cinema
–
A man slices a woman's eye in the opening scene of Un Chien Andalou.
Surrealist cinema
–
An image from Disney and Dalí's Destino (1946)
4.
Surrealist techniques
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Surrealism in art, poetry, and literature uses numerous techniques and games to provide inspiration. Many of these are said to free imagination by producing a creative process free of conscious control, the importance of the unconscious as a source of inspiration is central to the nature of surrealism. The Surrealist movement has been a fractious one since its inception, the value and role of the various techniques has been one of many subjects of disagreement. Some Surrealists consider automatism and games to be sources of inspiration only, others consider the items created through automatism to be finished works themselves, needing no further refinement. Aerography is a technique in which a 3-dimensional object is used as a stencil with spraypainting, Automatic drawing Automatic painting Automatic writing Automatic poetry is poetry written using the automatic method. It has probably been the chief surrealist method from the founding of surrealism to the present day, one of the oddest uses of automatic writing by a great writer was that of W. B. His wife, a spiritualist, practised it, and Yeats put large chunks of it into his work, A Vision. Yeats, however, was not a surrealist, Automatic poetry generators exist online, but they do not actually generate automatic poetry in this sense. The Czech writer Bohumil Hrabal used the method of text in his famous book I Served the King of England. One chapter in the book is written as a single sentence, bulletism is shooting ink at a blank piece of paper. The artist can then develop images based on what is seen, a calligramme is a text or poem of a type developed by Guillaume Apollinaire in which the words or letters make up a shape, particularly a shape connected to the subject of the text or poem. Collage is the assemblage of different forms creating a new whole, for example, an artistic collage work may include newspaper clippings, ribbons, bits of colored or hand-made papers, photographs, etc. glued to a solid support or canvas. A coulage is a kind of automatic or involuntary sculpture made by pouring a molten material into cold water. As the material cools it takes on what appears to be a random form, the artist may use a variety of techniques to affect the outcome. This technique is used in the divination process known as ceromancy. Cubomania is a method of making collages in which a picture or image is cut into squares, the technique was first used by the Romanian surrealist Gherasim Luca. Cut-up technique is a form or method in which a text is cut up at random. Decalcomania is a process of spreading thick paint upon a canvas then—while it is still wet—covering it with material such as paper or aluminium foil
Surrealist techniques
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An application of cubomania
Surrealist techniques
–
Outagraph of the old Houghton, Michigan fire station
5.
Birmingham Surrealists
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The Birmingham Surrealists were an informal grouping of artists and intellectuals associated with the Surrealist movement in art, based in Birmingham, England from the 1930s to the 1950s. The key figures were the artists Conroy Maddox and John Melville, alongside Melvilles brother, other significant members included artists Emmy Bridgewater, Oscar Mellor and the young Desmond Morris. Melville had been one of the harbingers of surrealism in Britain, producing a Surrealist Nude by 1930, Maddox had become a convert to surrealism after discovering one of Wilenskis books in Birmingham Central Library in 1935. Maddox and John Melville had a link as artists practicing in the surrealist genre. 1936 saw surrealism first come to public and media attention in England as a result of the London International Surrealist Exhibition. Instead of submitting artworks the group submitted a letter of protest, in the words of E. L. T. Maddox and the Melvilles officially joined the group in 1938, with Bridgewater joining in 1940. New local exhibition opportunities also opened up with the Birmingham Artists Committee explicitly promoting challenging art forms at its annual Invitation Exhibition, the focus of surrealist activity in the period was Maddoxs house overlooking Calthorpe Park in Balsall Heath. Maddox had long harbored ambitions to own a surrealist house - suggesting spaces filled entirely with bricks, weekend parties drew in a wide variety of unconventional attendees from well outside the core surrealist circle. As the 1950s wore on the group drifted apart, Bridgewater moved to Stratford-upon-Avon in 1951 to look care for her ill mother and disabled sister, ceasing artistic activity for almost two decades. Mellor and Morris both moved to Oxford to continue in education, in 1978, Maddox made contact with the surrealist revival on the West Coast of the U. S. and members of that movement visited London to show at Maddoxs Surrealism Unlimited exhibit. The Arsenal anthology, was dedicated to Maddox
Birmingham Surrealists
–
Conroy Maddox, The Strange Country (1940), Mixed media and watercolor on paper.
Birmingham Surrealists
–
Desmond Morris, The Courtship I (1948), Oil on canvas.
6.
Women Surrealists
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Women Surrealists are women artists, photographers, filmmakers and authors connected with the Surrealist Movement, which began in the early 1920s. Gertrude Abercrombie was a Chicago artist inspired by the Surrealists, who became prominent in the 1930s and 1940s and she was also involved with the jazz music scene and was friends with musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker, and Sarah Vaughan. Marion Adnams was an English painter, printmaker, and draughtswoman, eileen Forrester Agar was born in Argentina and moved to Britain in childhood. She was prominent among British surrealists, Agar made intricate collages, rachel Baes was a Belgian painter, who from 1929 onwards was a member of the Surrealist group around René Magritte. Fanny Brennan, painter Emmy Bridgwater was an English artist and poet associated with the Surrealist movement, leonora Carrington was a British-born Mexican Surrealist painter. She met the Surrealist Max Ernst in 1937, and had a painful, much of her work is autobiographical. Ithell Colquhoun was a British Surrealist painter and author, Leonor Fini, born in Buenos Aires and raised in Trieste, met the Surrealists in 1936 but never officially joined. She paints startling images, often with sphinxes or apparitions, valentine Hugo, was an illustrator and married to Jean Hugo, she participated in the Surrealist movement between 1930 and 1936. Frida Kahlo was a Mexican painter claimed by Breton as surrealist, greta Knutson was a Swedish artist and writer who pursued surrealism while married to Tristan Tzara in the 1930s. Maruja Mallo was a Spanish painter whose painting in the 1930s was influenced by Surrealism, margaret Modlin was an American surrealist painter, sculptor and photographer who spent most of her adult life in Spain. Manon Potvin is a French/Canadian artist and prose poet, Surrealist painter of fantastic art in nature scenes. Alice Rahon was a French/Mexican poet and artist and her work contributed to the beginning of Abstract Expressionism in Mexico. Kay Sage began painting surrealist landscapes in the late 1930s, met, eva Švankmajerová was a Czech painter, ceramicist and writer. She collaborated with her husband Jan Švankmajer on films such as Alice, Faust, dorothea Tanning was an American painter, sculptor, printmaker, writer, and poet, whose early work was influenced by Surrealism. She became part of the circle of Surrealists in New York in the 1940s, bridget Bate Tichenor, Born in Paris and of British descent, she later embraced Mexico as her home. Surrealist painter of art in the school of magic realism. Toyen, was a Czech painter, draftsperson and illustrator and a member of the Surrealist movement, remedios Varo, a Spaniard who moved to Mexico, was known for her dreamlike paintings of scientific apparatus. She was married to the Surrealist poet Benjamin Peret, fanny Brennan was a French-American surrealist painter
Women Surrealists
–
Remedios Varo, Exploration of the Source of the Orinoco River, 1959.
7.
Surrealist automatism
–
Surrealist automatism is a method of art making in which the artist suppresses conscious control over the making process, allowing the unconscious mind to have great sway. Early 20th century Dadaists, such as Hans Arp, made use of this method through chance operations. Surrealist artists, most notably André Masson, adapted to art the automatic writing method of André Breton, the Automatic Message was one of Bretons significant theoretical works about automatism. Automatism has taken on many forms, the writing and drawing initially explored by the surrealists can be compared to similar or parallel phenomena. Pure psychic automatism was how André Breton defined Surrealism, and while the definition has proved capable of significant expansion, the technique of automatic drawing was transferred to painting, and has been adapted to other media, there have even been automatic drawings in computer graphics. Pablo Picasso was also thought to have expressed a type of drawing in his later work. Automatic drawing was developed by the surrealists, as a means of expressing the subconscious, in automatic drawing, the hand is allowed to move randomly across the paper. In applying chance and accident to mark-making, drawing is to a large extent freed of rational control, hence the drawing produced may be attributed in part to the subconscious and may reveal something of the psyche, which would otherwise be repressed. Examples of automatic drawing were produced by mediums and practitioners of the psychic arts and it was thought by some Spiritualists to be a spirit control that was producing the drawing while physically taking control of the mediums body. Most of the surrealists automatic drawings were illusionistic, or more precisely, in the 1940s and 1950s the French-Canadian group called Les Automatistes pursued creative work based on surrealist principles. They abandoned any trace of representation in their use of automatic drawing, the computer, like the typewriter, can be used to produce automatic writing and automatic poetry. For instance, filters have been run in some bitmap editor programs such as Photoshop and GIMP. Grandview — a software application created in 2011 for the Mac — displays one word at a time across the screen as a user types. Automatic writing Cut-up technique Free improvisation Intuitive music Scribbling Surrealism Surrealist music Pseudohallucination An automatic drawing by Jean Arp What is an automatic drawing
Surrealist automatism
–
André Masson. Automatic Drawing. (1924). Ink on paper, 9 1 ⁄ 4 × 8 1 ⁄ 8 " (23.5 × 20.6 cm).
Museum of Modern Art, New York.
8.
Normandy
–
Normandy is one of the regions of France, roughly corresponding to the historical Duchy of Normandy. Administratively, Normandy is divided into five departments, Calvados, Eure, Manche, Orne and it covers 30,627 km², forming roughly 5% of the territory of France. Its population of 3.37 million accounts for around 5% of the population of France, Normans is the name given to the inhabitants of Normandy, and the region is the homeland of the Norman language. The historical region of Normandy comprised the region of Normandy, as well as small areas now part of the départements, or departments of Mayenne. For a century and a following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, Normandy and England were linked by Norman. Archaeological finds, such as paintings, prove that humans were present in the region in prehistoric times. Celts invaded Normandy in successive waves from the 4th to the 3rd century BC, when Julius Caesar invaded Gaul, there were nine different Celtic tribes living in Normandy. The Romanisation of Normandy was achieved by the methods, Roman roads. Classicists have knowledge of many Gallo-Roman villas in Normandy, in the late 3rd century, barbarian raids devastated Normandy. Coastal settlements were raided by Saxon pirates, Christianity also began to enter the area during this period. In 406, Germanic tribes began invading from the east, while the Saxons subjugated the Norman coast, the Roman Emperor withdrew from most of Normandy. As early as 487, the area between the River Somme and the River Loire came under the control of the Frankish lord Clovis, the Vikings started to raid the Seine Valley during the middle of the 9th century. As early as 841, a Viking fleet appeared at the mouth of the Seine, after attacking and destroying monasteries, including one at Jumièges, they took advantage of the power vacuum created by the disintegration of Charlemagnes empire to take northern France. The fiefdom of Normandy was created for the Norwegian Viking leader Hrólfr Ragnvaldsson, Rollo had besieged Paris but in 911 entered vassalage to the king of the West Franks, Charles the Simple, through the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for his homage and fealty, Rollo legally gained the territory which he, the name Normandy reflects Rollos Viking origins. The descendants of Rollo and his followers adopted the local Gallo-Romance language and they became the Normans – a Norman-speaking mixture of Saxons and indigenous Franks and Celts. Besides the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent conquests of Wales and Ireland, Norman families, such as that of Tancred of Hauteville, Rainulf Drengot and Guimond de Moulins played important parts in the Norman conquest of southern Italy and Crusades. They also carved out a place for themselves and their descendants in the Crusader states of Asia Minor, the 14th century Norman explorer Jean de Béthencourt established a kingdom in the Canary Islands
Normandy
–
Roman theatre in
Lillebonne
Normandy
Normandy
–
Allied invasion of Normandy,
D-Day, 1944
Normandy
–
A typical northeastern Norman village
9.
Nantes
–
Nantes is a city in western France, located on the Loire River,50 km from the Atlantic coast. The city is the sixth largest in France, with almost 300,000 inhabitants within its limits. Together with Saint-Nazaire, a located on the Loire estuary. Nantes is the seat of the Loire-Atlantique département and of the Pays de la Loire région. Historically and culturally, Nantes belongs to Brittany, a former duchy, the fact that it is not part of the modern administrative Brittany région is subject to debate. Nantes appeared during the Antiquity as a port on the Loire and it became the seat of a bishopric at the end of the Roman era, before being conquered by the Breton people in 851. Nantes was the residence of the dukes of Brittany in the 15th century. The French Revolution was a period of turmoil resulted in an economic decline. Nantes managed to develop a strong industry after 1850, chiefly in ship building, however, deindustrialisation in the second half of the 20th century pushed the city to reorient its economy towards services. In 2012, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Nantes as a Gamma- world city and it is the fourth highest ranking city in France after Paris, Lyon and Marseilles. The Gamma- category gathers other large cities such as Algiers, Orlando, Porto, Turin, Nantes has often been praised for its quality of life and it was awarded the European Green Capital Award in 2013. The settlement is mentioned in Ptolemys Geography as Κονδηούινϰον and Κονδιούινϰον, during the Gallo-Roman period, this name was latinised and adapted as Condevincum, Condevicnum, Condivicnum, Condivincum, etc. Condevincum seems to be related to the Gaulish word condate meaning confluence, at the end of the Roman period, Condevincum became known as Portus Namnetum and civitas Namnetum. This phenomenon can be observed on most of the ancient cities of France throughout the 4th century, for instance, Lutecia became Paris, city of the Parisii, Darioritum became Vannes, city of the Veneti. Portus Namnetum evolved in Nanetiæ and Namnetis in the 5th century, the name of the Namnetes people could either come from the Gaulish root *nant-, from the pre-Celtic root *nanto or from the other tribe name Amnites, which could mean men of the river. The name Nantes is pronounced and the city inhabitants are called Nantais, in Gallo, the romance dialect traditionally spoken in the region around Nantes, the city is called Naunnt or Nantt, according to the various spelling systems. The Gallo pronunciation is the same as the French one, although northern speakers pronounce it with a long, in Breton language, Nantes is known as Naoned or An Naoned. The latter, meaning the Nantes, is common and reflects the fact that articles are more frequent in Breton toponyms than in French ones
Nantes
–
Place Royale
Nantes
–
The Marité
schooner anchored in the port of Nantes
Nantes
–
Île Feydeau (fr)
Nantes
–
Cours Cambronne (fr)
10.
Alfred Jarry
–
Alfred Jarry was a French symbolist writer who is best known for his play Ubu Roi. He also coined the term and philosophical concept of pataphysics, Jarry was born in Laval, Mayenne, France, and his mother was from Brittany. He was associated with the Symbolist movement and his play Ubu Roi is often cited as a forerunner of Dada, and to the Surrealist and Futurist movements of the 1920s and 1930. Jarry wrote in a variety of genres and styles, prefiguring the postmodern. He wrote plays, novels, poetry, essays and speculative journalism and his texts present us with pioneering work in the fields of absurdist literature and postmodern philosophy. At the lycée in Rennes when he was 15, he led a group of boys who enjoyed poking fun at their well-meaning, but obese and incompetent physics teacher, a man named Hébert. Jarry and his classmate, Henri Morin, wrote a play they called Les Polonais, the main character, Père Heb, was a blunderer with a huge belly, three teeth, a single, retractable ear and a misshapen body. In Jarrys later work Ubu Roi, Père Heb would develop into Ubu, one of the most monstrous, at 17 Jarry passed his baccalauréat and moved to Paris to prepare for admission to the École Normale Supérieure. Though he was not admitted, he gained attention for his original poems and prose-poems. A collection of his work, Les minutes de sable mémorial, was published in 1893 and that same year, both his parents died, leaving him a small inheritance which he quickly spent. Jarry had meantime discovered the pleasures of alcohol, which he called my sacred herb or, when referring to absinthe, a story is told that he once painted his face green and rode through town on his bicycle in its honour. When he was drafted into the army in 1894, his gift for turning notions upside down defeated attempts to instill military discipline, eventually the army discharged him for medical reasons. His military experience inspired his novel Days and Nights. Jarry returned to Paris and applied himself to writing, drinking, symbolism as an art movement was in full swing at this time, and LYmagier provided a nexus for many of its key contributors. Jarrys play Caesar Antichrist drew on this movement for material and this is a work that bridges the gap between serious symbolic meaning and the type of critical absurdity with which Jarry would soon become associated. The character Ubu Roi first appears in this play, the spring of 1896 saw the publication, in Paul Forts review Le Livre dart, of Jarrys 5-act play Ubu Roi, the rewritten and expanded Les Polonais of his school days. Ubu Rois savage humor and monstrous absurdity, unlike anything thus far performed in French theater, however, impetuous theater director Aurélien-Marie Lugné-Poe took the risk, producing the play at his Théâtre de lŒuvre. On opening night, with traditionalists and the avant-garde in the audience, King Ubu stepped forward and intoned the opening word, Merdre
Alfred Jarry
–
Alfred Jarry
Alfred Jarry
–
Alfred Jarry, Deux aspects de la marionnette original d'Ubu Roi, premiered at the Théâtre de l'Œuvre on 10 December 1896
Alfred Jarry
–
Jarry in
Alfortville
11.
Quartier Pigalle
–
Pigalle is an area in Paris around the Place Pigalle, on the border between the 9th and the 18th arrondissements. It is named after the sculptor Jean-Baptiste Pigalle, Pigalle is famous for being a tourist district, with many sex shops, theatres and adult shows on Place Pigalle and the main boulevards. The neighbourhoods raunchy reputation led to its Second World War nickname of Pig Alley by Allied soldiers, the Divan du Monde and the Moulin Rouge, a world-famous cabaret, are both located in Pigalle. The area to the south of Place Pigalle is devoted to the retail of musical instruments and equipment, a section of the rue de Douai consists solely of stores selling guitars, drums and musical accessories. Artists such as Pablo Picasso, Vincent van Gogh and Maurice Neumont also once lived here as did Andre Breton, the works of artist Salvador Dalí can be seen at the nearby Espace Dalí. It was also the home of the Grand Guignol theatre, which closed in 1962, however, the theatre itself still stands. The Musée de lérotisme can also be found here, Pigalle is well known to tourists who want to experience Paris by night. It is home to some of Paris most famous cabarets, as well as topless, Pigalle is one end-point of the Montmartrobus, or you can get to the Place Pigalle by taking the Métro to the Pigalle stop. American-born jazz singer Adelaide Hall lived in Pigalle in 1937–1938 and opened her nightclub La Grosse Pomme at 73 Rue Pigalle, other nightclubs in Rue Pigalle during the late 1930s included the Moon Rousse and Caravan where Django Reinhardt played. Georges Ulmer wrote the famous song Pigalle in 1946, and performed it himself, Maurice Chevalier wrote a song entitled Place Pigalle. Édith Piaf made an album titled La Rue Pigalle, bill Ramsey sang a song entitled Pigalle in the 1961 German film de, Die Abenteuer des Grafen Bobby directed by Géza von Cziffra. The police comedy My New Partner is set in Pigalle, the film Pigalle was set in this district and starred Véra Briole and Francis Renauld. The American jazz singer Madeleine Peyrouxs album Bare Bones contains a track entitled Our Lady of Pigalle, the American pop band Sparks mentioned the district in the lyrics of Sextown U. S. A. The Amsterdam-based modern gypsy jazz band Pigalle44 was named after this district, the French luxury shoe designer Christian Louboutin has named one of his shoe models Pigalle. The French DJ DJ Snake released a track named Pigalle on his album Encore, notes Review of Pigalle Information about Pigalle
Quartier Pigalle
–
A building in the Boulevard de Clichy
12.
Atheist
–
Atheism is, in the broadest sense, the absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is the rejection of belief that any deities exist, in an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities. Atheism is contrasted with theism, which, in its most general form, is the belief that at least one deity exists, the etymological root for the word atheism originated before the 5th century BCE from the ancient Greek ἄθεος, meaning without god. The term denoted a social category created by orthodox religionists into which those who did not share their religious beliefs were placed, the actual term atheism emerged first in the 16th century. With the spread of freethought, skeptical inquiry, and subsequent increase in criticism of religion, application of the term narrowed in scope, the first individuals to identify themselves using the word atheist lived in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment. The French Revolution, noted for its unprecedented atheism, witnessed the first major movement in history to advocate for the supremacy of human reason. Arguments for atheism range from the philosophical to social and historical approaches, although some atheists have adopted secular philosophies, there is no one ideology or set of behaviors to which all atheists adhere. Since conceptions of atheism vary, accurate estimations of current numbers of atheists are difficult, an older survey by the British Broadcasting Corporation in 2004 recorded atheists as comprising 8% of the worlds population. Other older estimates have indicated that atheists comprise 2% of the worlds population, according to these polls, Europe and East Asia are the regions with the highest rates of atheism. In 2015, 61% of people in China reported that they were atheists, the figures for a 2010 Eurobarometer survey in the European Union reported that 20% of the EU population claimed not to believe in any sort of spirit, God or life force. Atheism has been regarded as compatible with agnosticism, and has also been contrasted with it, a variety of categories have been used to distinguish the different forms of atheism. Some of the ambiguity and controversy involved in defining atheism arises from difficulty in reaching a consensus for the definitions of words like deity, the plurality of wildly different conceptions of God and deities leads to differing ideas regarding atheisms applicability. The ancient Romans accused Christians of being atheists for not worshiping the pagan deities, gradually, this view fell into disfavor as theism came to be understood as encompassing belief in any divinity. Definitions of atheism also vary in the degree of consideration a person must put to the idea of gods to be considered an atheist, Atheism has sometimes been defined to include the simple absence of belief that any deities exist. This broad definition would include newborns and other people who have not been exposed to theistic ideas, as far back as 1772, Baron dHolbach said that All children are born Atheists, they have no idea of God. Similarly, George H. Smith suggested that, The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god. This category would include the child with the conceptual capacity to grasp the issues involved. The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist, ernest Nagel contradicts Smiths definition of atheism as merely absence of theism, acknowledging only explicit atheism as true atheism
Atheist
–
Paul Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach, an 18th-century advocate of atheism. — d'Holbach,
The System of Nature
Atheist
–
Epicurus is credited with first expounding the
problem of evil.
David Hume in his
Dialogues concerning Natural Religion (1779) cited Epicurus in stating the argument as a series of questions: "Is God willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then he is impotent. Is he able, but not willing? Then he is malevolent. Is he both able and willing? Then whence cometh evil? Is he neither able nor willing? Then why call him God?"
13.
Louis Aragon
–
Louis Aragon was a French poet, who was one of the leading voices of the surrealist movement in France, who co-founded with André Breton and Philippe Soupault the surrealist review Littérature. He was also a novelist and editor, a member of the Communist Party. Louis Aragon was born in Paris and he was raised by his mother and maternal grandmother, believing them to be his sister and foster mother, respectively. His biological father, Louis Andrieux, a senator for Forcalquier, was married and thirty years older than Aragons mother. Aragons mother passed Andrieux off to her son as his godfather, Aragon was only told the truth at the age of 19, as he was leaving to serve in the First World War, from which neither he nor his parents believed he would return. Andrieuxs refusal or inability to recognize his son would influence Aragons poetry later on, having been involved in Dadaism from 1919 to 1924, he became a founding member of Surrealism in 1924, with André Breton and Philippe Soupault under the pen-name Aragon. In the 1920s, Aragon became a traveller of the French Communist Party along with several other surrealists. In 1933 he began to write for the newspaper, LHumanité. He would remain a member for the rest of his life, writing political poems including one to Maurice Thorez. Aragon became a member of the committee of the Commune journal in January 1937, along with André Gide, Romain Rolland. The journal then took the name of French literary review for the defence of culture, with Gides withdrawal in August 1937, Vaillant-Couturiers death in autumn 1937 and Romain Rollands old age, Aragon became its effective director. In December 1938, he called as chief editor the young writer Jacques Decour, the Commune journal was strongly involved in the mobilization of French intellectuals in favor of the Spanish Republic. In March 1937, Aragon was called on by the PCF to head the new evening daily, Ce soir, Ce soir attempted to compete with Paris-Soir. Outlawed in August 1939, Ce soir was re-opened after the Liberation, the newspaper, which counted Emile Danoën among its collaborators, closed in March 1953. In 1939 he married Russian-born author Elsa Triolet, the sister of Lilya Brik and he had met her in 1928, and she became his muse starting in the 1940s. Aragon and Triolet collaborated in the left-wing French media before and during World War II, Aragon was mobilized in 1939, and awarded the Croix de guerre and the military medal for acts of bravery. After the May 1940 defeat, he took refuge in the Southern Zone, Otto Abetz was the German governor, and produced a series of black lists of authors forbidden to be read, circulated or sold in Nazi Occupied France. These included anything written by a Jew, a communist, an Anglo-Saxon or anyone else who was anti-Germanic or anti-fascist, Aragon and André Malraux were both on these Otto Lists of forbidden authors
Louis Aragon
–
Louis Aragon
14.
Philippe Soupault
–
Philippe Soupault was a French writer and poet, novelist, critic, and political activist. He was active in Dadaism and later founded the Surrealist movement with André Breton, Soupault initiated the periodical Littérature together with the writers Breton and Louis Aragon in Paris in 1919, which, for many, marks the beginnings of Surrealism. The first book of writing, Les champs magnétiques, was co-authored by Soupault. In 1927 Soupault, with the help of his wife Marie-Louise, the next year, Soupault authored a monograph on Blake, arguing the poet was a genius whose work anticipated the Surrealist movement in literature. He directed Radio Tunis from 1937 to 1940, when he was arrested by the pro-Vichy regime, after imprisonment by the Nazis during World War II, Soupault traveled to the United States, teaching at Swarthmore College but returned subsequently to France in October 1945. His works include such large volumes of poetry as Aquarium and Rose des vents, in 1957 he wrote the libretto for Germaine Tailleferres opera La Petite Sirène, based on Hans Christian Andersens tale The Little Mermaid. The work was broadcast by French Radio National in 1959, in 1990, the year Soupault died, Serbian rock band Bjesovi recorded their version of his poem Georgia in Serbian. Soupaults short story Death of Nick Carter was translated by Robin Walz in 2007, in 2016, City Lights published a book of his essays entitles Lost Profiles, Memoirs of Cubism, Dada, and Surrealism as translated by Alan Bernheimer. Aquarium Rose des vents Les Champs magnétiques, L’Invitation au suicide Westwego Le Bon Apôtre Les Frères Durandeau Georgia Le Nègre Les Dernières Nuits de Paris, translated from the French by Alan Bernheimer,2016 ISBN9780872867277 Media related to Philippe Soupault at Wikimedia Commons
Philippe Soupault
–
Portrait of Philippe Soupault by
Robert Delaunay.
15.
Dada
–
Dada or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century, with early centers in Zürich, Switzerland at the Cabaret Voltaire, in New York, and after 1920, in Paris. The art of the movement spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, Dadaist artists expressed their discontent with violence, war, and nationalism, and maintained political affinities with the radical left. Others note that it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness, still others speculate that the word might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning in any language, reflecting the movements internationalism. The roots of Dada lay in pre-war avant-garde, the term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works which challenge accepted definitions of art. Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movements detachment from the constraints of reality, the work of French poets, Italian Futurists and the German Expressionists would influence Dadas rejection of the tight correlation between words and meaning. Works such as Ubu Roi by Alfred Jarry, and the ballet Parade by Erik Satie would also be characterized as proto-Dadaist works, the Dada movements principles were first collected in Hugo Balls Dada Manifesto in 1916. The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements, Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I, avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments. Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists, many Dadaists believed that the reason and logic of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos, for example, George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest against this world of mutual destruction. According to Hans Richter Dada was not art, it was anti-art, Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for. Where art was concerned with aesthetics, Dada ignored aesthetics. If art was to appeal to sensibilities, Dada was intended to offend, as Hugo Ball expressed it, For us, art is not an end in itself. But it is an opportunity for the perception and criticism of the times we live in. A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man. Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a systematic work of destruction and demoralization. In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege, to quote Dona Budds The Language of Art Knowledge, Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War. This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, Dada rejected reason and logic, prizing nonsense, irrationality and intuition
Dada
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Cover of the first edition of the publication Dada by
Tristan Tzara;
Zürich, 1917
Dada
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Francis Picabia, Dame! Illustration for the cover of the periodical Dadaphone, n. 7, Paris, March 1920
Dada
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Francis Picabia, (left) Le saint des saints c'est de moi qu'il s'agit dans ce portrait, 1 July 1915; (center) Portrait d'une jeune fille americaine dans l'état de nudité, 5 July 1915: (right) J'ai vu et c'est de toi qu'il s'agit, De Zayas! De Zayas! Je suis venu sur les rivages du Pont-Euxin, New York, 1915.
Dada
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Hannah Höch, Cut with the Dada Kitchen Knife through the Last Weimar Beer-Belly Cultural Epoch in Germany, 1919, collage of pasted papers, 90×144 cm,
Nationalgalerie, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin
16.
Tristan Tzara
–
Tristan Tzara was a Romanian and French avant-garde poet, essayist and performance artist. Under the influence of Adrian Maniu, the adolescent Tzara became interested in Symbolism and co-founded the magazine Simbolul with Ion Vinea, during World War I, after briefly collaborating on Vineas Chemarea, he joined Janco in Switzerland. There, Tzaras shows at the Cabaret Voltaire and Zunfthaus zur Waag, as well as his poetry and art manifestos and his work represented Dadas nihilistic side, in contrast with the more moderate approach favored by Hugo Ball. After moving to Paris in 1919, Tzara, by one of the presidents of Dada, joined the staff of Littérature magazine. He was involved in the major polemics which led to Dadas split, defending his principles against André Breton and Francis Picabia and this personal vision on art defined his Dadaist plays The Gas Heart and Handkerchief of Clouds. A forerunner of automatist techniques, Tzara eventually aligned himself with Bretons Surrealism, having spoken in favor of liberalization in the Peoples Republic of Hungary just before the Revolution of 1956, he distanced himself from the French Communist Party, of which he was by then a member. In 1960, he was among the intellectuals who protested against French actions in the Algerian War, the friend and collaborator of many modernist figures, he was the lover of dancer Maja Kruscek in his early youth and was later married to Swedish artist and poet Greta Knutson. S. Samyro, an anagram of Samy Rosenstock, was used by Tzara from his debut and throughout the early 1910s. A number of undated writings, which he authored as early as 1913, bear the signature Tristan Ruia. In the 1960s, Rosenstocks collaborator and later rival Ion Vinea claimed that he was responsible for coining the Tzara part of his pseudonym in 1915. Vinea also stated that Tzara wanted to keep Tristan as his adopted first name, and this version of events is uncertain, as manuscripts show that the writer may have already been using the full name, as well as the variations Tristan Țara and Tr. Samy Rosenstock legally adopted his new name in 1925, after filing a request with Romanias Ministry of the Interior, the French pronunciation of his name has become commonplace in Romania, where it replaces its more natural reading as țara. Tzara was born in Moinești, Bacău County, in the region of Moldavia. His parents were Jewish Romanians who reportedly spoke Yiddish as their first language, his father Filip, Tzaras mother was Emilia Rosenstock, née Zibalis. Owing to the Romanian Kingdoms discrimination laws, the Rosenstocks were not emancipated and he moved to Bucharest at the age of eleven, and attended the Schemitz-Tierin boarding school. It is believed that the young Tzara completed his education at a state-run high school. In October 1912, when Tzara was aged sixteen, he joined his friends Vinea, reputedly, Janco and Vinea provided the funds. Like Vinea, Tzara was also close to their young colleague Jacques G. Costin, despite their young age, the three editors were able to attract collaborations from established Symbolist authors, active within Romanias own Symbolist movement
Tristan Tzara
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Robert Delaunay 's portrait of Tzara, 1923
Tristan Tzara
–
The Chemarea circle in 1915. From left: Tzara,
M. H. Maxy,
Ion Vinea, and Jacques G. Costin
Tristan Tzara
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Cabaret Voltaire plaque commemorating the birth of Dada
Tristan Tzara
–
Saint-Julien-le-Pauvre, site of the 1921 "Dada excursion"
17.
Antonin Artaud
–
Antoine Artaud was born 4 September 1896 in Marseille, France, to Euphrasie Nalpas and Antoine-Roi Artaud. Both his parents were natives of Smyrna, and he was affected by his Greek ancestry. His mother gave birth to nine children, four out of the nine were stillborn and he contracted spinal meningitis at the age of 4. This disease has no cure, but after a long struggle including a comatose period, Artauds parents arranged a long series of sanatorium stays for their temperamental son, which were both prolonged and expensive. This lasted five years, with a break of two months in June and July 1916, when Artaud was conscripted into the French Army and he was allegedly discharged due to his self-induced habit of sleepwalking. During Artauds rest cures at the sanatorium, he read Arthur Rimbaud, Charles Baudelaire, in May 1919, the director of the sanatorium prescribed laudanum for Artaud, precipitating a lifelong addiction to that and other opiates. In March 1920, Artaud moved to Paris to pursue a career as a writer, while training and performing with directors including Charles Dullin and Georges Pitoeff, he continued to write both poetry and essays. Their compilation into a work, Correspondance avec Jacques Rivière, was Artauds first major publication. Artaud cultivated a great interest in cinema as well, writing the scenario for the first surrealist film, The Seashell and this film influenced Salvador Dalí and Luis Buñuel, two key Spanish surrealists, when they made Un Chien Andalou. Artauds performance as Jean-Paul Marat in Abel Gances Napoleon used exaggerated movements to convey the fire of Marats personality and he also played the monk Massieu in Carl Theodor Dreyers The Passion of Joan of Arc. In 1926-28, Artaud ran the Alfred Jarry Theatre, along with Roger Vitrac and he produced and directed original works by Vitrac, as well as pieces by Claudel and Strindberg. The theatre advertised that they would produce Artauds play Jet de sang in their 1926-1927 season, the Theatre was extremely short-lived, but was attended by an enormous range of European artists, including André Gide, Arthur Adamov, and Paul Valéry. In 1931, Artaud saw Balinese dance performed at the Paris Colonial Exposition, although he did not fully understand the intentions and ideas behind traditional Balinese performance, it influenced many of his ideas for theatre. Also during this year, Artauds First Manifesto for a Theatre of Cruelty was published in La Nouvelle Revue Française, it would appear as a chapter in The Theatre. In 1935, Artauds production of his adaptation of Shelleys The Cenci premiered, les Censi was a commercial failure, although it employed innovative sound effects-including the first theatrical use of the electronic instrument the Ondes Martenot—and had a set designed by Balthus. Artaud also studied and lived with the Tarahumaran people and experimented with peyote, recording his experiences, the content of this work closely resembles the poems of his later days, concerned primarily with the supernatural. Artaud also recorded his horrific withdrawal from heroin upon entering the land of the Tarahumaras, having deserted his last supply of the drug at a mountainside, he literally had to be hoisted onto his horse and soon resembled, in his words, a giant, inflamed gum. Artaud would return to later in life
Antonin Artaud
–
Antonin Artaud
18.
Robert Desnos
–
Robert Desnos, was a French surrealist poet who played a key role in the Surrealist movement of his day. Robert Desnos was born in Paris on 4 July 1900, the son of a dealer in game. Other sources state Desnos was the son of a Parisien café owner, Desnos attended commercial college, and started work as a clerk. He also worked as an amanuensis for journalist Jean de Bonnefon, after that he worked as a literary columnist for the newspaper Paris-Soir. In 1922, he published his first book, a collection of surrealistic aphorisms, in 1919, he met the poet Benjamin Péret who introduced him to the Paris Dada group and André Breton, with whom he soon became friends. While working as a literary columnist for Paris-Soir, Desnos was an member of the Surrealist group. He, together with such as Louis Aragon and Paul Éluard. André Breton included two photographs of Desnos sleeping in his surrealist novel Nadja, Desnos continued work as a columnist. In 1926, he composed The Night of Loveless Nights, a poem dealing with solitude curiously written in classic quatrains. Desnos fell in love with Yvonne George, a singer whose obsessed fans made his love impossible and he wrote several poems for her, as well as the erotic surrealist novel La liberté ou lamour. Critic Ray Keenoy describes La liberté ou lamour. as literary, by 1929, Breton definitively condemned Desnos, who in turn joined Georges Bataille and Documents, as one of the authors to sign Un Cadavre attacking le boeuf Breton. He wrote articles on Modern Imagery, Avant-garde Cinema, Pygmalion and the Sphinx, and Sergei Eisenstein and his career in radio began in 1932 with a show dedicated to Fantômas. During that time, he became friends with Picasso, Hemingway, Artaud and John Dos Passos, published critical reviews on jazz and cinema. He wrote for periodicals, including Littérature, La Révolution surréaliste. During World War II, Desnos was an member of the French Résistance network Réseau AGIR, under the direction of Michel Hollard. For Réseau Agir, Desnos provided information collected during his job at the journal Aujourdhui and he was first deported to the German concentration camps of Auschwitz in occupied Poland, then Buchenwald, Flossenburg in Germany and finally to Terezín in occupied Czechoslovakia in 1945. Desnos died in Malá pevnost, which was a part of Terezín used only for political prisoners, from typhoid. He wrote poems during his imprisonment which were destroyed following his death
Robert Desnos
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Robert Desnos in 1924
Robert Desnos
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Last known photo of Desnos in the
Theresienstadt concentration camp (1945)
19.
Arthur Rimbaud
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Jean Nicolas Arthur Rimbaud was a French poet who is known for his influence on modern literature and arts, which prefigured surrealism. Rimbaud was known to have been a libertine and for being a restless soul, having engaged in an at times violent romantic relationship with fellow poet Paul Verlaine, which lasted nearly two years. After the end of his career, he traveled extensively on three continents as a merchant before his death from cancer just after his thirty-seventh birthday. As a poet, Rimbaud is well known for his contributions to Symbolism and, among other works, A Season in Hell, Arthur Rimbaud was born in the provincial town of Charleville in the Ardennes département in northeastern France. He was the child of Frédéric Rimbaud and Marie Catherine Vitalie Cuif. Rimbauds father, a Burgundian of Provençal extraction, was an infantry captain risen from the ranks, from 1844 to 1850, he participated in the conquest of Algeria, and in 1854 was awarded the Légion dhonneur by Imperial decree. Captain Rimbaud was described as good-tempered, easy-going and generous, with the long moustaches and goatee of a Chasseur officer. In October 1852, Captain Rimbaud, then aged 38, was transferred to Mézières where he met Vitalie Cuif,11 years his junior and she came from a solidly established Ardennais family, but one with its share of bohemians, two of her brothers were alcoholics. Her personality was the exact opposite of Captain Rimbauds, she was narrowminded, stingy, completely lacking in a sense of humour. When Charles Houin, a biographer, interviewed her, he found her withdrawn. Arthur Rimbauds private name for her was Mouth of Darkness, nevertheless, on 8 February 1853, Captain Rimbaud and Vitalie Cuif married, their first-born, Jean Nicolas Frédéric, arrived nine months later on 2 November. The next year, on 20 October 1854, Jean Nicolas Arthur was born, three more children followed, Victorine-Pauline-Vitalie on 4 June 1857, Jeanne-Rosalie-Vitalie on 15 June 1858 and, finally, Frédérique Marie Isabelle on 1 June 1860. Though the marriage lasted seven years, Captain Rimbaud lived continuously in the home for less than three months, from February to May 1853. The rest of the time his military postings—including active service in the Crimean War and he was not at home for his childrens births, nor their baptisms. Isabelles birth in 1860 must have been the last straw, as after this Captain Rimbaud stopped returning home on leave entirely. Though they never divorced, the separation was complete, thereafter Mme Rimbaud let herself be known as Widow Rimbaud, neither the captain nor his children showed the slightest interest in re-establishing contact. Fearing her children were being over-influenced by the children of the poor. Rimbaud moved her family to the Cours dOrléans in 1862 and this was a better neighbourhood, and the boys, now aged nine and eight, who had been taught at home by their mother, were now sent to the Pension Rossat
Arthur Rimbaud
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Rimbaud on the day of his
First Communion.
Arthur Rimbaud
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Rimbaud, aged 17, by
Étienne Carjat, probably taken in December 1871.
Arthur Rimbaud
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Plaque erected on the centenary of Rimbaud's death at the place where he was shot by Verlaine in
Brussels
Arthur Rimbaud
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Caricature of Rimbaud drawn by Verlaine in 1872.
20.
Karl Marx
–
Karl Marx was a Prussian-born philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. Born in Trier to a family, he later studied political economy. His work has influenced subsequent intellectual, economic, and political history. These economic critiques were set out in works such as the three volumes, published between 1867 and 1894, that comprise Das Kapital. According to Marx, states are run in the interests of the class but are nonetheless represented as being in favor of the common interest of all. He predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system, socialism. Marx actively fought for its implementation, arguing that the class should carry out organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism. Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and his work in economics laid the basis for much of the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital, and subsequent economic thought. Many intellectuals, labour unions, artists and political parties worldwide have been influenced by Marxs work, Marx is typically cited as one of the principal architects of modern sociology and social science. Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx and he was born at Brückengasse 664 in Trier, a town then part of the Kingdom of Prussias Province of the Lower Rhine. Marx was ancestrally Jewish, his grandfather was a Dutch rabbi, while his paternal line had supplied Triers rabbis since 1723. Marx was also a cousin once removed of German Romantic poet Heinrich Heine, also born to a German Jewish family in the Rhineland. Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the Enlightenment, interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant, a classical liberal, he took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, then governed by an absolute monarchy. In 1815 Heinrich Marx began work as an attorney, in 1819 moving his family to a property near the Porta Nigra. Her sister Sophie Pressburg, was Marxs aunt and was married to Lion Philips Marxs uncle through this marriage, Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and industrialist, upon whom Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in London. Little is known of Karl Marxs childhood, the third of nine children, he became the oldest son when his brother Moritz died in 1819. Young Karl was baptised into the Lutheran Church in August 1824 along with his siblings, Sophie, Hermann, Henriette, Louise, Emilie. Young Karl was privately educated, by Heinrich Marx, until 1830, by employing many liberal humanists as teachers, Wyttenbach incurred the anger of the local conservative government
Karl Marx
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Marx in 1875
Karl Marx
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Marx's birthplace in Trier. It was purchased by the
Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1928 and now houses a museum devoted to him.
Karl Marx
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Jenny von Westphalen in the 1830s
Karl Marx
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Friedrich Engels, whom Marx met in 1844; they became lifelong friends and collaborators.
21.
French Communist Party
–
The French Communist Party is a communist party in France. Although its electoral support has declined in recent decades, the PCF retains an influence in French politics. In 2012, the PCF claimed 138,000 members including 70,000 who have paid their membership fees and this would make it the third largest party in France in terms of membership after the Republicans and the Socialist Party. It was also once the largest French left-wing party in a number of elections, from 1945 to 1960. The PCF has lost further ground to the Socialists since that time, since 2009 the PCF has been a leading member of the Left Front, alongside Jean-Luc Mélenchons Left Party. The PCF is a member of the Party of the European Left, the new SFIC defined itself as revolutionary and democratic centralist. The 1920s saw a number of splits within the party over relations with other left-wing parties, the party entered the French parliament, but also promoted strike action and opposed colonialism. Pierre Sémard, leader from 1924 to 1928, sought party unity and alliances with other parties, with the rise of Fascism after 1934 the PCF supported the Popular Front, which came to power under Léon Blum in 1936. The party supported the Spanish Republicans, and opposed the 1938 Munich agreement with Hitler, PCFs Members of Parliament vote declaration of war against Germany in 1939. But the party was banned after German–Soviet Non-aggression Pact by the government of Édouard Daladier, the leadership, threatened with execution, fled abroad. After the German invasion of 1940 the party began to organise opposition to the occupation, at the same time the PCF began to work with de Gaulles Free France government in exile, and later took part in the National Council of the Resistance. By the time the German occupation ended in 1944, the party had become a force in many parts of France. It was among the parties in elections in 1945 and 1946, and entered into the governing Tripartite alliance. However, amid concerns within France and abroad over the extent of communist influence, under pressure from Moscow, the PCF thereafter distanced itself from other parties and focussed on agitation within its trade union base. For the rest of the Fourth Republic period the PCF, led by Thorez and Jacques Duclos, remained isolated, still taking a Stalinist line. Although the PCF opposed de Gaulles formation of the Fifth Republic in 1958, the years saw a rapprochement with other left-wing forces. With Waldeck Rochet as its new secretary-general, the party supported François Mitterrands unsuccessful presidential bid in 1965, during the student riots and strikes of May 1968, the party supported the strikes while denouncing the revolutionary student movements. Under the Common Programme, however, the PCF steadily lost ground to the PS, initially allotted a minor share in Mitterrands government, the PCF resigned in 1984 as the government turned towards fiscal orthodoxy
French Communist Party
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PCF rallying for a 6th republic, 2012 in Paris
French Communist Party
–
French Communist Party Parti communiste français
22.
Soviet
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet
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Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet
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Flag
Soviet
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet
23.
Ilya Ehrenburg
–
Ilya Grigoryevich Ehrenburg was a Soviet writer, journalist, translator, and cultural figure. Ehrenburg is among the most prolific and notable authors of the Soviet Union and he became known first and foremost as a novelist and a journalist – in particular, as a reporter in three wars. His articles on the Second World War have provoked intense controversies in West Germany, the novel The Thaw gave its name to an entire era of Soviet politics, namely, the liberalization after the death of Joseph Stalin. Ehrenburgs travel writing also had great resonance, as did to a greater extent his memoir People, Years, Life. In addition, Ehrenburg wrote a succession of works of poetry, ilya Ehrenburg was born in Kiev, Russian Empire to a Lithuanian Jewish family, his father was an engineer. Ehrenburgs family was not religiously affiliated, he came into contact with the practices of Judaism only through his maternal grandfather. Ehrenburg never joined any religious denomination and he learned no Yiddish, although he edited the Black Book, which was written in Yiddish. He considered himself Russian and, later, a Soviet citizen and he took strong public positions against antisemitism. He wrote in Russian even during his years abroad. When Ehrenburg was four years old, the moved to Moscow. At school, he met Nikolai Bukharin, who was two grades above him, the two remained friends until Bukharins death in 1938 during the Great Purge. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution of 1905, both Ehrenburg and Bukharin got involved in activities of the Bolshevik organisation. In 1908, when Ehrenburg was seventeen years old, the tsarist secret police arrested him for five months and he was beaten up and lost some teeth. Finally he was allowed to go abroad and chose Paris for his exile, in Paris, he started to work in the Bolshevik organisation, meeting Vladimir Lenin and other prominent exiles. But soon he left these circles and the Communist Party, Ehrenburg became attached to the bohemian life in the Paris quarter of Montparnasse. He began to write poems, regularly visited the cafés of Montparnasse and got acquainted with a lot of artists, especially Pablo Picasso, Diego Rivera, Jules Pascin, Foreign writers whose works Ehrenburg translated included those of Francis Jammes. During World War I, Ehrenburg became a war correspondent for a St. Petersburg newspaper and he wrote a series of articles about the mechanized war that later on were also published as a book. His poetry now also concentrated on subjects of war and destruction, as in On the Eve, Nikolai Gumilev, a famous symbolistic poet, wrote favourably about Ehrenburgs progress in poetry
Ilya Ehrenburg
–
Ilya Ehrenburg in the 1960s
Ilya Ehrenburg
–
Ilya Ehrenburg in 1943
Ilya Ehrenburg
–
Ilya Ehrenburg's grave with a wire reproduction of his portrait by Picasso
24.
Communist
–
Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
Communist
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Vladimir Lenin after his return to
Petrograd
Communist
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USSR postage stamp depicting the states ruled by self-proclaimed communist parties, launching the first artificial satellite,
Sputnik 1
Communist
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A demonstration of the
Communist Party of the Russian Federation, Moscow, December 2011
25.
National Autonomous University of Mexico
–
The National Autonomous University of Mexico is the largest university in Latin America. In 2016 it had a rate of only 8%. As a public university in Mexico City, UNAM is regarded by many university world rankings as the leading university of the Spanish-speaking world. UNAM was founded, in its form, on 22 September 1910 by Justo Sierra as a liberal alternative to its predecessor. UNAMs autonomy, granted in 1929, has given it the freedom to define its own curriculum and this has had a profound effect on academic life at the university, which some claim boosts academic freedom and independence. The UNAM generates a number of different publications in areas, such as mathematics, physics. Besides being one of the most recognized universities in Latin America and it is a UNESCO World Heritage site that was designed by some of Mexicos best-known architects of the 20th century. Murals in the campus were painted by some of the most recognized artists in Mexican history, such as Diego Rivera. The project initially unified the Fine Arts, Business, Political Science, Jurisprudence, Engineering, Medicine, Normal, and this opposition led to disruptions in the function of the university when political instability forced resignations in the government, including that of President Díaz. Internally, the first student strike occurred in 1912 to protest examination methods introduced by the director of the School of Jurisprudence, by July of that year, a majority of the law students decided to abandon the university and join the newly created Free School of Law. In 1914 initial efforts to gain autonomy for the university failed, in 1920, José Vasconcelos became rector. Efforts to gain autonomy for the university continued in the early 1920s, in the mid-1920s, the second wave of student strikes opposed a new grading system. The strikes included major classroom walkouts in the law school and confrontation with police at the medical school, the striking students were supported by many professors and subsequent negotiations eventually led to autonomy for the university. The institution was no longer a dependency of the Secretariat of Public Education, during the early 1930s, the rector of UNAM was Manuel Gómez Morín. The government attempted to implement socialist education at Mexican universities, which Gómez Morín, many professors, Gómez Morín with the support of the Jesuit-founded student group, the Unión Nacional de Estudiantes Católicos, successfully fought against socialist education. UNAM supported the recognition of the academic certificates by Catholic preparatory schools, in an interesting turn of events, UNAM played an important role in the founding of the Jesuit institution in 1943, the Universidad Iberoamericana in 1943. However, UNAM opposed initiatives at the Universidad Iberoamericana in later years, the first stone laid was that of the faculty of Sciences, the first building of Ciudad Universitaria. President Miguel Alemán Valdés participated in the ceremony on 20 November 1952, the University Olympic Stadium was inaugurated on the same day
National Autonomous University of Mexico
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Justo Sierra, founder
National Autonomous University of Mexico
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Official seal of the University, designed by Rector
José Vasconcelos
National Autonomous University of Mexico
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Palacio de la Autonomía, located off Moneda Street east of the
Zocalo
National Autonomous University of Mexico
–
Rectory.
26.
Mexico City
–
Mexico City, or City of Mexico, is the capital and most populous city of Mexico. As an alpha global city, Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in the Americas and it is located in the Valley of Mexico, a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres. The city consists of sixteen municipalities, the 2009 estimated population for the city proper was approximately 8.84 million people, with a land area of 1,485 square kilometres. The Greater Mexico City has a domestic product of US$411 billion in 2011. The city was responsible for generating 15. 8% of Mexicos Gross Domestic Product, as a stand-alone country, in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America—five times as large as Costa Ricas and about the same size as Perus. Mexico’s capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Amerindians, the other being Quito. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the district was created in 1824. Ever since, the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution has controlled both of them, in recent years, the local government has passed a wave of liberal policies, such as abortion on request, a limited form of euthanasia, no-fault divorce, and same-sex marriage. On January 29,2016, it ceased to be called the Federal District and is now in transition to become the countrys 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325. According to legend, the Mexicas principal god, Huitzilopochtli indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak. Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco, when the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the native peoples. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him, the Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died, the next king was Cuauhtémoc. Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521, for three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island, the Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest. Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order and he did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown
Mexico City
–
From above
Torre Latinoamericana,
Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral,
Anillo Periférico,
World Trade Center Mexico City,
Angel of Independence,
Chapultepec Castle,
St. Regis Hotel Tower and
Torre Mayor, Skyline of
Paseo de la Reforma and
Palacio de Bellas Artes.
Mexico City
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Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital.
Mexico City
–
The ruins of the
Templo Mayor.
Mexico City
–
The
Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral was built by the Spaniards over the ruins of the main Aztec temple.
27.
Leon Trotsky
–
Trotsky initially supported the Menshevik Internationalists faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. He joined the Bolsheviks just before the 1917 October Revolution, and he was, alongside Lenin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Stalin, Sokolnikov and Bubnov, one of the seven members of the first Politburo, founded in 1917 to manage the Bolshevik Revolution. He was a figure in the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War. As the head of the Fourth International, Trotsky continued to oppose the Stalinist bureaucracy in the Soviet Union from exile, on Stalins orders, he was assassinated in Mexico in August 1940 by Ramón Mercader, a Spanish-born Soviet agent. Trotskys ideas formed the basis of Trotskyism, a school of Marxist thought that opposes the theories of Stalinism. He was written out of the books under Stalin, and was one of the few Soviet political figures who was not rehabilitated by the government under Nikita Khrushchev in the 1950s. It was not until the late 1980s that his books were released for publication in the Soviet Union and his parents were David Leontyevich Bronstein and his wife Anna Lvovna. The family was of Jewish origin, the language they spoke at home was Surzhyk, a mixture of Russian and Ukrainian. Trotskys younger sister, Olga, who grew up to be a Bolshevik. Many anti-Communists, anti-semites, and anti-Trotskyists have noted Trotskys original surname, some authors, notably Robert Service, have also claimed that Trotskys childhood first name was the Yiddish Leiba. The American Trotskyist David North said that this was an apparent attempt to emphasize Trotskys Jewish origins but, contrary to Services claims and he says that it is highly improbable that the family was Jewish, as they did not speak Yiddish, the common language among eastern European Jews. Both North and Walter Laqueur in their books say that Trotskys childhood name was Lyova, when Trotsky was nine, his father sent him to Odessa to be educated in a Jewish school. He was enrolled in a German-language school, which became Russified during his years in Odessa as a result of the Imperial governments policy of Russification. As Isaac Deutscher notes in his biography of Trotsky, Odessa was then a cosmopolitan port city. This environment contributed to the development of the young mans international outlook, although Trotsky said in his autobiography My Life that he was never perfectly fluent in any language but Russian and Ukrainian, Raymond Molinier wrote that Trotsky spoke French fluently. Trotsky became involved in activities in 1896 after moving to the harbor town of Nikolayev on the Ukrainian coast of the Black Sea. At first a narodnik, he initially opposed Marxism but was won over to Marxism later that year by his future first wife, instead of pursuing a mathematics degree, Trotsky helped organize the South Russian Workers Union in Nikolayev in early 1897. Using the name Lvov, he wrote and printed leaflets and proclamations, distributed revolutionary pamphlets, in January 1898, more than 200 members of the union, including Trotsky, were arrested
Leon Trotsky
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Trotsky in 1921
Leon Trotsky
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8-year-old Lyova Bronshtein, 1888
Leon Trotsky
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Lev Davidovich Bronshtein, 1897
Leon Trotsky
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Leon Trotsky with his daughter Nina in 1915
Media related to André Breton at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to André Breton at Wikiquote
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