1.
National Medal of Arts
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The National Medal of Arts is an award and title created by the United States Congress in 1984, for the purpose of honoring artists and patrons of the arts. A prestigious American honor, it is the highest honor given for achievement in the arts conferred to an individual artist on behalf of the people. Honorees are selected by the National Endowment for the Arts, the medal was designed for the NEA by sculptor Robert Graham. In 1989, composer and conductor, Leonard Bernstein refused his award, in 1997, poet Adrienne Rich refused her award as a protest against “inconsistencies” between art and “the cynical politics” of the Clinton White House administration. National Medal of Science National Medal of Technology and Innovation National Endowment for the Arts
2.
Chadds Ford Township, Pennsylvania
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Chadds Ford Township is a township in Delaware County, Pennsylvania, United States, about 25 miles southwest of the center of Philadelphia. As of the 2010 census, Chadds Ford Township had a population of 3,640, Chadds Ford was home to N. C. Wyeth, his son Andrew Wyeth, and grandson Jamie Wyeth, the Brandywine Battlefield is located in the township, along with the Brandywine River Museum, which houses much of the Wyeth collection. Weldon Brinton Heyburn, a U. S. senator from Idaho, was born in Chadds Ford, the township is the westernmost in Delaware County and is bordered to the west by Chester County and to the south by the state of Delaware. Brandywine Creek forms the boundary of the township. U. S. Route 1 runs through the part of the township. Routes 202 and 322 at Painters Crossroads on the eastern border. US1 leads southwest toward Maryland, while US202 leads south to Wilmington, Delaware, US202 and 322 together lead north to West Chester. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has an area of 8.7 square miles, of which 8.6 square miles is land and 0.1 square miles. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Chadds Ford Township has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. As of the census of 2000, there were 3,170 people,1,314 households, the population density was 364.2 people per square mile. There were 1,338 housing units at a density of 153. 7/sq mi. The racial makeup of the township was 95. 27% White,1. 07% African American,0. 06% Native American,2. 78% Asian,0. 47% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 42% of the population. 26. 1% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.93. In the township the population was out, with 21. 8% under the age of 18,5. 1% from 18 to 24,25. 8% from 25 to 44,33. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 44 years, for every 100 females there were 92.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.2 males, the median income for a household in the township was $84,100, and the median income for a family was $100,795. Males had an income of $79,650 versus $34,219 for females
3.
N. C. Wyeth
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Newell Convers Wyeth, known as N. C. Wyeth, was an American artist and illustrator and he was the pupil of artist Howard Pyle and became one of Americas greatest illustrators. During his lifetime, Wyeth created over 3,000 paintings and illustrated 112 books,25 of them for Scribners, the Scribner Classics, the first of these, Treasure Island, was one of his masterpieces and the proceeds paid for his studio. Wyeth was a realist painter just as the camera and photography began to compete with his craft, sometimes seen as melodramatic, his illustrations were designed to be understood quickly. Wyeth, who was both a painter and an illustrator, understood the difference, and said in 1908, Painting and he is notably the father of painter Andrew Wyeth and the grandfather of Jamie Wyeth, both celebrated American painters. Wyeth was born in Needham, Massachusetts, an ancestor, Nicholas Wyeth, a stonemason, came to Massachusetts from England in 1645. His maternal ancestors came from Switzerland, and during his childhood, his mother was acquainted with literary giants Henry David Thoreau and his literary appreciation and artistic talents appear to have come from her. He was the oldest of four brothers who spent much time hunting, fishing, and enjoying outdoor pursuits. His mother encouraged his early inclination toward art, Wyeth was doing excellent watercolor paintings by the age of twelve. When two of his friends were accepted to Howard Pyles School of Art in Wilmington, Delaware and Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania, Pyle was the father of American illustration, and Wyeth immediately meshed with his methods and ideals. Pyle stressed historical accuracy and tinged it with a romantic aura, but where Pyle painted in exquisite detail, Wyeth veered toward looser, quicker strokes and relied on ominous shadows and moody backgrounds. He probably picked up his technique from Pyle. Wyeths exuberant personality and talent made him a standout student, a robust, powerfully built young man with strangely delicate hands, he ate a lot less than his size implied. He admired great literature, music, and drama, and he enjoyed spirited conversation, a bucking bronco for the cover of The Saturday Evening Post on February 21,1903 was Wyeths first commission as an illustrator. That year he described his work as true, solid American subjects—nothing foreign about them and it was a spectacular accomplishment for the 20-year-old Wyeth, after just a few months under Pyles tutelage. In 1904, the magazine commissioned him to illustrate a Western story. In Colorado, he worked as a cowboy alongside the professional punchers, moving cattle and he visited the Navajo in Arizona and gained an understanding of Native American culture. When his money was stolen, he worked as a mail carrier and he wrote home, The life is wonderful, strange—the fascination of it clutches me like some unseen animal—it seems to whisper, Come back, you belong here, this is your real home
4.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
5.
Christina's World
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Christinas World is a 1948 painting by American painter Andrew Wyeth, and one of the best-known American paintings of the middle 20th century. It depicts a woman lying on the ground in a treeless, mostly tawny field, looking up at a house on the horizon. This tempera work, done in a realist style called magic realism, is currently on display at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, the woman in the painting is Anna Christina Olson. She is likely to have suffered from Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease, a genetic polyneuropathy, Wyeth was inspired to create the painting when he saw her crawling across a field while he was watching from a window in the house. Wyeth had a home in the area and was on friendly terms with Olson. Although Olson was the inspiration and subject of the painting, she was not the primary model—Wyeths wife Betsy posed as the torso of the painting, Olson was 55 at the time Wyeth created the work. The house depicted in the painting is known as the Olson House and it is open to the public and is operated by the Farnsworth Art Museum. It is a National Historic Landmark, and has restored to match its appearance in the painting. In the painting, Wyeth separated the house from its barn, Christinas World was first exhibited at the Macbeth Gallery in Manhattan in 1948. Although it received attention from critics at the time, the painting was quickly bought by Alfred Barr. Barr promoted the painting at MoMA and it grew in popularity over the years. Today, it is considered an icon of American art and is loaned out by the museum. Talk given by Richard Turnbull of the Museum of Modern Art on two paintings, Pavel Tchelitchews Hide-and-Seek to Andrew Wyeths Christinas World
6.
Regionalism (art)
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It arose in the 1930s as a response to the Great Depression, and ended in the 1940s due to the end of World War II and a lack of development within the movement. It reached its height of popularity from 1930 to 1935, as it was appreciated for its reassuring images of the American heartland during the Great Depression. Before World War II, the concept of Modernism was not clearly defined in the context of American art, there was also a struggle to define a uniquely American type of art. On the path to determining what American art would be, American artists rejected the modern trends emanating from the Armory Show, by rejecting European abstract styles, American artists chose to adopt academic realism, which depicted American urban and rural scenes. Partly due to the Great Depression, Regionalism became one of the dominant art movements in America in the 1930s the other being Social Realism. At the time, the United States was still an agricultural nation with a much smaller portion of its population living in industrial cities such as New York City or Chicago. American Scene Painting is a term for American Regionalism and Social Realism otherwise known as Urban Realism. Much of American Scene Painting conveys a sense of nationalism and romanticism in depictions of everyday American life and this sense of nationalism stemmed from artists rejection of modern art trends after World War I and the Armory Show. The works which stress local and small-town themes are often called American Regionalism, all three studied art in Paris, but devoted their lives to creating a truly American form of art. They believed that the solution to problems in American life. American painter from Anamosa, Iowa that was best known for his painting American Gothic and he also wrote a notable pamphlet titled Revolt Against the City, published in Iowa City,1935. In it he asserts that American artists and buyers of art were no longer looking to Parisian culture for subject matter, Wood wrote that Regional artists interpret physiography, industry, and psychology of their hometown, and that the competition of these preceding elements creates American culture. He wrote that the lure of the city was gone, and he cites Thomas Jeffersons characterization of cities as ulcers on the body politic. American painter, illustrator, and lithographer from Neosho, Missouri that became known for his murals. His subject matter focused on working-class America, while incorporating social criticism. He heavily denounced European modern art despite the fact that he was regarded as a modernist, when Regionalism lost its popularity in America, Benton got a job as a teacher at the Kansas City Art Institute, where he became a teacher and lifelong father figure for Jackson Pollock. Along with being a painter, he was a folk musician. American painter and illustrator from Dunavant, Kansas and he had a histrionic, anecdotal style, and believed that art should come from everyday life and that an artist should paint what they love
7.
Presidential Medal of Freedom
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The Presidential Medal of Freedom is an award bestowed by the President of the United States and is—along with the comparable Congressional Gold Medal—the highest civilian award of the United States. The award is not limited to U. S. citizens and, while it is an award, it can also be awarded to military personnel. It was established in 1963 by President John F. Kennedy, President John F. Kennedy established the current decoration in 1963 through Executive Order 11085, with unique and distinctive insignia, vastly expanded purpose, and far higher prestige. It was the first U. S. civilian neck decoration and, in the grade of Awarded With Distinction, is the only U. S. sash and star decoration. The Executive Order calls for the medal to be awarded annually on or around July 4, and at other convenient times as chosen by the president, Recipients are selected by the president, either on his own initiative or based on recommendations. The order establishing the medal also expanded the size and the responsibilities of the Distinguished Civilian Service Awards Board so it could serve as a source of such recommendations. The medal may be awarded to a more than once. It may also be awarded posthumously, examples include John F, golden American bald eagles with spread wings stand between the points of the star. It is worn around the neck on a ribbon with white edge stripes. When the medal With Distinction is awarded, the star may be presented descending from a neck ribbon, the sash and medal of the Presidential Medal of Freedom with distinction has never been worn in public since its inception. Andrew Presidential Medal of Freedom, an article from jfklibrary. org, Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipients, a list of recipients from May 5,1993, through August 19,2009, from senate. gov, the U. S. Senates official website. Hosted on georgewbush-whitehouse. archives. gov, a section of the U. S. National Archives, Medal of Freedom Ceremony, a news release, August 12,2009, from the White House Press Secretary at whitehouse. gov, the White Houses official website. War Figures Honored With Medal of Freedom, The New York Times, December 15,2004
8.
Realism (visual arts)
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Realism in the arts is the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods, and is in part a matter of technique and training. In the visual arts, illusionistic realism is the depiction of lifeforms, perspective. Realist works of art may emphasize the mundane, ugly or sordid, such as works of realism, regionalism. There have been various movements in the arts, such as the opera style of verismo, literary realism, theatrical realism. The realism art movement in painting began in France in the 1850s, the realist painters rejected Romanticism, which had come to dominate French literature and art, with roots in the late 18th century. Realism is the precise, detailed and accurate representation in art of the appearance of scenes. Realism in this sense is also called naturalism, mimesis or illusionism, realistic art was created in many periods, and it is in large part a matter of technique and training, and the avoidance of stylization. It becomes especially marked in European painting in the Early Netherlandish painting of Jan van Eyck, however such realism is often used to depict, for example, angels with wings, which were not things the artists had ever seen in real life. It is the choice and treatment of matter that defines Realism as a movement in painting. The development of increasingly accurate representation of the appearances of things has a long history in art. It includes elements such as the depiction of the anatomy of humans and animals, of perspective and effects of distance. Ancient Greek art is recognised as having made great progress in the representation of anatomy. Pliny the Elders famous story of birds pecking at grapes painted by Zeuxis in the 5th century BC may well be a legend, roman portraiture, when not under too much Greek influence, shows a greater commitment to a truthful depiction of its subjects. The art of Late Antiquity famously rejected illusionism for expressive force, scientific methods of representing perspective were developed in Italy and gradually spread across Europe, and accuracy in anatomy rediscovered under the influence of classical art. As in classical times, idealism remained the norm, intriguingly, having led the development of illusionic painting, still life was to be equally significant in its abandonment in Cubism. The depiction of ordinary, everyday subjects in art also has a history, though it was often squeezed into the edges of compositions. However these objects are at least largely there because they carry layers of complex significance, pieter Bruegel the Elder pioneered large panoramic scenes of peasant life
9.
Cushing, Maine
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Cushing is a town in Knox County, Maine, United States. The population was 1,534 at the 2010 census, a favorite of artists for its unspoiled natural setting, Cushing includes the villages of North Cushing, Cushing, South Cushing, and Pleasant Point. Part of the Waldo Patent, it was called the Lower Plantation of St. Georges and it was first permanently settled in 1733 with Scots and Irish immigrants recruited from Ireland by Brigadier-General Samuel Waldo, who offered 100 acres for each household. Attacks during the French and Indian Wars, however, deterred habitation, a stone blockhouse known as Burtons Fort was built in 1753 by its commander, Captain Benjamin Burton. Hostilities finally ceased in 1759 with the Fall of Quebec, on January 28,1789, the town was incorporated and named for Thomas Cushing, statesman and lieutenant governor of Massachusetts. On February 7,1803, the town of St. George was set off, the building is now operated by the Farnsworth Art Museum of Rockland. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 26.05 square miles. Cushing, which includes Gay Island, is situated on Muscongus Bay between the Meduncook River to the west and St. George River to the east, the town is served by Maine State Route 97. It borders Friendship to the west, Warren and Thomaston, Maine to the north, as of the census of 2010, there were 1,534 people,642 households, and 431 families residing in the town. The population density was 79.7 inhabitants per square mile, there were 926 housing units at an average density of 48.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 98. 8% White,0. 2% Native American,0. 1% Asian,0. 2% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 6% of the population. 25. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.83. The median age in the town was 44 years. 22. 9% of residents were under the age of 18,6. 4% were between the ages of 18 and 24,22. 3% were from 25 to 44,30. 9% were from 45 to 64, and 17. 5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 49. 2% male and 50. 8% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,322 people,541 households, and 383 families residing in the town. The population density was 68.1 people per square mile, there were 778 housing units at an average density of 40.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 99. 47% White,0. 08% Asian,0. 08% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 45% of the population. 28. 3% were of English,13. 5% American,9. 1% Irish,7. 9% German,5. 9% Finnish,5. 2% French and 5. 1% Scottish ancestry according to Census 2000
10.
Museum of Modern Art
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The Museum of Modern Art is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. MoMA has been important in developing and collecting modernist art, and is identified as one of the largest and most influential museums of modern art in the world. The MoMA Library includes approximately 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, over 1,000 periodical titles, the archives holds primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art. The idea for The Museum of Modern Art was developed in 1929 primarily by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller and they became known variously as the Ladies, the daring ladies and the adamantine ladies. They rented modest quarters for the new museum in the Heckscher Building at 730 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, and it opened to the public on November 7,1929, nine days after the Wall Street Crash. Abby had invited A. Conger Goodyear, the president of the board of trustees of the Albright Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York. At the time, it was Americas premier museum devoted exclusively to art. One of Abbys early recruits for the staff was the noted Japanese-American photographer Soichi Sunami. Goodyear enlisted Paul J. Sachs and Frank Crowninshield to join him as founding trustees, Sachs, the associate director and curator of prints and drawings at the Fogg Museum at Harvard University, was referred to in those days as a collector of curators. Goodyear asked him to recommend a director and Sachs suggested Alfred H. Barr, under Barrs guidance, the museums holdings quickly expanded from an initial gift of eight prints and one drawing. Its first successful exhibition was in November 1929, displaying paintings by Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne. Abbys husband was opposed to the museum and refused to release funds for the venture. Nevertheless, he donated the land for the current site of the museum, plus other gifts over time. During that time it initiated many more exhibitions of noted artists, the museum also gained international prominence with the hugely successful and now famous Picasso retrospective of 1939–40, held in conjunction with the Art Institute of Chicago. In its range of presented works, it represented a significant reinterpretation of Picasso for future art scholars, Boy Leading a Horse was briefly contested over ownership with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. In 1941, MoMA hosted the exhibition, Indian Art of the United States. His brother, David Rockefeller, also joined the board of trustees in 1948. David subsequently employed the noted architect Philip Johnson to redesign the garden and name it in honor of his mother
11.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
12.
N.C. Wyeth
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Newell Convers Wyeth, known as N. C. Wyeth, was an American artist and illustrator and he was the pupil of artist Howard Pyle and became one of Americas greatest illustrators. During his lifetime, Wyeth created over 3,000 paintings and illustrated 112 books,25 of them for Scribners, the Scribner Classics, the first of these, Treasure Island, was one of his masterpieces and the proceeds paid for his studio. Wyeth was a realist painter just as the camera and photography began to compete with his craft, sometimes seen as melodramatic, his illustrations were designed to be understood quickly. Wyeth, who was both a painter and an illustrator, understood the difference, and said in 1908, Painting and he is notably the father of painter Andrew Wyeth and the grandfather of Jamie Wyeth, both celebrated American painters. Wyeth was born in Needham, Massachusetts, an ancestor, Nicholas Wyeth, a stonemason, came to Massachusetts from England in 1645. His maternal ancestors came from Switzerland, and during his childhood, his mother was acquainted with literary giants Henry David Thoreau and his literary appreciation and artistic talents appear to have come from her. He was the oldest of four brothers who spent much time hunting, fishing, and enjoying outdoor pursuits. His mother encouraged his early inclination toward art, Wyeth was doing excellent watercolor paintings by the age of twelve. When two of his friends were accepted to Howard Pyles School of Art in Wilmington, Delaware and Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania, Pyle was the father of American illustration, and Wyeth immediately meshed with his methods and ideals. Pyle stressed historical accuracy and tinged it with a romantic aura, but where Pyle painted in exquisite detail, Wyeth veered toward looser, quicker strokes and relied on ominous shadows and moody backgrounds. He probably picked up his technique from Pyle. Wyeths exuberant personality and talent made him a standout student, a robust, powerfully built young man with strangely delicate hands, he ate a lot less than his size implied. He admired great literature, music, and drama, and he enjoyed spirited conversation, a bucking bronco for the cover of The Saturday Evening Post on February 21,1903 was Wyeths first commission as an illustrator. That year he described his work as true, solid American subjects—nothing foreign about them and it was a spectacular accomplishment for the 20-year-old Wyeth, after just a few months under Pyles tutelage. In 1904, the magazine commissioned him to illustrate a Western story. In Colorado, he worked as a cowboy alongside the professional punchers, moving cattle and he visited the Navajo in Arizona and gained an understanding of Native American culture. When his money was stolen, he worked as a mail carrier and he wrote home, The life is wonderful, strange—the fascination of it clutches me like some unseen animal—it seems to whisper, Come back, you belong here, this is your real home
13.
Henry David Thoreau
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Henry David Thoreau was an American essayist, poet, philosopher, abolitionist, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, and historian. Thoreaus books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry amount to more than 20 volumes and he was a lifelong abolitionist, delivering lectures that attacked the Fugitive Slave Law while praising the writings of Wendell Phillips and defending the abolitionist John Brown. Amos Bronson Alcott and Thoreaus aunt each wrote that Thoreau is pronounced like the word thorough, Edward Waldo Emerson wrote that the name should be pronounced Thó-row, with the h sounded and stress on the first syllable. Among modern-day American speakers, it is more commonly pronounced thə-ROH—/θəˈroʊ/—with stress on the second syllable. Thoreau was a man, with a nose that he called my most prominent feature. Of his appearance and disposition, Ellery Channing wrote, His face, once seen, Henry David Thoreau was born David Henry Thoreau in Concord, Massachusetts, into the modest New England family of John Thoreau, a pencil maker, and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather was born in Jersey and his maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, led Harvards 1766 student Butter Rebellion, the first recorded student protest in the American colonies. David Henry was named after his recently deceased uncle, David Thoreau. He began to call himself Henry David after he finished college and he had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr. and a younger sister, Sophia. Thoreaus birthplace still exists on Virginia Road in Concord, the house has been restored by the Thoreau Farm Trust, a nonprofit organization, and is now open to the public. He studied at Harvard College between 1833 and 1837 and he lived in Hollis Hall and took courses in rhetoric, classics, philosophy, mathematics, and science. He was a member of the Institute of 1770, according to legend, Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee for a Harvard diploma. He commented, Let every sheep keep its own skin, a reference to the tradition of using sheepskin vellum for diplomas, after he graduated in 1837, he joined the faculty of the Concord public school, but he resigned after a few weeks rather than administer corporal punishment. He and his brother John then opened the Concord Academy, a school in Concord in 1838. They introduced several concepts, including nature walks and visits to local shops. The school closed when John became fatally ill from tetanus in 1842 after cutting himself while shaving, upon graduation Thoreau returned home to Concord, where he met Ralph Waldo Emerson through a mutual friend. Emerson urged Thoreau to contribute essays and poems to a periodical, The Dial. Thoreaus first essay published in The Dial was Aulus Persius Flaccus and it consisted of revised passages from his journal, which he had begun keeping at Emersons suggestion
14.
Robert Frost
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Robert Lee Frost was an American poet. His work was published in England before it was published in America. He is highly regarded for his depictions of rural life. His work frequently employed settings from rural life in New England in the twentieth century. One of the most popular and critically respected American poets of the century, Frost was honored frequently during his lifetime. He became one of Americas rare public literary figures, almost an artistic institution and he was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 1960 for his poetic works. On July 22,1961, Frost was named laureate of Vermont. Robert Frost was born in San Francisco, California, to journalist William Prescott Frost, Jr. and his mother was a Scottish immigrant, and his father descended from Nicholas Frost of Tiverton, Devon, England, who had sailed to New Hampshire in 1634 on the Wolfrana. Frosts father was a teacher and later an editor of the San Francisco Evening Bulletin, and an unsuccessful candidate for city tax collector. After his death on May 5,1885, the family moved across the country to Lawrence, Massachusetts, under the patronage of William Frost, Frost graduated from Lawrence High School in 1892. Frosts mother joined the Swedenborgian church and had him baptized in it, although known for his later association with rural life, Frost grew up in the city, and he published his first poem in his high schools magazine. He attended Dartmouth College for two months, long enough to be accepted into the Theta Delta Chi fraternity. Frost returned home to teach and to work at various jobs, including helping his mother teach her class of boys, delivering newspapers. He did not enjoy these jobs, feeling his true calling was poetry, in 1894, he sold his first poem, My Butterfly. Proud of his accomplishment, he proposed marriage to Elinor Miriam White, Frost then went on an excursion to the Great Dismal Swamp in Virginia and asked Elinor again upon his return. Having graduated, she agreed, and they were married at Lawrence, Frost attended Harvard University from 1897 to 1899, but he left voluntarily due to illness. In 1912, Frost sailed with his family to Great Britain, settling first in Beaconsfield and his first book of poetry, A Boys Will, was published the next year. In England he made important acquaintances, including Edward Thomas, T. E. Hulme
15.
King Vidor
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King Wallis Vidor was an American film director, film producer, and screenwriter whose career spanned nearly seven decades. In 1979, he was awarded an Honorary Academy Award for his achievements as a cinematic creator and innovator. He was nominated five times for a Best Director Oscar, Vidors best known films include The Big Parade, The Crowd, Stella Dallas, and Duel in the Sun. Vidor was born in Galveston, Texas, where he survived the great Galveston Hurricane of 1900, based on that experience, he published a fictionalized account of that cyclone, titled Southern Storm, for the May 1935 issue of Esquire magazine. Erik Larson excerpts a passage from that article in his 2005 book, Isaacs Storm, as we stood there in the sandy street, my mother and I, I wanted to take my mothers hand and hurry her away. I felt as if the sea was going to break over the edge of the bowl and his grandfather, Károly Vidor, was a refugee of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, who settled in Galveston in the early 1850s. A freelance newsreel cameraman and cinema projectionist, Vidor made his debut as a director in 1913 with The Grand Military Parade, a successful mounting of Peg o My Heart in 1922 won him a long-term contract with Goldwyn Studios. Three years later he made The Big Parade, among the most acclaimed war films of the silent era, and this success established him as one of MGMs top studio directors for the next decade. In 1928, Vidor received his first Oscar nomination, for The Crowd, widely regarded as his masterpiece, Vidors first sound film was Hallelujah. A groundbreaking film featuring an African-American cast and he had no difficulty adjusting to sound and he continued making feature films until the late 1950s. Some of his better known films include Stella Dallas, Our Daily Bread, The Citadel, Duel in the Sun, The Fountainhead. He directed the Kansas sequences in The Wizard of Oz when director Victor Fleming had to replace George Cukor on Gone with the Wind, in 1962 he was head of the jury at the 12th Berlin International Film Festival. In 1969 he was a member of the jury at the 6th Moscow International Film Festival and he was nominated five times for an Oscar but never won in direct competition, he received an honorary award in 1979. In 1967, Vidor researched the unsolved 1922 murder of fellow director William Desmond Taylor for a possible screenplay, Vidor never published or wrote of this research during his lifetime, but biographer Sidney D. Kirkpatrick posthumously examined Vidors notes. He alleged in his 1986 book A Cast of Killers that Vidor had solved the sensational crime, in 1944, Vidor joined the anti-communist Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals. Vidor published his autobiography, A Tree is a Tree, in 1953 and this books title is inspired by an incident early in Vidors Hollywood career. Vidor wanted to film a movie in the locations where its story was set, a budget-minded producer told him, A rock is a rock. King Vidor was a Christian Scientist and wrote occasionally for church publications, such as The Bible and his remains were cremated and scattered on the ranch property
16.
The Big Parade
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The Big Parade is a 1925 American silent film directed by King Vidor and starring John Gilbert, Renée Adorée, Hobart Bosworth, and Claire McDowell. Adapted by Harry Behn from the play by Joseph W, although other anti-war films chronologically preceded it, The Big Parade is nevertheless an early film to have neither glorified the war nor ignored its human costs. It heavily influenced a great many subsequent war films, especially All Quiet on the Western Front, in the United States in 1917, James Jim Appersons idleness incurs the great displeasure of his wealthy businessman father. Then America enters World War I, Jim informs his worried mother that he has no intention of enlisting, and his father threatens to kick him out of the house if he does not join. However, when he runs into his friends at a send-off parade, he is persuaded to enlist. During training, Jim makes friendships with construction worker Slim and bartender Bull and their unit ships out to France, where they are billeted at a farm in the village of Champillon in the Marne. All three men are attracted to Melisande, whose mother owns the farm and she repulses all their advances, but gradually warms to Jim. They fall in love, despite not being able to each others language. One day, however, Jim receives a letter and a photograph from Justyn, when Melisande sees the picture, she realizes the situation and runs off in tears. Before Jim can decide what to do, his unit is ordered to the front, Melisande hears the commotion and races back, just in time for the lovers to embrace and kiss. The Americans march towards the front and are strafed by a fighter before it is shot down. The unit is sent to the immediately, advancing against snipers and machine guns in the woods, then more machine guns, artillery. They settle down in a makeshift line, Jim shelters in a shellhole with Slim and Bull. That night, orders come down for one man to go out and eliminate a troublesome mortar crew and he succeeds, but is spotted and wounded on the way back. After listening to Slims pleas for help, Jim cannot stand it any longer, Bull follows, but is shot and killed. By the time Jim reaches Slim, he is already dead, Jim is then shot in the leg. When a German comes to him off, Jim shoots. The German starts crawling back to his line, Jim catches up to him in another shellhole, but, face to face, cannot bring himself to finish him off with his bayonet
17.
Robin Hood
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Robin Hood is a heroic outlaw in English folklore who, according to legend, was a highly skilled archer and swordsman. Traditionally depicted as being dressed in Lincoln green, he is portrayed as robbing from the rich. Robin Hood became a folk figure in the late-medieval period. Little John, Much the Millers Son and Will Scarlet all appear and this view first gained currency in the 16th century. It is not supported by the earliest ballads, the early compilation, A Gest of Robyn Hode, names the king as Edward, and while it does show Robin Hood accepting the Kings pardon, he later repudiates it and returns to the greenwood. The oldest surviving ballad, Robin Hood and the Monk, gives even less support to the picture of Robin Hood as a partisan of the true king. The setting of the early ballads is usually attributed by scholars to either the 13th century or the 14th, the early ballads are also quite clear on Robin Hoods social status, he is a yeoman. While the precise meaning of this changed over time, including free retainers of an aristocrat and small landholders. The essence of it in the present context was neither a knight nor a peasant or husbonde, artisans were among those regarded as yeomen in the 14th century. As well as ballads, the legend was also transmitted by Robin Hood games or plays that were an important part of the late medieval and early modern May Day festivities. The first record of a Robin Hood game was in 1426 in Exeter, the Robin Hood games are known to have flourished in the later 15th and 16th centuries. It is commonly stated as fact that Maid Marian and a jolly friar entered the legend through the May Games, the earliest surviving text of a Robin Hood ballad is the 15th century Robin Hood and the Monk. This is preserved in Cambridge University manuscript Ff.5.48, written after 1450, it contains many of the elements still associated with the legend, from the Nottingham setting to the bitter enmity between Robin and the local sheriff. The first printed version is A Gest of Robyn Hode, a collection of stories that attempts to unite the episodes into a single continuous narrative. After this comes Robin Hood and the Potter, contained in a manuscript of c, the Potter is markedly different in tone from The Monk, whereas the earlier tale is a thriller the latter is more comic, its plot involving trickery and cunning rather than straightforward force. Other early texts are dramatic pieces, the earliest being the fragmentary Robyn Hod, each of these three ballads survived in a single copy, so it is unclear how much of the medieval legend has survived, and what has survived may not be typical of the medieval legend. The story of Robins aid to the knight that takes up much of the Gest may be an example. The character of Robin in these first texts is rougher edged than in his later incarnations, of my good he shall haue some, Yf he be a por man
18.
Sherwood Forest
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Sherwood Forest is a royal forest in Nottinghamshire, England, famous by its historic association with the legend of Robin Hood. The area has been wooded since the end of the Ice Age, today, Sherwood Forest National Nature Reserve encompasses 423.2 hectares,1,045 acres, surrounding the village of Edwinstowe, the site of Thoresby Hall. The forest that most people associate with Sherwood Forest is actually named Birklands, when the Domesday Book was compiled in 1086, the forest covered perhaps a quarter of Nottinghamshire in woodland and heath subject to the forest laws. The Sherwood Forest Trust is a charity that covers the ancient royal boundary. Its aims are based on conservation, heritage and communities, but also include tourism, Nottinghamshire County Council and The Forestry Commission manage jointly the ancient remnant of forest north of the village of Edwinstowe, providing walks, trails and a host of other activities. This central core of ancient Sherwood is a SSSI, NNR and it is a very important site for ancient oaks, wood pasture, invertebrates and fungi, as well as being linked to the legends of Robin Hood. Part of the forest was opened as a park to the public in 1969 by Nottinghamshire County Council. In 2002, a portion of Sherwood Forest was designated a National Nature Reserve by English Nature, the River Idle, a tributary of the Trent, is formed in Sherwood Forest from the confluence of several minor streams. Sherwood attracts between 360,000 and 1 million tourists annually, many other countries. Visitor numbers have increased significantly since the launch of the BBCs Robin Hood television series in 2006, each August the nature reserve hosts an annual, week-long Robin Hood Festival. This event recreates a medieval atmosphere and features the characters from the Robin Hood legend. Throughout the year, visitors are attracted to the Sherwood Forest Art and Craft Centre, the centre contains art studios and a cafe, and hosts special events, including craft demonstrations and exhibitions. Sherwood Forest is home to the famous Major Oak, which, the oak tree is between 800 and 1,000 years old and, since the Victorian era, its massive limbs have been partially supported by an elaborate system of scaffolding. The Major Oak was featured on the 2005 BBC TV programme Seven Natural Wonders as one of the wonders of the Midlands. Experts believe it may yield clues as to the boundary of the ancient Anglo Saxon kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria. English Heritage have recently inspected the site, and have confirmed it was known as Thynghowe in 1334 and 1609, the current location of the Sherwood Forest Visitor Centre must be moved due to the classification of the area as a Special Area of Conservation. SACs are strictly protected sites designated under the EC Habitats Directive, the listed habitat types and species are those considered to be most in need of conservation at a European level. Of the Annex I habitat types,78 are believed to occur in the UK, of the Annex II species,43 are native to, and normally resident in, the UK
19.
F. Scott Fitzgerald
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Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald, known professionally as F. Scott Fitzgerald, was an American novelist and short story writer, whose works illustrate the Jazz Age. While he achieved limited success in his lifetime, he is now regarded as one of the greatest American writers of the 20th century. Fitzgerald is considered a member of the Lost Generation of the 1920s and he finished four novels, This Side of Paradise, The Beautiful and Damned, The Great Gatsby, and Tender Is the Night. A fifth, unfinished novel, The Last Tycoon, was published posthumously, Fitzgerald also wrote numerous short stories, many of which treat themes of youth and promise, and age and despair. He was also named after his sister, Louise Scott Fitzgerald. Well, three months before I was born, he wrote as an adult, my mother lost her two children. I think I started then to be a writer and his mother was Mary Molly McQuillan Fitzgerald, the daughter of an Irish immigrant who had made his fortune in the wholesale grocery business. Fitzgerald was the first cousin once removed of Mary Surratt, hanged in 1865 for conspiring to assassinate Abraham Lincoln, Edward Fitzgerald had earlier worked as a wicker furniture salesman, he joined Procter & Gamble when the business failed. His parents, both Catholic, sent Fitzgerald to two Catholic schools on the West Side of Buffalo, first Holy Angels Convent and then Nardin Academy and his formative years in Buffalo revealed him to be a boy of unusual intelligence with a keen early interest in literature. His doting mother ensured that her son had all the advantages of an upper-middle-class upbringing and her inheritance and donations from an aunt allowed the family to live a comfortable lifestyle. In a rather unconventional style of parenting, Fitzgerald attended Holy Angels with the arrangement that he go for only half a day—and was allowed to choose which half. In 1908, his father was fired from Procter & Gamble, and the returned to Minnesota. When he was 13, he saw his first piece of writing appear in print—a detective story published in the school newspaper. In 1911, when Fitzgerald was 15 years old, his parents sent him to the Newman School, Fitzgerald played on the 1912 Newman football team. At Newman, he met Father Sigourney Fay, who noticed his incipient talent with the written word, after graduating from the Newman School in 1913, Fitzgerald decided to stay in New Jersey to continue his artistic development at Princeton University. He tried out for the football team, but was cut the first day of practice. He firmly dedicated himself at Princeton to honing his craft as a writer and he wrote for the Princeton Triangle Club, the Nassau Lit, and the Princeton Tiger. He also was involved in the American Whig-Cliosophic Society, which ran the Nassau Lit and his absorption in the Triangle—a kind of musical-comedy society—led to his submission of a novel to Charles Scribners Sons where the editor praised the writing but ultimately rejected the book
20.
Mary Pickford
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Gladys Louise Smith, known professionally as Mary Pickford, was a Canadian-American film actress, writer, director, and producer. She was a co-founder of the film studio United Artists and one of the original 36 founders of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Known in her prime as Americas Sweetheart and the girl with the curls, Pickford was one of the Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood and a significant figure in the development of film acting. Pickford was one of the earliest stars to be billed under her name and she was awarded the second ever Academy Award for Best Actress for her first sound film role in Coquette and also received an honorary Academy Award in 1976. In consideration of her contributions to American cinema, the American Film Institute ranked Pickford as 24th in its 1999 list of greatest female stars of classic Hollywood Cinema, Mary Pickford was born Gladys Louise Smith in 1892 at 211 University Avenue, A Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Her father, John Charles Smith, was the son of English Methodist immigrants and her mother, Charlotte Hennessey, was of Irish Catholic descent and worked for a time as a seamstress. She had two siblings, Charlotte, called Lottie, and John Charles, called Jack, who also became actors. To please her husbands relatives, Pickfords mother baptized her children as Methodists, John Charles Smith was an alcoholic, he abandoned the family and died on February 11,1898, from a fatal blood clot caused by a workplace accident when he was a purser with Niagara Steamship. When Gladys was age four, her household was under infectious quarantine and their devoutly Catholic maternal grandmother asked a visiting Roman Catholic priest to baptize the children. Pickford was at this time baptized as Gladys Marie Smith, Charlotte Smith began taking in boarders after being widowed. One of these was a stage manager. At his suggestion, Gladys was given two roles, one as a boy and the other as a girl, in a stock company production of The Silver King at Torontos Princess Theatre. She subsequently acted in many melodramas with Torontos Valentine Company, finally playing the child role in their version of The Silver King. By the early 1900s, theatre had become a family enterprise, Gladys, her mother and two younger siblings toured the United States by rail, performing in third-rate companies and plays. After six impoverished years, Pickford allowed one more summer to land a role on Broadway. In 1906 Gladys, Lottie and Jack Smith supported singer Chauncey Olcott on Broadway in Edmund Burke, Gladys finally landed a supporting role in a 1907 Broadway play, The Warrens of Virginia. The play was written by William C. deMille, whose brother, Cecil, David Belasco, the producer of the play, insisted that Gladys Smith assume the stage name Mary Pickford. After completing the Broadway run and touring the play, however, on April 19,1909, the Biograph Company director D. W. Griffith screen-tested her at the companys New York studio for a role in the nickelodeon film, Pippa Passes
21.
Henriette Wyeth
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Henriette Wyeth Hurd was an American artist noted for her portraits and still life paintings. She was born in Wilmington, Delaware, into an artistic family and she was the eldest of the five children of illustrator N. C. Wyeth and his wife Carolyn Bockius and her siblings Carolyn Wyeth and Andrew Wyeth also became artists, with Andrew Wyeth becoming the most consistently well-known artist of this creeative family. Henriette contracted polio at age 3, which altered her health, as a result, she learned to draw with her left hand and paint with her right. She grew up on the farm in Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania. She began studying with her father at age 11, a child prodigy, at age 13 she was enrolled in the Normal Arts School in Boston, Massachusetts. She subsequently studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, by age 16, she was well known as a portraitist. Wyeth met her husband, artist Peter Hurd, while he was working as an assistant to her father, the couple married in 1929, and had three children, Peter Jr. Carolyn and Michael Hurd. In 1938, they established the Sentinel Ranch in San Patricio, in southern New Mexico near Roswell, New Mexico. Wyeths father was not happy about the move because, as she stated in a 1989 interview, “He felt I should not let marriage interfere with my painting. ”Henriette Wyeth, however, did continue to paint for the rest of her life, until health problems prevented her from doing so. Wyeth’s work spanned portraiture of adults and children, still lifes, in her work, she often included objects that related to the subjects interest or personality. She eventually stopped painting children because, as she said, “todays children--they are so deadpan and she felt that modern society had “blunted” children. This cynicism extended to television and feminism, both of which she criticized and her most widely known work is the official White House portrait of First Lady Pat Nixon. She exhibited at the Pennsylvania Academy, where she was awarded the 1937 Mary Smith Prize for a portrait of her son Peter. She received other awards for her work, including the Governors Award in Santa Fe, New Mexico, much of her work is located at The Roswell Museum and Art Center, in Roswell, New Mexico. And at the Hurd La Rinconada Gallery in San Patricio, NM and her papers, and those of her husband, are in the Archives of American Art at the Smithsonian Institution. Henriette died in her Roswell, New Mexico home-studio from complications from pneumonia in April 1997. According to her biography on the Wyeth Hurd Gallery website, she was “considered by many art scholars to be one of the great painters of the 20th century. ”One of her well known quotes sums up her philosophy well, I dont know what is important and what is unimportant
22.
Still life
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A still life is a work of art depicting mostly inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made. Still life gives the artist more freedom in the arrangement of elements within a composition than do paintings of other types of such as landscape or portraiture. Early still-life paintings, particularly before 1700, often contained religious, some modern still life breaks the two-dimensional barrier and employs three-dimensional mixed media, and uses found objects, photography, computer graphics, as well as video and sound. Still life emerged from the painting of details in larger compositions with subjects, the term includes the painting of dead animals, especially game. Live ones are considered art, although in practice they were often painted from dead models. The still-life category also shares commonalities with zoological and especially botanical illustration, generally a still life includes a fully depicted background, and puts aesthetic rather than illustrative concerns as primary. Still life occupied the lowest rung of the hierarchy of genres, the trompe-lœil painting, which intends to deceive the viewer into thinking the scene is real, is a specialized type of still life, usually showing inanimate and relatively flat objects. Still-life paintings often adorn the interior of ancient Egyptian tombs and it was believed that food objects and other items depicted there would, in the afterlife, become real and available for use by the deceased. Ancient Greek vase paintings also demonstrate great skill in depicting everyday objects, by the 16th century, food and flowers would again appear as symbols of the seasons and of the five senses. Also starting in Roman times is the tradition of the use of the skull in paintings as a symbol of mortality and earthly remains and these vanitas images have been re-interpreted through the last 400 years of art history, starting with Dutch painters around 1600. As Pliny the Elder recorded in ancient Roman times, Greek artists centuries earlier were already advanced in the arts of painting, genre painting. He singled out Peiraikos, whose artistry is surpassed by only a very few, by 1300, starting with Giotto and his pupils, still-life painting was revived in the form of fictional niches on religious wall paintings which depicted everyday objects. Through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, still life in Western art remained primarily an adjunct to Christian religious subjects, painters like Jan van Eyck often used still-life elements as part of an iconographic program. Petrus Christus’ portrait of a bride and groom visiting a goldsmith is an example of a transitional still life depicting both religious and secular content. Another similar type of painting is the family portrait combining figures with a table of food. Around this time, simple still-life depictions divorced of figures were beginning to be painted on the outside of shutters of private devotional paintings, another step toward the autonomous still life was the painting of symbolic flowers in vases on the back of secular portraits around 1475. This was a development by Pieter Aertsen, whose A Meat Stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms introduced the type with a painting that still startles. A small religious scene can often be out in the distance
23.
Nathaniel Wyeth (inventor)
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Wyeth was an American mechanical engineer and inventor. He is best known for creating polyethylene terephthalate that could withstand the pressure of carbonated liquids, made of recyclable PET plastic, lighter than glass and virtually unbreakable, Wyeths invention is used widely today for both carbonated and non-carbonated drinks. Born in Asgard near Chadds Ford, he displayed an engineering talent throughout his youth, Wyeth held a bachelors degree in mechanical engineering from the University of Pennsylvania. He married Caroline Pyle in 1937, biographer David Michaelis found less evidence than some local residents who were inclined to think Caroline and Wyeths father, N. C. Caroline died in 1973 and later Wyeth married Jean Grady in 1984, Wyeth and Caroline had five sons, Howard, N. Convers III, Andrew, John, and David, and one daughter, Melinda, who died very young. A sixth son, Newell, died in 1945 with N. C, Wyeth, when their car stalled on a railroad crossing near their home and they were struck by a milk train. Wyeth is also known as the brother of painters Andrew Wyeth, Carolyn Wyeth, and Henriette Wyeth Hurd, the father of musician Howard Wyeth, Wyeth often called himself the other Wyeth because N. C. and Andrew Wyeth were so well known. Nathaniel Wyeth joined DuPont in 1936 as a field engineer, by 1963 he was the companys first engineering fellow and when he retired in 1976, was DuPonts first senior engineering fellow, the companys highest technical position. In 1967, he pondered whether soda could be stored in plastic bottles, after experimenting with a plastic detergent bottle that proved incapable of withstanding the forces of pressurized liquids, he realized that a much stronger material would be required. He initially experimented with polypropylene, but ultimately settled on polyethylene terephthalate as the material, Wyeth received the 1981 Society of Plastics Engineers international award for outstanding achievement, and was inducted into the Society of the Plastics Industry Hall of Fame in 1986. He was a fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Wyeth was the first person ever named senior engineering fellow at DuPont, the companys highest technical position. Nathaniel invented or co-invented twenty-five products, in 1990, Wyeth was award DuPonts Lavoisier Award for Technical Achievement. Wyeths other innovations included improvements to manufacturing process, plastics, textiles, electronics, MIT Inventor of the Week, Aug.1998 The New York Times. Wyeth, Inventor, Dies at 78, Developed the Plastic Soda Bottle, US Patent 3733309 Biaxially Oriented Poly Bottle, via Google. com. Wyeth at the Plastics Academy Hall of Fame, Wyeth at the Polymer Processing Hall of Fame
24.
Tempera
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Tempera, also known as egg tempera, is a permanent, fast-drying painting medium consisting of colored pigments mixed with a water-soluble binder medium. Tempera also refers to the paintings done in this medium, Tempera paintings are very long lasting, and examples from the 1st centuries AD still exist. Egg tempera was a method of painting until after 1500 when it was superseded by the invention of oil painting. Tempera painting has been found on early Egyptian sarcophagi decorations, many of the Fayum mummy portraits use tempera, sometimes in combination with encaustic. A related technique has been used also in ancient and early medieval paintings found in several caves, high-quality art with the help of tempera was created in Bagh Caves between the late 4th and 10th centuries AD and in the 7th century AD in Ravan Chhaya rock shelter, Orissa. Tempera painting was the panel painting medium for nearly every painter in the European Medieval. For example, every surviving panel painting by Michelangelo is egg tempera, oil paint, which may have originated in Afghanistan between the 5th and 9th centuries and migrated westward in the Middle Ages eventually superseded tempera. Oil replaced tempera as the medium used for creating artwork during the 15th century in Early Netherlandish painting in northern Europe. Around 1500, oil paint replaced tempera in Italy, in the 19th and 20th centuries, there were intermittent revivals of tempera technique in Western art, among the Pre-Raphaelites, Social Realists, and others. Tempera painting continues to be used in Greece and Russia where it is the medium for Orthodox icons. Tempera is traditionally created by hand-grinding dry powdered pigments into an agent or medium, such as egg, glue, honey, water, milk. Tempera painting starts with placing an amount of the powdered pigment onto a palette, dish or bowl and adding about an equal volume of the binder. Some pigments require slightly more binder, some require less, a few drops of distilled water are added, then the binder is added in small increments to the desired transparency. The more egg emulsion, the more transparent the paint, the most common form of classical tempera painting is egg tempera. For this form most often only the contents of the egg yolk is used, the white of the egg and the membrane of the yolk are discarded. Egg yolk is never used by itself with pigment, it dries almost immediately, some agent is always added, in variable proportions. One recipe calls for vinegar, other recipes suggest white wine, some schools of egg tempera use various mixtures of egg yolk and water. The paint mixture has to be adjusted to maintain a balance between a greasy and watery consistency by adjusting the amount of water and yolk
25.
Peter Hurd
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Peter Hurd was an American painter who lived and worked in San Patricio, New Mexico. He is equally acclaimed for his landscapes and his portraits. He studied under the famous illustrator NC Wyeth and was married to Wyeth’s eldest daughter, Henriette Wyeth, Peter originally attended military school before he realized he loved painting and wanted to pursue it professionally. He attended the New Mexico Military academy in Roswell and was half way through West Point when he changed course to follow his true calling, after graduating from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, he became a private pupil of N. C. Hurd worked alongside Wyeth’s own children, Andrew and Henriette, who were studying under their father. Hurd worked as Wyeths assistant at Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania, for a number of years, in 1929, he married Henriette Wyeth. They would have three children, Peter, Carol, and Michael Hurd, in the mid-30’s the Hurds moved to San Patricio, New Mexico, settling on 40 acres that would grow into the 2200 acre Sentinel Ranch. The ranch and its surrounds provided endless material for their work, Henriette focused on floral studies, oil portraits and still life paintings. Peter worked at capturing the landscape and the people who lived within it and his large egg tempera paintings of the local landscape earned him national recognition, and were published in Life magazine. Later, during WW2, Life magazine sent Peter Hurd all over the world as a correspondent with the US Air Force. He covered almost all the fronts of the battle line. Hurd’s years with the Air Force had an effect on his artistic work. He had always been a careful and precise worker when he worked in tempera and he also began using watercolor, which he soon mastered. When he returned to painting the New Mexico landscapes, his work was characterized by a new freedom and looseness, some of Peter Hurd’s most well-known portraits were of his neighbors, family and friends at Sentinel Ranch. He loved to paint people who were connected to the land. He wrote, “the ones I like best to paint are those whose lives are spend under the sky, Men whose clothing, skin and his Portrait of Jose shows the foreman of Sentinel Ranch amid the ridges of the land he cared for. In what is perhaps Hurd’s hallmark work, Eve of St. John, from 1953 to 1954, Hurd and his assistants painted a fresco mural in the rotunda of what was then the West Texas Museum at Texas Technological College in Lubbock. Hurd painted about one fresco per week over a period, with depictions of pioneers
26.
Renaissance
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The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
27.
Winslow Homer
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Winslow Homer was an American landscape painter and printmaker, best known for his marine subjects. He is considered one of the foremost painters in 19th-century America, largely self-taught, Homer began his career working as a commercial illustrator. He subsequently took up oil painting and produced major studio works characterized by the weight and he also worked extensively in watercolor, creating a fluid and prolific oeuvre, primarily chronicling his working vacations. Born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1836, Homer was the second of three sons of Charles Savage Homer and Henrietta Benson Homer, both from long lines of New Englanders and his mother was a gifted amateur watercolorist and Homers first teacher. She and her son had a relationship throughout their lives. Homer took on many of her traits, including her quiet, strong-willed, terse, sociable nature, her dry sense of humor, Homer had a happy childhood, growing up mostly in then rural Cambridge, Massachusetts. He was a student, but his art talent was evident in his early years. Homers father was a volatile, restless businessman who was looking to make a killing. When Homer was thirteen, Charles gave up the store business to seek a fortune in the California gold rush. When that failed, Charles left his family and went to Europe to raise capital for other schemes that didnt materialize. After Homers high school graduation, his father saw a newspaper advertisement, Homers apprenticeship at the age of 19 to J. H. Bufford, a Boston commercial lithographer, was a formative but treadmill experience. He worked repetitively on sheet music covers and other work for two years. By 1857, his career was underway after he turned down an offer to join the staff of Harpers Weekly. From the time I took my nose off that lithographic stone, Homer later stated, I have had no master, Homers career as an illustrator lasted nearly twenty years. His quick success was due to this strong understanding of graphic design. Before moving to New York in 1859, Homer lived in Belmont and his uncles Belmont mansion, the 1853 Homer House, was the inspiration for a number of his early illustrations and paintings, including several of his 1860s croquet pictures. The Homer House, owned by the Belmont Womans Club, is open for public tours, in 1859, he opened a studio in the Tenth Street Studio Building in New York City, the artistic and publishing capital of the United States. Until 1863, he attended classes at the National Academy of Design, and studied briefly with Frédéric Rondel, in only about a year of self-training, Homer was producing excellent oil work
28.
Goethe
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer and statesman. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters and he was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. He also contributed to the planning of Weimars botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace and his first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published after he returned from a 1788 tour of Italy. During this period, Goethe published his novel, Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship, the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808. Goethes comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, Goethes father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house in Frankfurt, then an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, Johann Caspar married Goethes mother, Catharina Elizabeth Textor at Frankfurt on 20 August 1748, when he was 38 and she was 17. All their children, with the exception of Johann Wolfgang and his sister, Cornelia Friederica Christiana and his father and private tutors gave Goethe lessons in all the common subjects of their time, especially languages. Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding and fencing, Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not. Although Goethes great passion was drawing, he became interested in literature, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. He also took pleasure in reading works on history and religion. He writes about this period, Goethe became also acquainted with Frankfurt actors, among early literary attempts, he was infatuated with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit. He adored Caritas Meixner, a wealthy Worms traders daughter and friend of his sister, Goethe studied law at Leipzig University from 1765 to 1768. He detested learning age-old judicial rules by heart, preferring instead to attend the lessons of Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. In Leipzig, Goethe fell in love with Anna Katharina Schönkopf, in 1770, he anonymously released Annette, his first collection of poems. His uncritical admiration for many contemporary poets vanished as he became interested in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, already at this time, Goethe wrote a good deal, but he threw away nearly all of these works, except for the comedy Die Mitschuldigen. The restaurant Auerbachs Keller and its legend of Fausts 1525 barrel ride impressed him so much that Auerbachs Keller became the real place in his closet drama Faust Part One. As his studies did not progress, Goethe was forced to return to Frankfurt at the close of August 1768, Goethe became severely ill in Frankfurt. During the year and a half that followed, because of several relapses, during convalescence, Goethe was nursed by his mother and sister
29.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
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Ralph Waldo Emerson was an American essayist, lecturer, and poet who led the transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. Emerson gradually moved away from the religious and social beliefs of his contemporaries, following this work, he gave a speech entitled The American Scholar in 1837, which Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. considered to be Americas intellectual Declaration of Independence. Emerson wrote most of his important essays as lectures first and then revised them for print and his first two collections of essays, Essays, First Series and Essays, Second Series, represent the core of his thinking. They include the well-known essays Self-Reliance, The Over-Soul, Circles, The Poet, together with Nature, these essays made the decade from the mid-1830s to the mid-1840s Emersons most fertile period. Emersons nature was more philosophical than naturalistic, Philosophically considered, the universe is composed of Nature, Emerson is one of several figures who took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world. He remains among the linchpins of the American romantic movement, and his work has influenced the thinkers, writers. When asked to sum up his work, he said his doctrine was the infinitude of the private man. Emerson is also known as a mentor and friend of Henry David Thoreau. Emerson was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on May 25,1803, a son of Ruth Haskins and the Rev. William Emerson and he was named after his mothers brother Ralph and his fathers great-grandmother Rebecca Waldo. Ralph Waldo was the second of five sons who survived adulthood, the others were William, Edward, Robert Bulkeley. Three other children—Phebe, John Clarke, and Mary Caroline—died in childhood, Emerson was entirely of English ancestry, and his family had been in New England since the early colonial period. Emersons father died from cancer on May 12,1811. Emerson was raised by his mother, with the help of the women in the family. She lived with the family off and on and maintained a constant correspondence with Emerson until her death in 1863, Emersons formal schooling began at the Boston Latin School in 1812, when he was nine. In October 1817, at 14, Emerson went to Harvard College and was appointed freshman messenger for the president, requiring Emerson to fetch delinquent students and send messages to faculty. Midway through his year, Emerson began keeping a list of books he had read. He took outside jobs to cover his expenses, including as a waiter for the Junior Commons and as an occasional teacher working with his uncle Samuel in Waltham. By his senior year, Emerson decided to go by his middle name, Emerson served as Class Poet, as was custom, he presented an original poem on Harvards Class Day, a month before his official graduation on August 29,1821, when he was 18
30.
Tolstoy
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Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy, usually referred to in English as Leo Tolstoy, was a Russian writer who is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time. Born to an aristocratic Russian family in 1828, he is best known for the novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina, often cited as pinnacles of realist fiction. He first achieved acclaim in his twenties with his semi-autobiographical trilogy, Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth. Tolstoys fiction includes dozens of stories and several novellas such as The Death of Ivan Ilyich, Family Happiness. He also wrote plays and numerous philosophical essays, in the 1870s Tolstoy experienced a profound moral crisis, followed by what he regarded as an equally profound spiritual awakening, as outlined in his non-fiction work A Confession. His literal interpretation of the teachings of Jesus, centering on the Sermon on the Mount, caused him to become a fervent Christian anarchist and pacifist. Tolstoy also became an advocate of Georgism, the economic philosophy of Henry George. Tolstoy was born at Yasnaya Polyana, a family estate 12 kilometres southwest of Tula, the Tolstoys were a well-known family of old Russian nobility, tracing their ancestry to a mythical Lithuanian noble Indris. He was the fourth of five children of Count Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy, a veteran of the Patriotic War of 1812, Tolstoys parents died when he was young, so he and his siblings were brought up by relatives. In 1844, he began studying law and oriental languages at Kazan University and his teachers described him as both unable and unwilling to learn. Tolstoy left the university in the middle of his studies, returned to Yasnaya Polyana and then spent much of his time in Moscow, in 1851, after running up heavy gambling debts, he went with his older brother to the Caucasus and joined the army. It was about time that he started writing. Others who followed the path were Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin. During his 1857 visit, Tolstoy witnessed an execution in Paris. Writing in a letter to his friend Vasily Botkin, The truth is that the State is a conspiracy designed not only to exploit, henceforth, I shall never serve any government anywhere. Tolstoys concept of non-violence or Ahimsa was bolstered when he read a German version of the Tirukkural and he later instilled the concept in Mahatma Gandhi through his A Letter to a Hindu when young Gandhi corresponded with him seeking his advice. His European trip in 1860–61 shaped both his political and literary development when he met Victor Hugo, whose literary talents Tolstoy praised after reading Hugos newly finished Les Misérables, the similar evocation of battle scenes in Hugos novel and Tolstoys War and Peace indicates this influence. Tolstoys political philosophy was influenced by a March 1861 visit to French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
31.
Jamie Wyeth
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James Browning Wyeth is a contemporary American realist painter, son of Andrew Wyeth, and grandson of N. C. James Wyeth is the child of Andrew and Betsy Wyeth. He was raised on his parents farm The Mill in Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania, in much the way as his father had been brought up. He demonstrated the remarkable skills in drawing as his father had done at comparable ages. He attended public school for six years and then, at his request was privately tutored at home and his brother Nicholas would later become an art dealer. At age 12, Jamie studied with his aunt Carolyn Wyeth, a well-known artist in her own right, Wyeth House and Studio, filled with the art work and props of his grandfather. In the morning he studied English and history at his home and he stated later, She was very restrictive. It wasnt interesting, but it was important, through his aunt, Jamie developed an interest in working with oil painting, a medium he enjoyed at a sensory level, the look, smell and feel of it. Carolyn Wyeth and Howard Pyle were his greatest early influences in developing his technique in working with oil paint, while Jamies work in watercolor was similar to his fathers, his colors were more vivid. As a boy, Jamie was exposed to art in ways, the works of his talented family members, art books, attendance at exhibitions, meeting with collectors. He also developed a sense of humor, sometimes veering to the macabre. For at least three years in the early 1960s, when Wyeth was in his middle to late teens, of their close relationship, Wyeth has said, Quite simply, Andrew Wyeth is my closest friend—and the painter whose work I most admire. The father/son relationship goes out the window when we talk about one anothers work and we are completely frank—as we have nothing to gain by being nice. At age 19 he traveled to New York City, to study the artistic resources of the city. In 1968, Wyeth married Phyllis Mills, daughter of Alice du Pont Mills and James P. Mills and one of his models. Mills is the subject of many of his paintings including And Then into the Deep Gorge, Wicker, Phyllis had worked for John F. Kennedy when he was a senator and president. She has served on boards, including the National Committee for Arts for the Handicapped, the National Trust for Historic Preservation. A steeplechase rider when young, before her accident, she later took over her parents thoroughbred horse racing and breeding interests
32.
Howard Pyle
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Howard Pyle was an American illustrator and author, primarily of books for young people. He was a native of Wilmington, Delaware, but he spent the last year of his life in Florence, in 1894, he began teaching illustration at the Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Industry. After 1900, he founded his own school of art and illustration named the Howard Pyle School of Illustration Art, pitz later used the term Brandywine School for the illustration artists and Wyeth family artists of the Brandywine region, several of whom had studied with Pyle. Some of his notable students were N. C. Pyle taught his students at home and studio in Wilmington, which is standing and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. His 1883 classic publication The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood remains in print and he is also well known for his illustrations of pirates, and is credited with creating what has become the modern stereotype of pirate dress. He published his first novel Otto of the Silver Hand in 1888 and he also illustrated historical and adventure stories for periodicals such as Harpers Magazine and St. Nicholas Magazine. His novel Men of Iron was adapted as the movie The Black Shield of Falworth, Pyle travelled to Florence, Italy in 1910 to study mural painting. He died there in 1911 of a kidney infection. Pyle was the son of William Pyle and Margaret Churchman Painter, as a child, he attended private schools and was interested in drawing and writing from a very young age. He was an indifferent student, but his parents encouraged him to study art, in 1876, he visited the island of Chincoteague off Virginia and was inspired by what he saw. He wrote and illustrated an article about the island and submitted it to Scribners Monthly, one of the magazines owners was Roswell Smith, who encouraged him to move to New York and pursue illustration professionally. Pyle initially struggled in New York, his lack of experience made it difficult for him to translate his ideas into forms for publication. He was encouraged by several working artists, however, including Edwin Austin Abbey and he finally published a double-paged spread in the Harpers Weekly issue of March 9,1878 and was paid $75—five times what he had expected. He became increasingly successful and was an established artist by the time that he returned to Wilmington in 1880 and he also collaborated on several books, particularly in American history. He wrote and illustrated his own stories, beginning with The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood in 1883 and this book won international attention from critics such as William Morris. Over the following decades, he published many illustrated works for children. Pyle married singer Anne Poole on April 12,1881, in 1889, he and his wife sailed to Jamaica, leaving their children in the care of relatives
33.
Thomas Eakins
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Thomas Cowperthwait Eakins was an American realist painter, photographer, sculptor, and fine arts educator. He is widely acknowledged to be one of the most important artists in American art history and he painted several hundred portraits, usually of friends, family members, or prominent people in the arts, sciences, medicine, and clergy. Taken en masse, the offer an overview of the intellectual life of Philadelphia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, individually. These active outdoor venues allowed him to paint the subject which most inspired him, in the process he could model the forms of the body in full sunlight, and create images of deep space utilizing his studies in perspective. Eakins also took a keen interest in the new technologies of motion photography, No less important in Eakins life was his work as a teacher. As an instructor he was an influential presence in American art. Eakins was a figure whose work received little by way of official recognition during his lifetime. Since his death, he has been celebrated by American art historians as the strongest, most profound realist in nineteenth-, Eakins was born and lived most of his life in Philadelphia. He was the first child of Caroline Cowperthwait Eakins, a woman of English and Dutch descent, and Benjamin Eakins, Benjamin Eakins grew up on a farm in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, the son of a weaver. He was successful in his profession, and moved to Philadelphia in the early 1840s to raise his family. Thomas Eakins observed his father at work and by twelve demonstrated skill in precise line drawing, perspective, and he was an athletic child who enjoyed rowing, ice skating, swimming, wrestling, sailing, and gymnastics—activities he later painted and encouraged in his students. Eakins attended Central High School, the public school for applied science and arts in the city. He studied drawing and anatomy at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts beginning in 1861, for a while, he followed his fathers profession and was listed in city directories as a writing teacher. His scientific interest in the body led him to consider becoming a surgeon. Eakins then studied art in Europe from 1866 to 1870, notably in Paris with Jean-Léon Gérôme, being only the second American pupil of the French realist painter, famous as a master of Orientalism. He also attended the atelier of Léon Bonnat, a realist painter who emphasized anatomical preciseness, a method adapted by Eakins. A letter home to his father in 1868 made his aesthetic clear, She is the most beautiful thing there is in the world except a naked man, already at age 24, nudity and verity were linked with an unusual closeness in his mind. Yet his desire for truthfulness was more expansive, and the home to Philadelphia reveal a passion for realism that included, but was not limited to
34.
Life Magazine
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Life was an American magazine that ran weekly from 1883 to 1936 as a humor magazine with limited circulation. Time owner Henry Luce bought the magazine in 1936, solely so that he could acquire the rights to its name, Life was published weekly until 1972, as an intermittent special until 1978, and as a monthly from 1978 to 2000. After 2000 Time Inc. continued to use the Life brand for special, Life returned to regularly scheduled issues when it became a weekly newspaper supplement from 2004 to 2007. The website life. com, originally one of the channels on Time Inc. s Pathfinder service, was for a time in the late 2000s managed as a joint venture with Getty Images under the name See Your World, LLC. On January 30,2012 the LIFE. com URL became a channel on Time. com. When Life was founded in 1883, it was developed as similar to the British magazine and it was published for 53 years as a general-interest light entertainment magazine, heavy on illustrations, jokes and social commentary. The Luce Life was the first all-photographic American news magazine, the magazines role in the history of photojournalism is considered its most important contribution to publishing. Life was wildly successful for two generations before its prestige was diminished by economics and changing tastes, Life was founded January 4,1883, in a New York City artists studio at 1155 Broadway, as a partnership between John Ames Mitchell and Andrew Miller. Mitchell held a 75 per cent interest in the magazine with the remainder by Miller, both men retained their holdings until their deaths. Miller served as secretary-treasurer of the magazine and was very successful managing the side of the operation. Mitchell, a 37-year-old illustrator who used a $10,000 inheritance to invest in the weekly magazine, Mitchell created the first Life name-plate with cupids as mascots, he later drew its masthead of a knight leveling his lance at the posterior of a fleeing devil. Mitchell took advantage of a new printing process using zinc-coated plates. This edge helped because Life faced stiff competition from the humor magazines Judge and Puck. Edward Sandford Martin was brought on as Lifes first literary editor, the motto of the first issue of Life was, While theres Life, theres hope. The new magazine set forth its principles and policies to its readers and we shall try to domesticate as much as possible of the casual cheerfulness that is drifting about in an unfriendly world. The magazine was a success and soon attracted the leading contributors. Among the most important was Charles Dana Gibson, three years after the magazine was founded, the Massachusetts native first sold Life a drawing for $4, a dog outside his kennel howling at the moon. Encouraged by a publisher who was also an artist, Gibson was joined in Life early days by such illustrators as Palmer Cox
35.
Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania
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Chadds Ford Township is a township in Delaware County, Pennsylvania, United States, about 25 miles southwest of the center of Philadelphia. As of the 2010 census, Chadds Ford Township had a population of 3,640, Chadds Ford was home to N. C. Wyeth, his son Andrew Wyeth, and grandson Jamie Wyeth, the Brandywine Battlefield is located in the township, along with the Brandywine River Museum, which houses much of the Wyeth collection. Weldon Brinton Heyburn, a U. S. senator from Idaho, was born in Chadds Ford, the township is the westernmost in Delaware County and is bordered to the west by Chester County and to the south by the state of Delaware. Brandywine Creek forms the boundary of the township. U. S. Route 1 runs through the part of the township. Routes 202 and 322 at Painters Crossroads on the eastern border. US1 leads southwest toward Maryland, while US202 leads south to Wilmington, Delaware, US202 and 322 together lead north to West Chester. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has an area of 8.7 square miles, of which 8.6 square miles is land and 0.1 square miles. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Chadds Ford Township has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. As of the census of 2000, there were 3,170 people,1,314 households, the population density was 364.2 people per square mile. There were 1,338 housing units at a density of 153. 7/sq mi. The racial makeup of the township was 95. 27% White,1. 07% African American,0. 06% Native American,2. 78% Asian,0. 47% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 42% of the population. 26. 1% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.93. In the township the population was out, with 21. 8% under the age of 18,5. 1% from 18 to 24,25. 8% from 25 to 44,33. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 44 years, for every 100 females there were 92.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.2 males, the median income for a household in the township was $84,100, and the median income for a family was $100,795. Males had an income of $79,650 versus $34,219 for females
36.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
37.
Maine
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Maine is the northernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Maine is the 39th most extensive and the 41st most populous of the U. S. states and territories and it is bordered by New Hampshire to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the north. Maine is the easternmost state in the contiguous United States, and it is known for its jagged, rocky coastline, low, rolling mountains, heavily forested interior, and picturesque waterways, and also its seafood cuisine, especially clams and lobster. There is a continental climate throughout the state, even in areas such as its most populous city of Portland. For thousands of years, indigenous peoples were the inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine. At the time of European arrival in what is now Maine, the first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 on Saint Croix Island, by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. The first English settlement was the short-lived Popham Colony, established by the Plymouth Company in 1607, as Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived. Loyalist and Patriot forces contended for Maines territory during the American Revolution, Maine was part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts until 1820, when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to become an independent state. On March 15,1820, it was admitted to the Union as the 23rd state under the Missouri Compromise, there is no definitive explanation for the origin of the name Maine, but the most likely origin is the name given by early explorers after a province in France. Whatever the origin, the name was fixed for English settlers in 1665 when the English Kings Commissioners ordered that the Province of Maine be entered from then on in official records. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland. Attempts to uncover the history of the name of Maine began with James Sullivans 1795 History of the District of Maine. He made the allegation that the Province of Maine was a compliment to the queen of Charles I, Henrietta Maria. MAINE appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 in reference to the county of Dorset, the view generally held among British place name scholars is that Mayne in Dorset is Brythonic, corresponding to modern Welsh maen, plural main or meini. Some early spellings are, MAINE1086, MEINE1200, MEINES1204, mason had served with the Royal Navy in the Orkney Islands where the chief island is called Mainland, a possible name derivation for these English sailors. Initially, several tracts along the coast of New England were referred to as Main or Maine, Maine is the only state whose name has exactly one syllable. The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and Penobscot, who had a loose confederacy. European contact with what is now called Maine started around 1200 CE when Norwegians interacted with the native Penobscot in present-day Hancock County, most likely through trade
38.
Drybrush
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Drybrush is a painting technique in which a paint brush that is relatively dry, but still holds paint, is used. Load is applied to a dry support such as paper or primed canvas, the resulting brush strokes have a characteristic scratchy look that lacks the smooth appearance that washes or blended paint commonly have. The drybrush technique can be achieved with both water-based and oil-based media, with water-based media such as inks, acrylic paints, tempera paints or watercolor paints, the brush should be dry or squeezed dry of all water. The brush should then be loaded with paint that is highly viscous or thick, the loaded brush should then be applied to a dry support. With other water-based media, the brush should be loaded with paint then squeezed dry, with oil-based media, such as oil paint, a similar technique may be used, although instead of water, the brush should be dry or squeezed dry of oil and solvent. Because oil paint has a longer drying time than water-based media, the technique is frequently used in model painting to apply highlights to miniatures. Oil-based drybrushing can also be scrubbed onto paper, canvas or absorbent gesso with stiff bristle brushes to impart smooth airbrushed or pastel-style effects. Next is that drybrush is sometimes mixed with other painting techniques Coming from the dry brush technique and this technique arose with the street painters mid-1980s on the Arbat street, the pedestrian area in the historic heart of Moscow. There, passersby were portrayed - in the simplest means the shortest possible time, usually this was done with pencil, charcoal or pastels. However, it became apparent that the dry brush painting perfectly suited to portray. Therefore, it became popular with many street painters, because the technique allowed rapid draw in excellent quality. It was possible to work directly without pencil drawing from start to finish, the painting was thus not only faster, but also much more fascinating - for the painter - but also for the viewer. For painting with the dry brush a small amount of oil is used, the color is diluted with a few drops of linseed oil. From this mixture very little color is added to the brush, in the next step the brush with the color on it is spread out very well on a color palette and the oil is secreted. The brush must be dry at the end of this step, now a very thin layer of color is applied to a watercolor paper. By reworking with an eraser at this point it is possible to incorporate different lighting effects, images - painted with a dry brush - are characterized by the specific transitions of light and shadow and gossamer tones. A work done in black and white similar to a coal or fine pencil drawing. Edition Michael Fischer, Ingling 2012, ISBN 978-3-86355-085-1, how to create a range of dry brush strokes with watercolor
39.
Farnsworth Art Museum
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The Farnsworth Art Museum in Rockland, Maine, United States, is an art museum that specializes in American art. Four galleries are devoted to contemporary art, the museums mission is to celebrate Maines role in American art. It has one of the nations largest collections of the paintings of the Wyeth family, Wyeth, Andrew Wyeth, and Jamie Wyeth. The museum owns and operates the Olson House in Cushing, inspiration for Andrew Wyeths Christinas World painting, the museum also owns the Farnsworth Homestead, the Rockland home of its founder Lucy Farnsworth. The museums building was built in 1948 to designs by Wadsworth, Farnsworth Art Museum Brandywine River Museum
40.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
41.
Kuerner Farm
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The farm was listed in the National Register of Historic Places and declared a National Historic Landmark in 2011. The property abuts the Brandywine Battlefield, another National Historic Landmark, the farm is open to public tours, operated by the Brandywine River Museum. The Battle of Brandywine, fought nearby on September 11,1777, left a cannon ball, continental troops and militia units marched past on Ring road, but no actual fighting on the property can be documented. Brandywine Battlefield State Park is about a half-mile north of the farm, caleb Ring built the farmhouse c. 1814, and a story was added c. Illustrator Howard Pyle taught art students, including N. C, Wyeth, at Turners Mill on US1, just north of the farm, during the summers from 1898 to 1903. In 1926, Karl Kuerner and his wife Anna rented the farm, Karl had been a sheepherder near the Black Forest in his native Germany, and had been a machine gunner in the German Army during World War I, before moving to Philadelphia in 1926. Andrew Wyeths first painting of the farm was completed in 1932, in 1945, Andrews father, N. C. Wyeth, and his nephew were killed when their car, stalled at the crossing near the northwest corner of the farm, was struck by a train. Andrew Wyeth met Helga Testorf in 1971 while she was nursing Karl Kuerner at the farm, a German immigrant, she lived across Ring Road from the farm with her husband. She soon began modeling for Wyeth in a famous series of paintings and drawings. That year the first nude painting in the series was painted in the room in the farm house. The works, numbering more than 240, remained secret until 1987, Karl Kuerner died in 1979, followed by Anna in 1997. In 1999, the farm was acquired by the Brandywine Conservancy and it was designated a National Historic Landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2011. In 2014 the listing was expanded to include the former used by Wyeth as a studio. List of National Historic Landmarks in Pennsylvania National Register of Historic Places listings in Delaware County, Pennsylvania Wyeth, wise, Robert J. Jr.2010, NHL Nomination Form for Kuerner Farm Official website
42.
Brandywine River Museum
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The Brandywine River Museum is a museum of regional and American art located on U. S. Route 1 in Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania on the banks of the Brandywine Creek. The museum showcases the art of Andrew Wyeth, a major American realist painter, Wyeth, illustrator of many children’s classics, and his son Jamie Wyeth, a contemporary American realist painter. The museum is housed in a nineteenth century mill with a dramatic steel. The glass-wall lobby overlooks the river and rolling countryside that inspired the Brandywine School earlier in the early 20th century, the museum also owns and operates tours of two nearby National Historic Landmarks, the N. C. Wyeth House and Studio and the Kuerner Farm, inspiration for nearly 1,000 works of art by Andrew Wyeth for more than 70 years, visitors may also tour the Andrew Wyeth Studio, where the artist painted from 1940 until just before his death. The building also served as his home, he and his wife Betsy moved in as newlyweds and lived here until the early 1960s, outside the museum are beautifully maintained wildflower and native plant gardens. The museum is a program of the Brandywine Conservancy & Museum of Art and it opened in 1971 through the efforts of “Frolic” Weymouth. He has been on the board since its founding, christian C. Sanderson Museum Farnsworth Art Museum Brandywine River Museum
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N. C. Wyeth House and Studio
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Wyeth House and Studio was a home of painter N. C. Wyeth in Chadds Ford Township, Pennsylvania, United States, the house and studio were designated a National Historic Landmark in 1997. The 18-acre site includes his home, his studio, a barn and other structures, the Brandywine River Museum offers tours of the site. Wyeth House and Studios, at Brandywine River Museum another site A Piece of History Discovered in the N. C, wyeth House and Studio Tour Listing at NPS
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The Helga Pictures
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The Helga Pictures are a series of more than 240 paintings and drawings of German model Helga Testorf created by Andrew Wyeth between 1971 and 1985. To John Updike, her body is what Winslow Homers maidens would have looked like beneath their calico, born in Germany, Helga entered a Prussian Protestant convent chosen by her father in 1955. After becoming seriously ill she left the convent and lived in Mannheim, where she studied to be a nurse, in 1957, she met John Testorf, a German-born, naturalized American citizen, whom she married in 1958. By 1961 they were living in Philadelphia, where she worked in a tannery, there she raised a family that would grow to include four children, and acted as caretaker to farmer Karl Kuerner, an elderly neighbor who was a friend and model for Wyeth. Wyeth asked Testorf to model for him in 1971, and from then until 1985 he made 45 paintings and 200 drawings of her, the sessions were a secret even to their spouses. The paintings were stored at the home of his student, neighbor and good friend, explaining the series, Wyeth said, The difference between me and a lot of painters is that I have to have a personal contact with my models. Thats what happened when I saw Helga and he described his attraction to all her German qualities, her strong, determined stride, that Loden coat, the braided blond hair. Art historian John Wilmerding wrote, Such close attention by a painter to one model over so long a period of time is a remarkable, if not singular, circumstance in the history of American art. For art critic James Gardner, Testorf has the distinction of being the last person to be made famous by a painting. When the existence of the pictures was made public images of Testorf graced the covers of both Time and Newsweek magazines, Testorf, although flattered by the paintings, was upset by the publicity and controversy they provoked. Although Wyeth denied that there had been a relationship with Testorf. Well after the paintings were finished, Testorf remained close to Wyeth, in a 2007 interview, when Wyeth was asked if Helga was going to be present at his 90th birthday party, he said, Yeah, certainly. Oh, absolutely, and went on to say, Shes part of the family now, thats what I love about it. In 1986, Philadelphia publisher and millionaire Leonard E. B. Andrews purchased almost the entire collection, Wyeth had already given a few Helga paintings to friends, including the famous Lovers, which had been given as a gift to Wyeths wife. The works were exhibited at the National Gallery of Art in 1987, there was extensive criticism of both the 1987 exhibition and the subsequent tour. The show was lambasted as an “absurd error” by John Russell, the curator, Neil Harris, labeled the show “the most polarizing National Gallery exhibition of the late 1980s, ” himself admitting concern over the voyeuristic aura of the Helga exhibition. The tour was criticized after the fact because, after it ended, the owner sold his entire cache to a Japanese company
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Helga Testorf
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The Helga Pictures are a series of more than 240 paintings and drawings of German model Helga Testorf created by Andrew Wyeth between 1971 and 1985. To John Updike, her body is what Winslow Homers maidens would have looked like beneath their calico, born in Germany, Helga entered a Prussian Protestant convent chosen by her father in 1955. After becoming seriously ill she left the convent and lived in Mannheim, where she studied to be a nurse, in 1957, she met John Testorf, a German-born, naturalized American citizen, whom she married in 1958. By 1961 they were living in Philadelphia, where she worked in a tannery, there she raised a family that would grow to include four children, and acted as caretaker to farmer Karl Kuerner, an elderly neighbor who was a friend and model for Wyeth. Wyeth asked Testorf to model for him in 1971, and from then until 1985 he made 45 paintings and 200 drawings of her, the sessions were a secret even to their spouses. The paintings were stored at the home of his student, neighbor and good friend, explaining the series, Wyeth said, The difference between me and a lot of painters is that I have to have a personal contact with my models. Thats what happened when I saw Helga and he described his attraction to all her German qualities, her strong, determined stride, that Loden coat, the braided blond hair. Art historian John Wilmerding wrote, Such close attention by a painter to one model over so long a period of time is a remarkable, if not singular, circumstance in the history of American art. For art critic James Gardner, Testorf has the distinction of being the last person to be made famous by a painting. When the existence of the pictures was made public images of Testorf graced the covers of both Time and Newsweek magazines, Testorf, although flattered by the paintings, was upset by the publicity and controversy they provoked. Although Wyeth denied that there had been a relationship with Testorf. Well after the paintings were finished, Testorf remained close to Wyeth, in a 2007 interview, when Wyeth was asked if Helga was going to be present at his 90th birthday party, he said, Yeah, certainly. Oh, absolutely, and went on to say, Shes part of the family now, thats what I love about it. In 1986, Philadelphia publisher and millionaire Leonard E. B. Andrews purchased almost the entire collection, Wyeth had already given a few Helga paintings to friends, including the famous Lovers, which had been given as a gift to Wyeths wife. The works were exhibited at the National Gallery of Art in 1987, there was extensive criticism of both the 1987 exhibition and the subsequent tour. The show was lambasted as an “absurd error” by John Russell, the curator, Neil Harris, labeled the show “the most polarizing National Gallery exhibition of the late 1980s, ” himself admitting concern over the voyeuristic aura of the Helga exhibition. The tour was criticized after the fact because, after it ended, the owner sold his entire cache to a Japanese company
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Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
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Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
