1.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
2.
Sochi
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Sochi is a city in Krasnodar Krai, Russia, located on the Black Sea coast near the border between Georgia/Abkhazia and Russia. The area of the city proper is 176.77 square kilometers, according to the 2010 Census, the city had a permanent population of 343,334, up from 328,809 recorded in the 2002 Census, making it Russias largest resort city. Being part of the Caucasian Riviera, it is one of the few places in Russia with a subtropical climate, with warm to hot summers. It will also be one of the host cities for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Greater Sochi is elongated along the Black Sea coast for 145 kilometers. Sochi is in the north of Western Asia, falling on the side of the Greater Caucasus. Sochi is approximately 1,603 kilometers from Moscow, from the southwest, it is bordered by the Black Sea. The vast majority of the population of Sochi lives in a strip along the coast and is organized in independent microdistricts. The biggest of these microdistricts, from the northwest to the southeast, are Lazarevskoye, Loo, Dagomys, central Sochi, Khosta, Matsesta, the whole city is located on the slopes of the Western Caucasus which descend to the Black Sea and are cut by the rivers. The biggest rivers in Sochi are the Mzymta, which is in fact the longest Black Sea tributary in Russia, other rivers include the Ashe, the Psezuapse, the Sochi, the Khosta, and the Matsesta. The Psou River makes the border with Abkhazia, the northeastern part of the city belongs to the Caucasian Biosphere Reserve which is a World Heritage Site spanning vast areas in Krasnodar Krai and Adygea. Almost the whole area of the Greater Sochi, with the exception of the coast, Sochi has a humid subtropical climate with mild winters in the period from December to March and warm summers in the period from May to October. From the 6th to the 11th centuries, the area belonged to the kingdom of Lazica. The Christian settlements along the coast were destroyed by the invading Göktürks, Khazars, Mongols, the northern wall of an 11th-century Byzantine basilica still stands in the Loo Microdistrict. Provision of weapons and ammunition from abroad to the Circassians caused a conflict between the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom that occurred in 1836 over the mission of the Vixen. The Russians had no detailed knowledge of the area until Baron Feodor Tornau investigated the route from Gelendzhik to Gagra. At the outbreak of the Crimean War, the garrison was evacuated from Navaginsky in order to prevent its capture by the Turks, who effected a landing on Cape Adler soon after. The last battle of the Caucasian War took place at the Godlikh river on March 18,1864 O. S. where the Ubykhs were defeated by the Dakhovsky regiment of the Russian Army. On March 25,1864, the Dakhovsky fort was established on the site of the Navaginsky fort, the end of Caucasian War was proclaimed at Kbaade tract on June 2,1864, by the manifesto of Emperor Alexander II read aloud by Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia
3.
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
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The Republic comprised sixteen autonomous republics, five autonomous oblasts, ten autonomous okrugs, six krais, and forty oblasts. Russians formed the largest ethnic group, the capital of the Russian SFSR was Moscow and the other major urban centers included Leningrad, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara. The Russian Soviet Republic was proclaimed on November 7,1917 as a sovereign state, the first Constitution was adopted in 1918. In 1922 the Russian SFSR signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, the economy of Russia became heavily industrialized, accounting for about two-thirds of the electricity produced in the USSR. It was, by 1961, the third largest producer of petroleum due to new discoveries in the Volga-Urals region and Siberia, trailing only the United States and Saudi Arabia. In 1974, there were 475 institutes of education in the republic providing education in 47 languages to some 23,941,000 students. A network of territorially organized public-health services provided health care, the effects of market policies led to the failure of many enterprises and total instability by 1990. On June 12,1990, the Congress of Peoples Deputies adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty, on June 12,1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected the first President. On December 8,1991, heads of Russia, Ukraine, the agreement declared dissolution of the USSR by its founder states and established the Commonwealth of Independent States. On December 12, the agreement was ratified by the Russian Parliament, therefore Russian SFSR denounced the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and de facto declared Russias independence from the USSR. On December 25,1991, following the resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev as president of the Soviet Union, on December 26,1991, the USSR was self-dissolved by the Soviet of Nationalities, which by that time was the only functioning house of the Supreme Soviet. After dissolution of the USSR, Russia declared that it assumed the rights and obligations of the dissolved central Soviet government, the new Russian constitution, adopted on December 12,1993 after a constitutional crisis, abolished the Soviet system of government in its entirety. Initially, the state did not have a name and wasnt recognized by neighboring countries for five months. Meanwhile, anti-Bolsheviks coined the mocking label Sovdepia for the nascent state of the Soviets of Workers, on January 25,1918 the third meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets renamed the unrecognized state the Soviet Russian Republic. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on March 3,1918, on July 10,1918, the Russian Constitution of 1918 renamed the country the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. By 1918, during the Russian Civil War, several states within the former Russian Empire seceded, internationally, in 1920, the RSFSR was recognized as an independent state only by Estonia, Finland, Latvia and Lithuania in the Treaty of Tartu and by the short-lived Irish Republic. On December 30,1922, with the creation of the Soviet Union, the final Soviet name for the republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, was adopted in the Soviet Constitution of 1936. By that time, Soviet Russia had gained roughly the same borders of the old Tsardom of Russia before the Great Northern War of 1700
4.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
5.
Manchester
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Manchester is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England, with a population of 514,414 as of 2013. It lies within the United Kingdoms second-most populous urban area, with a population of 2.55 million, Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation. The local authority is Manchester City Council and it was historically a part of Lancashire, although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a township but began to expand at an astonishing rate around the turn of the 19th century. Manchesters unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, creating the Port of Manchester and its fortunes declined after the Second World War, owing to deindustrialisation. The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996, but it led to extensive investment, in 2014, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city, the highest-ranked British city apart from London. Manchester is the third-most visited city in the UK and it is notable for its architecture, culture, musical exports, media links, scientific and engineering output, social impact, sports clubs and transport connections. Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the worlds first inter-city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom, the name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians. These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name, both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic, mam meaning breast in Irish and mother in Welsh. The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster and their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford. Central Manchester has been settled since this time. A stabilised fragment of foundations of the version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield. After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell, much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North. Thomas de la Warre, lord of the manor, founded and constructed a church for the parish in 1421. The church is now Manchester Cathedral, the premises of the college house Chethams School of Music. The library, which opened in 1653 and is open to the public today, is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom. Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282, around the 14th century, Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers, sometimes credited as the foundation of the regions textile industry
6.
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology
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Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, known informally as PhysTech, is a leading Russian university, originally established during the Soviet Union. It prepares specialists in theoretical and applied physics, applied mathematics, MIPT is famous in the countries of the former Soviet Union, but is less known abroad. This is largely due to the specifics of the MIPT educational process, University rankings such as The Times Higher Education Supplement are based primarily on publications and citations. MIPTs own faculty is relatively small, and many of its lecturers are visiting professors from those institutions. Student research is performed outside of MIPT, and research papers do not identify the authors as MIPT students. This effectively hides MIPT from the radar, an effect not unwelcome during the Cold War era when leading scientists and engineers of the Soviet arms. The word phystech, without the capital P, is used in Russian to refer to Phystech students. The main MIPT campus is located in Dolgoprudny, a suburb of Moscow. However the Aeromechanics Department is based in Zhukovsky, a suburb south-east of Moscow, applicants, carefully selected by challenging examinations and personal interviews, would be taught by, and work together with, prominent scientists. Each student would follow a personalized curriculum created to match his or her particular areas of interest and this system would later become known as the Phystech System. The institute would follow the principles outlined above, and was supposed to be governed by a board of directors of the research institutes of the USSR Academy of Sciences. On March 10,1946, the government issued a decree mandating the establishment of a College of Physics, for unknown reasons, the initial plan came to a halt in the summer of 1946. Instead, a new government decree was issued on November 25,1946 establishing the new school as a Department of Physics, November 25 is celebrated as the date of MIPTs founding. The new Department enjoyed considerable autonomy within Moscow State University and its facilities were in Dolgoprudny, away from the MSU campus. It had its own independent admissions and education system, different from the one centrally mandated for all other universities and it was headed by the MSU vice rector for special issues—a position created specifically to shield the department from the University management. As Kapitsa expected, the status of the new school with its different rules of engagement caused much consternation. In the summer of 1951, the Phystech department at MSU was shut down, on September 17,1951, a government decree re-established Phystech as the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology. MIPT alumni include Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov, the 2010 winners of the Nobel Prize for Physics, involving leading scientists in student education, in close contact with them in their creative environment
7.
Graphene
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Graphene is an allotrope of carbon in the form of a two-dimensional, atomic-scale, hexagonal lattice in which one atom forms each vertex. It is the structural element of other allotropes, including graphite, charcoal. It can be considered as a large aromatic molecule, the ultimate case of the family of flat polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. It is about 200 times stronger than the strongest steel and it efficiently conducts heat and electricity and is nearly transparent. Graphene shows a large and nonlinear diamagnetism, greater than graphite, scientists have theorized about graphene for years. It has unintentionally been produced in small quantities for centuries, through the use of pencils and it was originally observed in electron microscopes in 1962, but it was studied only while supported on metal surfaces. The material was later rediscovered, isolated, and characterized in 2004 by Andre Geim, research was informed by existing theoretical descriptions of its composition, structure, and properties. This work resulted in the two winning the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2010 for groundbreaking experiments regarding the material graphene. The global market for graphene reached $9 million by 2012 with most sales in the semiconductor, electronics, battery energy, Graphene is a combination of graphite and the suffix -ene, named by Hanns-Peter Boehm, who described single-layer carbon foils in 1962. The term was used in early descriptions of carbon nanotubes, as well as for epitaxial graphene. Graphene can be considered an infinite alternant polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, the IUPAC compendium of technology states, previously, descriptions such as graphite layers, carbon layers, or carbon sheets have been used for the term graphene. It is incorrect to use for a single layer a term includes the term graphite. The term graphene should be used only when the reactions, structural relations or other properties of individual layers are discussed and this definition is narrower than the IUPAC definition and refers to cloven, transferred and suspended graphene. Other forms such as graphene grown on various metals, can become free-standing if, for example, in 1859 Benjamin Collins Brodie became aware of the highly lamellar structure of thermally reduced graphite oxide. The structure of graphite was identified in 1916 by the method of powder diffraction. It was studied in detail by Kohlschütter and Haenni in 1918 and its structure was determined from single-crystal diffraction in 1924. The theory of graphene was first explored by Wallace in 1947 as a point for understanding the electronic properties of 3D graphite. The emergent massless Dirac equation was first pointed out by Semenoff, DiVincenzo, Semenoff emphasized the occurrence in a magnetic field of an electronic Landau level precisely at the Dirac point
8.
Magnetic levitation
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Magnetic levitation, maglev, or magnetic suspension is a method by which an object is suspended with no support other than magnetic fields. Magnetic force is used to counteract the effects of the gravitational acceleration, Magnetic levitation is used for maglev trains, contactless melting, magnetic bearings and for product display purposes. Magnetic materials and systems are able to attract or press each other apart or together with a dependent on the magnetic field. To calculate the amount of lift, a pressure can be defined. Earnshaws theorem proves that using only paramagnetic materials it is impossible for a system to stably levitate against gravity. However, servomechanisms, the use of materials, superconduction. In some cases the force is provided by magnetic levitation. Static stability means that any small displacement away from a stable equilibrium causes a net force to push it back to the equilibrium point, Earnshaws theorem proved conclusively that it is not possible to levitate stably using only static, macroscopic, paramagnetic fields. Conductors can have a relative permeability to alternating magnetic fields of below one, dynamic stability occurs when the levitation system is able to damp out any vibration-like motion that may occur. Magnetic fields are conservative forces and therefore in principle have no built-in damping and this can permit vibration modes to exist that can cause the item to leave the stable region. Damping of motion is done in a number of ways, external mechanical damping, such as dashpots, from Earnshaws theorem at least one stable axis must be present for the system to levitate successfully, but the other axes can be stabilized using ferromagnetism. The primary ones used in maglev trains are servo-stabilized electromagnetic suspension, with a small amount of mechanical constraint for stability, achieving pseudo-levitation is a relatively straightforward process. If two magnets are mechanically constrained along an axis, for example, and arranged to repel each other strongly. Another geometry is where the magnets are attracted, but constrained from touching by a tensile member, another example is the Zippe-type centrifuge where a cylinder is suspended under an attractive magnet, and stabilized by a needle bearing from below. The attraction from a fixed strength magnet decreases with increased distance, for a stable system, the opposite is needed, variations from a stable position should push it back to the target position. Either system represents examples of ElectroMagnetic Suspension, for a very simple example, some tabletop levitation demonstrations use this principle, and the object cuts a beam of light or Hall effect sensor method is used to measure the position of the object. The electromagnet is above the object being levitated, the electromagnet is turned off whenever the object gets too close, such a simple system is not very robust, far more effective control systems exist, but this illustrates the basic idea. EMS magnetic levitation trains are based on this kind of levitation, The train wraps around the track, the servo controls keep it safely at a constant distance from the track
9.
Gecko tape
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Synthetic setae emulate the setae found on the toes of a gecko and scientific research in this area is driven towards the development of dry adhesives. Geckos have no difficulty mastering vertical walls and are capable of adhering themselves to just about any surface. The 5-toed feet of a gecko are covered with elastic hairs called setae, the sheer abundance and proximity to the surface of these spatulae make it sufficient for van der Waals forces alone to provide the required adhesive strength. Following the discovery of the adhesion mechanism in 2002, which is based on van der Waals forces. Geckos are renowned for their ability to stick and run on any vertical. However gecko toes are not sticky in the way like chemical adhesives. Instead, they can detach from the surface quickly and remain quite clean around everyday contaminants even without grooming. The two front feet of a tokay gecko can withstand 20.1 N of force parallel to the surface with 227 mm2 of pad area, there have been hypotheses of glue, friction, suction, electrostatics, micro-interlocking and intermolecular forces. Sticky secretions were ruled out first early in the study of gecko adhesion since geckos lack glandular tissue on their toes, the friction hypothesis was also dismissed quickly because the friction force only acts in shear which cannot explain the adhesive capabilities of geckos on inverted surfaces. The hypothesis that the toe pads act as suction cups was dispelled in 1934 by experiments carried out in a vacuum in which the geckos toes remained stuck. Similarly, the hypothesis was refuted by an experiment showing that geckos could still adhere even when the build-up of electrostatic charge was impossible. The problem was solved in 2000 by a research team led by biologists Kellar Autumn of Lewis & Clark College in Portland, Oregon. A single seta of the gecko is roughly 110 micrometers long and 4.2 micrometers wide. Each of a setas branches ends in a thin, triangular spatula connected at its apex, the end is about 0.2 micrometers long and 0.2 micrometers wide. The adhesion between geckos foot and the surfaces is exactly the result of the Van der Waals force between each seta and the surface molecules. We find that the force, or the van der Waals force in this case between two surfaces is greatly dominated by the number of contacts. This is exactly the reason why the geckos feet can generate extraordinary adhesion force to different kinds of surfaces, the combined effect of millions of spatulae provides an adhesive force many times greater than the gecko needs to hang from a ceiling by one foot. The surprisingly large forces generated by the geckos toes raised the question of how geckos manage to lift their feet so quickly – in just 15 milliseconds – with no measurable detachment forces
10.
Ig Nobel Prize
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The Ig Nobel Prizes are parodies of the Nobel Prizes given out each autumn for 10 unusual or trivial achievements in scientific research. They have been awarded since 1991, with the aim to honor achievements that first make people laugh. The awards can be veiled criticism or satire, but are used to point out that even absurd-sounding avenues of research can yield useful knowledge. The name is a play on the words ignoble and the Nobel Prize, the pronunciation used during the ceremony is /ˌɪɡnoʊˈbɛl/ IG-noh-BEL, not like the word ignoble. The Ig Nobels were created in 1991 by Marc Abrahams, editor and co-founder of the Annals of Improbable Research, awards were presented at that time for discoveries that cannot, or should not, be reproduced. The Ig Nobel Prizes recognize genuine achievements, with the exception of three awarded in the first year to fictitious scientists Josiah S. Carberry, Paul DeFanti. Most often, however, they draw attention to scientific articles that have some humorous or unexpected aspect. In 2010, Sir Andre Geim was awarded a Nobel Prize in physics for his work with graphene, the prizes are presented by genuine Nobel laureates, originally at a ceremony in a lecture hall at MIT, but now in Sanders Theater at Harvard University. It contains a number of running jokes, including Miss Sweetie Poo, the awards ceremony is traditionally closed with the words, If you didnt win a prize—and especially if you did—better luck next year. The ceremony is co-sponsored by the Harvard Computer Society, the Harvard–Radcliffe Science Fiction Association, throwing paper planes onto the stage is a long-standing tradition at the Ig Nobels. In past years, physics professor Roy J. Glauber swept the stage clean of the airplanes as the official Keeper of the Broom for years, Glauber could not attend the 2005 awards because he was traveling to Stockholm to claim a genuine Nobel Prize in Physics. The Parade of Ignitaries brings various supporting groups into the hall, at the 1997 ceremonies, a team of cryogenic sex researchers distributed a pamphlet titled Safe Sex at Four Kelvin. Delegates from the Museum of Bad Art are often on hand to some pieces from their collection. The ceremony is recorded and broadcast on National Public Radio and is shown live over the Internet, the recording is broadcast every year, on the Friday after U. S. Thanksgiving, on the public radio program Science Friday. In recognition of this, the audience chants the first name of the shows host. Two books have published as of 3 September 2009 with write-ups on some of the winners, The Ig Nobel Prize and The Ig Nobel Prize 2. An Ig Nobel Tour has been a part of National Science week in the United Kingdom since 2003. The tour has traveled to Australia several times, Aarhus University in Denmark in April 2009, Italy
11.
John J. Carty Award for the Advancement of Science
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Established by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company and first awarded in 1932, the medal has been awarded in specific fields since 1961. The recipient is awarded a $25,000 prize,2010 Andre Geim, for his experimental realization and investigation of graphene, the two-dimensional form of carbon. 2008 Thomas Eisner, for pathbreaking studies of the ways that organisms utilize chemistry to mediate ecological interactions. 2007 Joseph R. Ecker, for contributions in the areas of ethylene signal transduction,1997 Patrick V.1994 Marina Ratner, for her striking proof of the Raghunathan conjectures. 1984 Robert H. Burris, for his studies of the biochemistry of nitrogen fixation have enriched the agricultural sciences by deed
12.
Hughes Medal
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The Hughes Medal is awarded by the Royal Society of London in recognition of an original discovery in the physical sciences, particularly electricity and magnetism or their applications. Named after David E. Hughes, the medal is awarded with a gift of £1000, unlike other Royal Society medals, the Hughes Medal has never been awarded to the same individual more than once. J. Whelan for their contributions to the theory of diffraction and microscopy. As of 2011, the Hughes Medal has been awarded biennially, archived from the original on 19 June 2010. Hughes archive winners 1989 -1902, archived from the original on 19 June 2010
13.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
14.
Knight Bachelor
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The appointment of Knight Bachelor is a part of the British honours system. It is the most basic and lowest rank of a man who has been knighted by the monarch, Knights Bachelor are the most ancient sort of British knight, but Knights Bachelor rank below knights of the various orders. There is no counterpart to Knight Bachelor. The lowest knightly honour that can be conferred upon a woman is Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire – which, also, foreigners are not created Knights Bachelor, instead they are generally made honorary KBEs. It is generally awarded for service, amongst its recipients are all male judges of Her Majestys High Court of Justice in England. Sir Patrick Stewart, and Sir Tom Jones are Officers of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, like other knights, Knights Bachelor are styled Sir. Since they are not knights of any order of chivalry, there is no post-nominal associated with the award. This style is adopted by Knights Bachelor who are also peers, baronets or knights of the various statutory orders, such as Sir William Boulton, Bt, Kt, or The Lord Olivier. Until 1926 Knights Bachelor had no insignia which they could wear, the Knights Bachelor badge may be worn on all such occasions upon the left side of the coat or outer garment of those upon whom the degree of Knight Bachelor has been conferred. In 1974, Queen Elizabeth II issued a warrant authorising the wearing on appropriate occasions of a neck badge, slightly smaller in size. In 1988 a new certificate of authentication, a knights only personal documentation, was designed by the College of Arms. The Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor was founded for the maintenance and consolidation of the Dignity of Knights Bachelor in 1908, the Society keeps records of all Knights Bachelor, in their interest
15.
Copley Medal
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The Copley Medal is a scientific award given by the Royal Society, London, for outstanding achievements in research in any branch of science. It alternates between the physical and the biological sciences, the medal was created following a donation of £100 to be used for carrying out experiments by Sir Godfrey Copley, for which the interest on the amount was used for several years. A second donation of £1666 13s, 4d. was made by Sir Joseph William Copley in 1881, and the interest from that amount is used to pay for the medal. The medal in its current format is made of silver gilt, since its inception, it has been awarded to many notable scientists, including 52 winners of the Nobel Prize,17 in Physics,21 in Physiology or Medicine, and 14 in Chemistry. John Theophilus Desaguliers has won the medal the most often, winning in 1734,1736 and 1741, in 1976, Dorothy Hodgkin became the first and as of 2015 the only female recipient
16.
Condensed matter physics
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Condensed matter physics is a branch of physics that deals with the physical properties of condensed phases of matter, where particles adhere to each other. Condensed matter physicists seek to understand the behavior of these phases by using physical laws, in particular, they include the laws of quantum mechanics, electromagnetism and statistical mechanics. The field overlaps with chemistry, materials science, and nanotechnology, the theoretical physics of condensed matter shares important concepts and methods with that of particle physics and nuclear physics. A variety of topics in physics such as crystallography, metallurgy, elasticity, magnetism, etc. were treated as distinct areas until the 1940s, when they were grouped together as solid state physics. Around the 1960s, the study of properties of liquids was added to this list, forming the basis for the new. The Bell Telephone Laboratories was one of the first institutes to conduct a program in condensed matter physics. References to condensed state can be traced to earlier sources, as a matter of fact, it would be more correct to unify them under the title of condensed bodies. One of the first studies of condensed states of matter was by English chemist Humphry Davy, Davy observed that of the forty chemical elements known at the time, twenty-six had metallic properties such as lustre, ductility and high electrical and thermal conductivity. This indicated that the atoms in John Daltons atomic theory were not indivisible as Dalton claimed, Davy further claimed that elements that were then believed to be gases, such as nitrogen and hydrogen could be liquefied under the right conditions and would then behave as metals. In 1823, Michael Faraday, then an assistant in Davys lab, successfully liquefied chlorine and went on to all known gaseous elements, except for nitrogen, hydrogen. By 1908, James Dewar and Heike Kamerlingh Onnes were successfully able to hydrogen and then newly discovered helium. Paul Drude in 1900 proposed the first theoretical model for an electron moving through a metallic solid. Drudes model described properties of metals in terms of a gas of free electrons, the phenomenon completely surprised the best theoretical physicists of the time, and it remained unexplained for several decades. Drudes classical model was augmented by Wolfgang Pauli, Arnold Sommerfeld, Felix Bloch, Pauli realized that the free electrons in metal must obey the Fermi–Dirac statistics. Using this idea, he developed the theory of paramagnetism in 1926, shortly after, Sommerfeld incorporated the Fermi–Dirac statistics into the free electron model and made it better able to explain the heat capacity. Two years later, Bloch used quantum mechanics to describe the motion of an electron in a periodic lattice. Magnetism as a property of matter has been known in China since 4000 BC, Pierre Curie studied the dependence of magnetization on temperature and discovered the Curie point phase transition in ferromagnetic materials. In 1906, Pierre Weiss introduced the concept of magnetic domains to explain the properties of ferromagnets
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Russian Academy of Sciences
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Headquartered in Moscow, the Academy is considered a civil, self-governed, non-commercial organization chartered by the Government of Russia. It combines the members of RAS and scientists employed by institutions, the Academy currently includes around 650 institutions and 55,000 scientific researchers. There are three types of membership in the RAS, full members, corresponding members, and foreign members, Academicians and corresponding members must be citizens of the Russian Federation when elected. However, some academicians and corresponding members were elected before the collapse of the USSR and are now citizens of other countries, Members of RAS are elected based on their scientific contributions – election to membership is considered very prestigious. In the years 2005–2012, the academy had approximately 500 full and 700 corresponding members, but in 2013, after the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences and the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences became incorporated into the RAS, a number of the RAS members accordingly increased. As of November 2016, after the last elections, there were 944 full members and 1159 corresponding members in the renewed Russian Academy of Sciences, the RAS consists of 13 specialized scientific divisions, three territorial divisions, sometimes called branches, and 15 regional scientific centers. The Academy has numerous councils, committees, and commissions, all organized for different purposes, Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences The Siberian Division was established in 1957, with Mikhail Lavrentyev as founding chairman. Research centers are in Novosibirsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Yakutsk, Ulan-Ude, Kemerovo, Tyumen, as of 2005, the Division employed over 33,000 employees,58 of whom were members of the Academy. Ural Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences The Ural Division was established in 1932, research centers are in Yekaterinburg, Perm, Cheliabinsk, Izhevsk, Orenburg, Ufa and Syktyvkar. As of 2007, the Division employed 3,600 scientists,590 full professors,31 full members, started with just three members, The RSSI now has 3,100 members, including 57 from the largest research institutions. Russian universities and technical institutes are not under the supervision of the RAS, the Academy is also increasing its presence in the educational area. In 1990 the Higher Chemical College of the Russian Academy of Sciences was founded, the Academy gives out a number of different prizes, medals and awards among which, Lomonosov Gold Medal Lobachevsky Prize Demidov Prize Kurchatov Medal Pushkin Prize S. V. Expeditions to explore parts of the country had Academy scientists as their leaders or most active participants. A separate organization, called the Russian Academy, was created in 1783 to work on the study of the Russian language, presided over by Princess Yekaterina Dashkova, the Russian Academy was engaged in compiling the six-volume Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language. The Russian Academy was merged into the Imperial Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1841, in December 1917, Sergey Fedorovich Oldenburg, a leading ethnographer and political activist in the Kadet party, met with Vladimir Lenin to discuss the future of the Academy. They agreed that the expertise of the Academy would be applied to addressing questions of state construction, in 1925 the Soviet government recognized the Russian Academy of Sciences as the highest all-Union scientific institution and renamed it the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. The Soviet Sciences Academy would be affected like all universities by the rules imposed particularly those pertaining to censorship, the Soviet Science Academy ended up with a leader of the philosophy department who was placed there simply to keep the man out of trouble. The government decided to not execute or send the famous writer to the gulag because he had won the Stalin award, doing this would have discredited the Stalin award and thus Stalin the leader of the Communist party himself
18.
University of Manchester
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The University of Manchester is a red brick university, a product of the civic university movement of the late-19th century. The main campus is south of Manchester city centre on Oxford Road, in 2015/16, the university had 39,700 students and 10,400 staff, making it the second largest university in the UK, and the largest single-site university. The university had an income of £987.2 million in 2015–16 and it has the third largest endowment of any university in England, after the universities of Cambridge and Oxford. It is a member of the worldwide Universities Research Association, the Russell Group of British research universities, the University of Manchester is ranked 29th in the world by QS World University Rankings 2016. In the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities, Manchester was ranked 35th in the world, the Global Employability University Ranking conducted by THE places Manchester at 27th worldwide and 10th in Europe, ahead of academic powerhouses such as Cornell, UPenn and LSE. It is ranked joint 55th in the world and 8th in the UK in the 2016 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework, Manchester came fifth in terms of research power and seventeenth for grade point average quality when including specialist institutions. More students try to gain entry than to any university in the country. According to the 2015 High Fliers Report, Manchester is the most targeted university by the largest number of leading graduate employers in the UK. The university owns and operates major cultural assets such as the Manchester Museum, Whitworth Art Gallery, John Rylands Library and Jodrell Bank Observatory and its Grade I listed Lovell Telescope. The University of Manchester has 25 Nobel laureates among its past and present students and staff, four Nobel laureates are currently among its staff – more than any other British university. The University of Manchester traces its roots to the formation of the Mechanics Institute in 1824, the English chemist John Dalton, together with Manchester businessmen and industrialists, established the Mechanics Institute to ensure that workers could learn the basic principles of science. John Owens, a merchant, left a bequest of £96,942 in 1846 to found a college to educate men on non-sectarian lines. He also campaigned and helped fund the chair, the first applied science department in the north of England. He left the college the equivalent of £10 million in his will in 1876, Beyer funded the total cost of construction of the Beyer building to house the biology and geology departments. His will also funded Engineering chairs and the Beyer Professor of Applied mathematics, the university has a rich German heritage. The Owens College Extension Movement based their plans after a tour of mainly German universities, Manchester mill owner, Thomas Ashton, chairman of the extension movement had studied at Heidelberg University. Sir Henry Roscoe also studied at Heidelberg under Robert Bunsen and they collaborated for many years on research projects, Roscoe promoted the German style of research led teaching that became the role model for the redbrick universities. Charles Beyer studied at Dresden Academy Polytechnic, there were many Germans on the staff, including Carl Schorlemmer, Britains first chair in organic chemistry, and Arthur Schuster, professor of Physics
19.
Radboud University Nijmegen
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Radboud University Nijmegen is a public university with a strong focus on research located in Nijmegen, the Netherlands. It was established on 17 October 1923 and is situated in the oldest city of the Netherlands, the RU has seven faculties and enrolls over 19,900 students. It was internationally ranked 156th by the QS World University Rankings, the first Nijmegen University was founded in 1655 and terminated around 1680. The Radboud University Nijmegen was established in 1923 as the Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen and it was founded because the Roman Catholic community wanted its own university. At the time, Roman Catholics in the Netherlands were disadvantaged and occupied almost no higher posts in government, after fierce competition with the cities of Den Bosch, Tilburg, The Hague, and Maastricht, Nijmegen was chosen to house the university. The subsequent Second World War hit the university hard, many prominent members were lost, among them professors Robert Regout and Titus Brandsma. They were deported to Dachau concentration camp, in 1943, rector Hermesdorf refused to cooperate with the Germans. On 22 February 1944, the university lost many buildings in a bombardment, since then, student numbers rose steadily from 3,000 in 1960 to 15,000 in 1980. In 2004, the university changed its name to Radboud University Nijmegen, after Saint Radboud of Utrecht, the Erasmus Tower and the Erasmusgebouw which contain the Faculty of Arts are situated at the south end of the campus next to the sports centre. Recent building projects included new on-campus residence halls, the sports centre, the new Grotiusgebouw is recently built and will offer more room to the Faculty of Law. The university campus is located next to Heyendaal train station, frequent shuttle buses connect the university to Nijmegen Central Station and the city centre. Radboud University is noted for its campus, often listed among the most attractive in the Netherlands. Radboud University has seven faculties and enrols over 19.900 students in 112 study programs, as of September 2013, the university offers 36 international masters programs taught in English and several more taught in Dutch. There are two bachelors programs taught fully in English, International Economics & Business and International Business Administration, all other bachelors are in Dutch, although most of the required literature is in English. Some exams, papers and even classes may be in English as well, all masters programs have been internationally accredited by the Accreditation Organization of the Netherlands and Flanders. All English-taught Masters programmes are research-based programmes, Faculty members Anne Cutler, Henk Barendregt, Peter Hagoort, Theo Rasing, Heino Falcke, Mike Jetten, Ieke Moerdijk, and Mikhail Katsnelson won the Spinoza Prize. Visiting professor Sir Andre Geim and former Ph. D. student Sir Konstantin Novoselov were awarded the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics, the QS World University Rankings ranked the university 177th in the world in 2015. The university scored 45th in a 2012 ranking of European research universities, in 2016, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings put the university in 125th place worldwide
20.
Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
21.
Konstantin Novoselov
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Sir Konstantin Sergeevich Novoselov FRS FRSC FInstP is a Russian-British physicist, and Langworthy Professor in the School of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Manchester. His work on graphene with Andre Geim earned them the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2010, Konstantin Novoselov was born in Nizhny Tagil, Soviet Union, in 1974. He graduated from the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology with a MSc degree in 1997, Kostya Novoselov participated in the Graphene Flagship project – a €1 billion initiative of the European Commission – and was featured in the official promotion movie of the project. Novoselov is one of Directors of the National Graphene Institute, Novoselov is also a recipient of a starting grant from the European Research Council. Kostya Novoselov made it into a shortlist of scientists with multiple hot papers for the years 2007–2008 and 2009, in 2014 Kostya Novoselov was included in the list of the most highly cited researchers. He was also named among the 17 hottest researchers worldwide—individuals who have published the greatest number of hot papers during 2012–2013,2007 Nicholas Kurti European Science Prize to promote and recognise the novel work of young scientists working in the fields of Low Temperatures and/or High Magnetic Fields. 2008 Technology Review-35 Young Innovator 2008 University of Manchester Researcher of the Year,2008 Europhysics Prize, jointly with Geim, for discovering and isolating a single free-standing atomic layer of carbon and elucidating its remarkable electronic properties. 2008 International Union of Pure and Applied Physics Young Scientist Prize, for his contribution in the discovery of graphene,2010 Nobel Prize in Physics, jointly with Andre Geim, for groundbreaking experiments regarding the material graphene. Novoselov was the youngest Nobel laureate in physics since Brian Josephson in 1973, L. Bragg Lecture Prize from the International Union of Crystallography “… for his work on two-dimensional atomic crystals”2012 Knight Bachelor in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to science. In 2014 Kostya Novoselov was included in a list of the most highly cited researchers and he was also named among the 17 hottest researchers worldwide - individuals who have published the greatest number of hot papers during 2012-2013. In 2014 Kostya Novoselov was awarded the Onsager Medal, in 2016 Kostya Novoselov was awarded the Carbon Medal. In 2016 Kostya Novoselov was awarded the Dalton Medal and his certificate of election to the Royal Society in 2011 reads Novoselov is known for his interest in art. He practices in Chinese traditional drawing and has involved in several projects on modern art. Thus, in February 2015 he combined forces with Cornelia Parker to create a display for the opening of the Whitworth Art Gallery, Cornelia Parker’s meteorite shower firework was launched by Novoselov breathing on graphene gas sensor. Graphene was obtained through exfoliation of graphite which was extracted from a drawing of William Blake, Novoselov suggested that he also exfoliated graphite obtained from the drawings of other prominent artists, John Constable, Pablo Picasso, J. M. W. Turner, Thomas Girtin. He said that only microscopic amounts was extracted from each of the drawings, in 2015 he participated in in conversation session with Douglas Gordon during Interdependence session at Manchester International Festival. He also participates in discussions on the relation between art and science, Novoselov believes that artists and scientists both rely on curiosity, willingness to learn and imagination, Novoselov is fond of Chinese calligraphy and drawing. He learned it from a prominent Chinese artist Zheng Shenglong, nine ink paintings by Prof. Novoselov were shown at the exhibition Britain Through the Eyes of a Chinese Diplomat at the University of Leeds
22.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
23.
Royal Society of Chemistry
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The Royal Society of Chemistry is a learned society in the United Kingdom with the goal of advancing the chemical sciences. At its inception, the Society had a membership of 34,000 in the UK. The headquarters of the Society are at Burlington House, Piccadilly and it also has offices in Thomas Graham House in Cambridge where RSC Publishing is based. The Society has offices in the United States at the University City Science Center, Philadelphia, the organisation carries out research, publishes journals, books and databases, as well as hosting conferences, seminars and workshops. The designation FRSC is given to a group of elected Fellows of the society who have made contributions to chemistry. The names of Fellows are published each year in The Times, Honorary Fellowship of the Society is awarded for distinguished service in the field of chemistry. The rim of the wheel is gold, and the spokes are of non-tarnishable metals. The current president is Sir John Holman, AMRSC, Associate Member, Royal Society of Chemistry The entry level for RSC membership, AMRSC is awarded to graduates in the chemical sciences. HonFRSC, Honorary Fellow of the Society Honorary Fellowship is awarded for distinguished service in the field of chemistry, CChem, Chartered Chemist The award of CChem is considered separately from admission to a category of RSC membership. Candidates need to be MRSC or FRSC and demonstrate development of specific attributes and be in a job which requires their chemical knowledge. CSci, Chartered Scientist The RSC is a licensed by the Science Council for the registration of Chartered Scientists, eurChem, European Chemist The RSC is a member of the European Communities Chemistry Council, and can award this designation to Chartered Chemists. MChemA, Mastership in Chemical Analysis The RSC awards this postgraduate qualification which is the UK statutory qualification for practice as a Public Analyst and it requires candidates to submit a portfolio of suitable experience and to take theory papers and a one-day laboratory practical examination. The qualification GRSC was awarded from 1981 to 1995 for completion of college courses equivalent to a chemistry degree. It replaced the GRIC offered by the Royal Institute of Chemistry, the society is organised around 9 divisions, based on subject areas, and local sections, both in the United Kingdom and overseas. Divisions cover broad areas of chemistry but also many special interest groups for more specific areas. Analytical Division for analytical chemistry and promoting the aims of the Society for Analytical Chemistry. Dalton Division, named after John Dalton, for inorganic chemistry, Faraday Division, named after Michael Faraday, for physical chemistry and promoting the original aims of the Faraday Society. There are 12 subjects groups not attached to a division, there are 35 local sections covering the United Kingdom and Ireland
24.
Institute of Physics
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The Institute of Physics is a scientific charity that works to advance physics education, research and application. It has a membership of over 50,000. The IOP supports physics in education, research and industry, the IOPs publishing company, IOP Publishing, publishes more than 70 academic journals and magazines. The Institute of Physics was formed in 1960 from the merger of the Physical Society, founded as the Physical Society of London in 1874, the Physical Society of London had been officially formed on 14 February 1874 with John Hall Gladstone as its first president. From its beginning, the society held meetings and demonstrations. In the early part of the 20th century, the profession of physicist emerged, in 1920, the Institute of Physics was created under special license from the Board of Trade. Sir Richard Glazebrook was elected first President of the Institute, as with the Physical Society, dissemination of knowledge was fundamental to the Institute, which began publication of the Journal of Scientific Instruments in 1922. The annual Reports on Progress in Physics began in 1934 and is published today. In 1952, the Institute began the Graduateship course and examination, upon being granted a royal charter in 1970, the organization renamed itself to Institute of Physics. There are four grades of membership, iMember, Associate Member, Member, qualification for AMInstP is normally by completion of an undergraduate degree that is recognised by the Institute – this covers almost all UK physics degrees. An AMInstP can become an MInstP by gaining experience as a physicist. MInstP and FInstP are the two grades of membership, granting the right to vote in Institute elections. The Institute grants academic dress to the grades of membership. Those who have passed the Institutes graduateeship examination are entitled to a violet damask Oxford burgon-shaped hood, corporate members are entitled to wear a hood of Toronto full shape in violet damask, lined in violet and faced on the cowl with 2/5 cm shot crimson silk. Fellows wear a doctors bonnet in bkack velvet with red tassels, until 1998 CPhys was granted automatically with MInstP, however since then it has become a separate qualification that is equal in stature to Chartered Engineer. From 2012, it requires re-validation every three years, the IOP accredits undergraduate degrees in physics in British and Irish universities. At post-16 level, the IOP developed the Advancing Physics A-level course, in conjunction with the OCR examining board, Advancing Physics was sold to Oxford University Press in January 2011. The IOP also developed the Integrated Sciences degree, which is run at four universities in England, the IOP provides an important educational service for secondary schools in the UK
25.
Physicist
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A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
26.
Regius Professor
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A Regius professor is a university professor with royal patronage or appointment. They are a feature of academia in the British Isles. The first Regius professorship was in the field of medicine, Regius chairs have since been instituted in various universities, in disciplines judged to be fundamental and for which there is a continuing and significant need. This royal imprimatur, and the rarity of these professorships, means a Regius chair is prestigious. Regius professors are traditionally addressed as Regius and not Professor, glasgow University currently has the highest number of extant Regius chairs, at thirteen. Traditionally, Regius chairs only existed in the ancient universities of the British Isles, in October 2012 it was announced that Queen Elizabeth II would create up to six new Regius professorships, to be announced in early 2013, to mark her Diamond Jubilee. In January 2013 the full list was announced, comprising twelve new chairs, probably the largest number ever created in one year, in July 2015 it was announced that further Regius professorships would be created to mark the Queens 90th birthday
27.
Nalchik
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It covers an area of 131 square kilometers. The territory of modern-day Nalchik was formerly known as Slabada and it was inhabited by native Kabardians, Balkars, Chechens, Adeki, and Cherkese until around 1743, groups occasionally clashed over and dispute their claims to the land. With the founding of the city of Nalchik, the disputes among the native groups calmed, the word Nalchik literally means small horseshoe in Kabardian and Karachay-Balkar. It is a diminutive of nal, a common Middle Eastern word for horseshoe, possibly from the ancient Scythian, nalak. The city of Nalchik was named this way because of how it is shaped as surrounded by the mountains of the land, during World War II, Nalchik was occupied by Nazi Germany and Romania between October 28,1942, and January 3,1943. The city was damaged during the conflict. Nalchiks Jewish population, mostly Mountain Jews, suffered brutal beatings, however, the Jewish People of Nalchik were able to survive the invasion because they were able to, somewhat, blend in with their neighbors. Nalchik was chosen the second cleanest city of Russia in 2003, on October 13,2005, Nalchik was attacked by a large group of Yarmuk Jamaat militants led by Shamil Basayev and Anzor Astemirov. Buildings associated with the Russian security forces were targeted, killing at least 14 civilians, thirty-five policemen were killed in the fighting and eighty-nine militants, including prominent leader Ilias Gorchkhanov, were killed while another fifty-nine were arrested. As a municipal division, the city of republic significance of Nalchik is incorporated as Nalchik Urban Okrug and it also serves as an industrial center of the republic. com, Nalchik has a humid continental climate with hot summers and no dry season. The warm season lasts from late May to mid-September and the season from December to March. Most forms of precipitation are light rain and thunderstorms, as well as, light snow, wind speeds are typically calm to a light breeze through the year. PFC Spartak Nalchik is an football club based in Nalchik. The 2008 World Womens Chess Championship has also held in Nalchik on August 28–September 18,2008. Закон №12-РЗ от27 февраля2005 г, «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Кабардино-Балкарской Республики», в ред. Закона №20-РЗ от23 апреля2014 г, «О внесении изменений в отдельные республиканские Законы». Вступил в силу на следующий день после опубликования, Опубликован, Кабардино-Балкарская правда, б/н,1 марта2005 г. Закон №13-РЗ от27 февраля2005 г, «Об статусе и границах муниципальных образований в Кабардино-Балкарской Республики», в ред
28.
Solid-state physics
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Solid-state physics is the study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy. It is the largest branch of condensed matter physics, solid-state physics studies how the large-scale properties of solid materials result from their atomic-scale properties. Thus, solid-state physics forms a basis of materials science. It also has applications, for example in the technology of transistors and semiconductors. Solid materials are formed from densely packed atoms, which interact intensely and these interactions produce the mechanical, thermal, electrical, magnetic and optical properties of solids. Depending on the involved and the conditions in which it was formed. The bulk of physics, as a general theory, is focused on crystals. Primarily, this is because the periodicity of atoms in a crystal — its defining characteristic — facilitates mathematical modeling, likewise, crystalline materials often have electrical, magnetic, optical, or mechanical properties that can be exploited for engineering purposes. The forces between the atoms in a crystal can take a variety of forms, for example, in a crystal of sodium chloride, the crystal is made up of ionic sodium and chlorine, and held together with ionic bonds. In others, the atoms share electrons and form covalent bonds, in metals, electrons are shared amongst the whole crystal in metallic bonding. Finally, the noble gases do not undergo any of these types of bonding, in solid form, the noble gases are held together with van der Waals forces resulting from the polarisation of the electronic charge cloud on each atom. The differences between the types of solid result from the differences between their bonding, the DSSP catered to industrial physicists, and solid-state physics became associated with the technological applications made possible by research on solids. By the early 1960s, the DSSP was the largest division of the American Physical Society, large communities of solid state physicists also emerged in Europe after World War II, in particular in England, Germany, and the Soviet Union. In the United States and Europe, solid state became a prominent field through its investigations into semiconductors, superconductivity, nuclear magnetic resonance, today, solid-state physics is broadly considered to be the subfield of condensed matter physics that focuses on the properties of solids with regular crystal lattices. Many properties of materials are affected by their crystal structure and this structure can be investigated using a range of crystallographic techniques, including X-ray crystallography, neutron diffraction and electron diffraction. The sizes of the crystals in a crystalline solid material vary depending on the material involved. Real crystals feature defects or irregularities in the arrangements. Properties of materials such as electrical conduction and heat capacity are investigated by solid state physics, an early model of electrical conduction was the Drude model, which applied kinetic theory to the electrons in a solid
29.
Candidate of Sciences
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The degree was first introduced in the USSR on January 13,1934, by a decision of the Council of Peoples Commissars of the USSR. According to the UNESCO International Standard Classification of Education, for purposes of educational statistics Candidate of Sciences is equivalent to PhD. On the other hand, Immigration New Zealand places both Candidate of Sciences and Doctor of Sciences at Level 10, only holders of masters and specialists degrees are eligible for Candidate of Sciences programs. In countries with only one degree, the degree of Candidate of Sciences should be considered for recognition as equivalent to this degree. It is performed either within an institution or a scientific research institution. It can also be carried out without a connection to the academy. In exceptional cases, the Candidate of Sciences degree may be awarded on the basis of published scholarly works without writing a thesis, a necessary prerequisite is taking courses in philosophy and foreign language, and passing a qualifying examination called candidate minimum. In the Soviet Union, the candidate minimum included exams in the specialty field of the dissertant, in a language of his/her choice. The dissertation is presented at the educational or scientific institutions before a committee called the Scientific Council. The Council consists of about 20 members, who are the leading specialists in the field of the dissertation, the summary of the dissertation must be published before public defense in the form of autoreferat in about 150-200 copies, and distributed to major research organizations and libraries. The seeker of the degree must have a research supervisor. The dissertation must be delivered together with references of several reviewers. If the defense is successful, it is recommended and later must be approved by the central statewide board called Higher Attestation Commission or Vysshaya attestacionnaya komissiya or VAK. In Czechoslovakia, the Candidate and Doctor of Sciences degrees were modeled precisely after the Soviet one by Law 60/1953 in 1953, requirements to attain the degree were thus literally the same as in the USSR. The degree could also be awarded by the Slovak Academy of Sciences and universities, the abbreviation of the degree is CSc. added behind the bearers name and a comma. There also have been other academic degrees in Czechoslovakia and its successional states and these doctor degrees are not to be confused with a Ph. D. although its holders are addressed doctor. Applicants need a degree or a comparable degree with excellent grades. This degree is stated before names and awarded after writing a thesis of 50.000 to 80.000 words and defending it at an viva voce
30.
Metallurgy
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The production of metals involves the processing of ores to extract the metal they contain, and the mixture of metals, sometimes with other elements, to produce alloys. Metallurgy is distinguished from the craft of metalworking, although metalworking relies on metallurgy, as medicine relies on medical science, Metallurgy is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy and non-ferrous metallurgy or colored metallurgy. Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes, the production of ferrous metals accounts for 95 percent of world metal production. The roots of metallurgy derive from Ancient Greek, μεταλλουργός, metallourgós, worker in metal, from μέταλλον, métallon, metal + ἔργον, érgon, in the late 19th century it was extended to the more general scientific study of metals, alloys, and related processes. In English, the pronunciation is the more common one in the UK. The /ˈmetələrdʒi/ pronunciation is the common one in the USA. The earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be gold, small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, c.40,000 BC. Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found in native form, egyptian weapons made from meteoric iron in about 3000 BC were highly prized as daggers from heaven. Certain metals, notably tin, lead and copper, can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire or blast furnace, a process known as smelting. The first evidence of this extractive metallurgy dates from the 5th and 6th millennia BC and was found in the sites of Majdanpek, Yarmovac and Plocnik. To date, the earliest evidence of copper smelting is found at the Belovode site, other signs of early metals are found from the third millennium BC in places like Palmela, Los Millares, and Stonehenge. However, the ultimate beginnings cannot be ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing. These first metals were single ones or as found, about 3500 BC, it was discovered that by combining copper and tin, a superior metal could be made, an alloy called bronze, representing a major technological shift known as the Bronze Age. The extraction of iron from its ore into a metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin. The process appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, the secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines. Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a variety of past cultures. A 16th century book by Georg Agricola called De re metallica describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction, Agricola has been described as the father of metallurgy. Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore, in order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced physically, chemically, or electrolytically
31.
Chernogolovka
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Chernogolovka is a town in Moscow Oblast, Russia, located 43 kilometers northeast from Moscow border. Chernogolovka for the first time has been mentioned in 1710. In 1956, Chernogolovka grew into a center with the help of Nobel Prize winner Nikolay Semyonov. Semyonov started the branch of Moscow Institute of Chemical Physics. In 2001, Chernogolovka was granted town status and given the status as a naukograd or science city in 2008. As a municipal division, Chernogolovka Town Under Oblast Jurisdiction is incorporated as Chernogolovka Urban Okrug, Chernogolovka does not have a rail link but long distance buses link the town to Moscow, Noginsk and Fryanovo. Chernogolovka is a major Russian center of scientific research, Закон №11/2013-ОЗ от31 января2013 г. «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Московской области», в ред, Закона №72/2015-ОЗ от5 мая2015 г. Вступил в силу на следующий день после официального опубликования, Подмосковье, №24,12 февраля2013 г. Закон №61/2005-ОЗ от28 февраля2005 г, «О статусе и границе городского округа Черноголовка», в ред. Закона №19/2010-ОЗ от11 марта2010 г «О внесении изменений в Закон Московской области О статусе и границе городского округа Черноголовка», Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Подмосковье, №42,10 марта2005 г, website of Chernogolovka Chernogolovka Science Center General information
32.
University of Nottingham
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The University of Nottingham is a public research university based in Nottingham, Nottinghamshire, England, United Kingdom. It was founded as University College Nottingham in 1881 and was granted a Royal Charter in 1948, outside the United Kingdom, Nottingham has campuses in Semenyih, Malaysia and Ningbo, China. Nottingham is organised into five constituent faculties, within there are more than 50 schools, departments, institutes. Nottingham has about 44,000 students and 9,000 staff and had an income of £635 million in 2015/16. For 2009 entry, it was ranked 5th in England in terms of the number of students. In 2011, the university was one of 12 elite institutions that accommodated the top achieving students in England, the 2014 High Fliers survey stated that Nottingham was the most targeted university by the UKs top employers between 2013-14. In 2012, Nottingham was ranked 13th in the world in terms of the number of alumni listed among CEOs of the Fortune Global 500 and it is also ranked 2nd in the 2012 Summer Olympics table of British medal winners. Moreover, Nottingham is the 9th largest European producer of entrepreneurs, in the 2011, and 2014 GreenMetric World University Rankings, Nottingham was the worlds most sustainable campus. The institutions alumni have been awarded a variety of accolades, including 3 Nobel Prizes, a Turner Prize. In 1881, there were four professors – of Literature, Physics, Chemistry, the university college underwent significant expansion in the 1920s when it moved from the centre of Nottingham to a large campus on the citys outskirts. The original University College building on Shakespeare Street in central Nottingham, built it most grand and cakeily out of the noble loot derived from shrewd cash-chemistry by good Sir Jesse Boot. Apart from its physical transfer to surroundings that could not be different from its original home. The Department of Slavonic Languages was established in 1933, the teaching of Russian having been introduced in 1916, however, further advances were delayed by the outbreak of war in 1939. In 1970, the university established the UKs first new school of the 20th century. In 1999, Jubilee Campus was opened on the site of the Raleigh Bicycle Company. Nottingham then began to expand overseas, opening campuses in Malaysia, in 2005, the Kings Meadow Campus opened near the University Park Campus. The university has used several logos throughout its history, beginning with its coat of arms, later Nottingham adopted a simpler logo, in which a stylised version of Nottingham Castle was surrounded by the text The University of Nottingham. In 2001 Nottingham undertook a major re-branding exercise, which included replacing the logo with the current one, the chief officer is the chancellor, elected by the University Court on the recommendation of the University Council
33.
University of Bath
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The University of Bath is a public university located in Bath, Somerset, United Kingdom. It received its Royal Charter in 1966 and can trace its roots to a school established in Bristol in 1856. According to The Times Higher Education Student Experience Survey 2015 the University of Bath is the best university in the UK for student experience, in The Times and The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2014 the university was awarded the title of Best Campus University in Britain. Bath was awarded the title of ‘University of the Year 2011/12’, 87% was graded 4*/3*, defined as world-leading/internationally excellent. Until 30 October 2012, it was also a member of the 1994 Group, the University of Bath can trace its roots to a technical school established in Bristol in 1856, by the honourable Cameron Smart Meng, MIET. In 1885 the school part of the Society of Merchant Venturers and was renamed the Merchant Venturers Technical College. Meanwhile, in the city of Bath, a pharmaceutical school. This became part of the Technical College in 1929, in 1963, the Robbins Committee report paved the way for the college to assume university status as Bath University of Technology. Construction of the campus began in 1964, with the first building, now known as 4 South, completed in 1965. In November 1966, the first degree ceremony took place at the Assembly Rooms in Bath, over the subsequent decade, new buildings were added as the campus took shape. Such plans, however, did not come to fruition, the university logo features the so-called Gorgons head which is taken, via the universitys coat of arms, from a Roman sculpture found in the city. The universitys main campus is located on Claverton Down, a distance from the centre of Bath, the site is compact, it is possible to walk from one end to the other in fifteen minutes. The design involved the separation of vehicular and pedestrian traffic, with traffic on the ground floors and pedestrians on a raised central thoroughfare. Buildings would line the parade and student residences built on tower blocks rise from the central thoroughfare, at the centre of the campus is the Library and Learning Centre, a facility open round the clock offering computing services, information and research assistance as well as books and journals. Building names are based on their location and distance vis-à-vis the library, odd-numbered buildings are on the same side of the parade as the library, and even-numbered buildings are on the opposite side. 7 West is generally accessible only via 5 West or 9 West, buildings on the south of the campus,1 South to 4 South, are accessible via roads and pedestrian walkways by the university lake and gardens. In Bath, there is a particular contrast between the campus and the Georgian style architecture of the World Heritage City of Bath. The eastern part of the campus is dominated by the Sports Training Village, built in 1992, the northern perimeter of the university is bounded by student residences Westwood, Eastwood, Brendon Court, Polden Court, Solsbury Court, Marlborough Court and Woodland Court
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University of Copenhagen
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The University of Copenhagen is the oldest university and research institution in Denmark. Founded in 1479 as a studium generale, it is the second oldest institution for education in Scandinavia after Uppsala University. The university has 23,473 undergraduate students,17,398 postgraduate students,2,968 doctoral students, the university has four campuses located in and around Copenhagen, with the headquarters located in central Copenhagen. Most courses are taught in Danish, however, many courses are offered in English. The university has several thousands of students, about half of whom come from Nordic countries. The university has had 8 alumni become Nobel laureates and has produced one Turing Award recipient, the rector, the prorector and the director of the university is appointed by the university board. The rector in turn appoints directors of the different parts of the central administration, the deans appoint heads of 50 departments. There is no faculty senate and faculty is not involved in the appointment of rector, deans, hence the university has no faculty governance, although there are elected Academic Boards at faculty level who advise the deans. The governing body manages a budget of about BDKK8.3. The University is organized into six faculties and about 100 departments, the University employs about 5,600 academic staff and 4,400 technical and administrative staff. The total number of enrolled students is about 40,000 annually, UCPH has established an international graduate talent program which provides grants for international Ph. D, students and a tenure track carrier system. UCPH operates about fifty master’s programmes taught in English, and has arranged about 150 exchange agreements with institutions and 800 Erasmus agreements. Each year there are about 1,700 incoming exchange students,2,000 outbound exchange students and 4,000 international degree-seeking students, about 3,000 Ph. D. students study there each year. South Campus – houses the Faculty of Humanities and a proportion of the Faculty of Science. In the winter of 2016–2017, the Faculty of Law and the Faculty of Theology will also move to South Campus, frederiksberg Campus – home to sections of the Faculty of Science and the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences. The Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences and the Faculty of Science also use the Taastrup Campus, the Faculty of Science also has facilities in Helsingør, Hørsholm and Nødebo. The University of Copenhagen was founded in 1479 and is the oldest university in Denmark, between the closing of the Studium Generale in Lund in 1536 and the establishment of the University of Aarhus in the late 1920s, it was the only university in Denmark. The university became a centre of Roman Catholic theological learning, but also had faculties for the study of law, medicine, between 1675 and 1788, the university introduced the concept of degree examinations
35.
Mesoscopic physics
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Disambiguation, This page refers to the sub-discipline of condensed matter physics, not the branch of meteorology concerned with the study of weather systems smaller than synoptic scale systems. Mesoscopic physics is a subdiscipline of condensed matter physics deals with materials of an intermediate length. The scale of these materials can be described as being between the size of a quantity of atoms and of materials measuring micrometres, the lower limit can also be defined as being the size of individual atoms. At the micrometre level are bulk materials, both mesoscopic and macroscopic objects contain a large number of atoms. In other words, a device, when scaled down to a meso-size. For example, at the level the conductance of a wire increases continuously with its diameter. However, at the level, the wires conductance is quantized. The applied science of physics deals with the potential of building nanodevices. Mesoscopic physics also addresses fundamental practical problems which occur when an object is miniaturized. The physical properties of materials change as their approaches the nanoscale. For bulk materials larger than one micrometre, the percentage of atoms at the surface is insignificant in relation to the number of atoms in the entire material. The subdiscipline has dealt primarily with artificial structures of metal or semiconducting material which have been fabricated by the techniques employed for producing microelectronic circuits. There is no definition for mesoscopic physics but the systems studied are normally in the range of 100 nm to 1000 nm,100 nanometers is the approximate upper limit for a nanoparticle. Thus, mesoscopic physics has a connection to the fields of nanofabrication. Devices used in nanotechnology are examples of mesoscopic systems, three categories of new phenomena in such systems are interference effects, quantum confinement effects and charging effects. Quantum confinement effects describe electrons in terms of levels, potential well, valence bands, conduction band. Electrons in bulk material can be described by energy bands or electron energy levels. Electrons exist at different energy levels or bands, in bulk materials these energy levels are described as continuous because the difference in energy is negligible
36.
Superconductivity
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It was discovered by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8,1911, in Leiden. Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines, superconductivity is a mechanical phenomenon. It is characterized by the Meissner effect, the ejection of magnetic field lines from the interior of the superconductor as it transitions into the superconducting state. The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity cannot be simply as the idealization of perfect conductivity in classical physics. The electrical resistance of a metallic conductor decreases gradually as temperature is lowered, in ordinary conductors, such as copper or silver, this decrease is limited by impurities and other defects. Even near absolute zero, a sample of a normal conductor shows some resistance. In a superconductor, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature, an electric current flowing through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source. In 1986, it was discovered that some cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials have a temperature above 90 K. Such a high temperature is theoretically impossible for a conventional superconductor. There are many criteria by which superconductors are classified, by theory of operation, It is conventional if it can be explained by the BCS theory or its derivatives, or unconventional, otherwise. By material, Superconductor material classes include chemical elements, alloys, ceramics, on the other hand, there is a class of properties that are independent of the underlying material. For instance, all superconductors have exactly zero resistivity to low applied currents when there is no magnetic field present or if the field does not exceed a critical value. The resistance of the sample is given by Ohms law as R = V / I, if the voltage is zero, this means that the resistance is zero. Superconductors are also able to maintain a current with no applied voltage whatsoever, experiments have demonstrated that currents in superconducting coils can persist for years without any measurable degradation. Experimental evidence points to a current lifetime of at least 100,000 years, theoretical estimates for the lifetime of a persistent current can exceed the estimated lifetime of the universe, depending on the wire geometry and the temperature. In a normal conductor, an electric current may be visualized as a fluid of electrons moving across an ionic lattice. As a result, the energy carried by the current is constantly being dissipated and this is the phenomenon of electrical resistance and Joule heating. The situation is different in a superconductor, in a conventional superconductor, the electronic fluid cannot be resolved into individual electrons
37.
Eindhoven
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Eindhoven is a municipality and a city in the south of the Netherlands, originally at the confluence of the Dommel and Gender streams. The Gender was dammed short of the city centre in the 1950s, the city has a population of 223,220 in January 2015, making it the fifth-largest municipality of the Netherlands and the largest in the province of North Brabant. Neighbouring cities and towns include Asten, Son en Breugel, Nuenen, Geldrop-Mierlo, Heeze-Leende, Waalre, Veldhoven, Eersel, Oirschot, the agglomeration has a population of 337,487. The metropolitan area consists of 419,045 inhabitants, the city region has a population of 753,426. Also, Eindhoven is located in the Brabantse Stedenrij, a metropolitan area with about 2 million inhabitants. The name Eindhoven derives from the contraction of the regional words eind, toponymically, eind occurs commonly as a prefix and postfix in local place- and streetnames. A hove comprised a parcel of land which a local lord might lease to private persons, given that a string of such parcels existed around Woensel, the name Eindhoven may have originated with the meaning last hoves on the land of Woensel. The written history of Eindhoven started in 1232, when Duke Hendrik I of Brabant granted city rights to Endehoven, then a small town right on the confluence of the Dommel, at the time of granting of its charter, Eindhoven had approximately 170 houses enclosed by a rampart. Just outside the city stood a small castle. The city was granted the right to organize a weekly market. Another factor in its establishment was its location on the route from Holland to Liège. Around 1388, the fortifications were strengthened further. And between 1413 and 1420, a new castle was built within the city walls, in 1486, Eindhoven was plundered and burned by troops from Guelders. The reconstruction of Eindhoven was finished in 1502, with a stronger rampart, however, in 1543 it fell again, its defense works having been neglected due to poverty. A big fire in 1554 destroyed 75% of the houses but by 1560 these had been rebuilt with the help of William I of Orange, Eindhoven did not become part of the Netherlands until 1629. During the French occupation, Eindhoven suffered again with many of its houses destroyed by the invading forces, Eindhoven remained a minor city after that until the start of the industrial revolution. The industrial revolution of the 19th century provided a major growth impulse, canals, roads and railroads were constructed. Industrialization brought population growth to Eindhoven, at the establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, Eindhoven had 2,310 inhabitants
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. Bibcode:2004Sci...306..666N. doi:10.1126/science.1102896. PMID 15499015.
DOC (56.5 KB). University of Manchester. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
