1.
Tilly Kettle
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Tilly Kettle was a portrait painter and the first prominent English portrait painter to operate in India. He was born in London, the son of a coach painter and he studied drawing with William Shipley in the Strand and first entered professional portraiture in the 1750s. Kettles first series of portraits appeared in the 1760s and his first surviving painting is a self-portrait from 1760, with his first exhibit with the Free Society of Artists in 1761. In 1762, he worked at restoring Robert Streaters ceiling paintings in the Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford, and painted Francis Yarborough and he painted many members of the family of William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth. In 1764-5, he was active in London and continued exhibiting at the Society of Artists, in 1768, Kettle sailed to India with the British East India Company, landing at Madras, where he remained for two years. There, he painted Lord Pigot and Muhammad Ali Khan twice, in 1770 Kettle painted a half-length portrait of Sir Levett Hanson, a peripatetic writer on European knighthood and chivalry originally from Yorkshire. Kettle moved on to Calcutta in 1771 and painted Shuja ud-Daula, in 1775, he painted George Bogle, Warren Hastings emissary to Tibet, in Tibetan dress, presenting a ceremonial white scarf to Lobsang Palden Yeshe the 6th Panchen Lama. He also took an Indian mistress and had two daughters by her and he left India in 1776 for London. She brought a dowry of £5,000, while he put up £3,000 toward a trust fund, however, contemporaries indicated that Kettle was manipulated into the marriage for financial reasons. At the same time, he switched his exhibitors to the Royal Academy of Art and he had fewer clients in England than he had before his departure, and his wife was financially imprudent. He had two daughters by her and one son, named James. He fell into debt, and in 1786 he set out for a return to India and he attempted the voyage overland through Asia. His last portrait was painted in Aleppo, and he died some time later, although where, National Gallery of Modern Arts, New Delhi Tilly Kettle at artcyclopedia. com Postle, Martin. Tilly Kettle In Matthew, H. C. G. and Brian Harrison, the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
2.
Eyam
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Eyam is an English village and civil parish in the Derbyshire Dales district that lies within the Peak District National Park. The population of the parish at the 2001 Census was 926 increasing to 969 at the 2011 Census. The village is noted for an outbreak of plague which occurred there in 1665. The present village was founded and named by Anglo-Saxons, although lead had been mined in the area by the Romans, formerly industrial, its economy now relies on the tourist trade and it is promoted as the plague village. Lead mining seems to have had a history in the Eyam district since at least the Roman era. Stone circles and earth barrows on the moors above the present village have largely destroyed, although some remain. The most notable site is the Wet Withens stone circle on Eyam Moor, coins bearing the names of many emperors provide evidence of Roman lead-mining locally. However, the name derives from Old English and is first recorded in the Domesday Book as Aium. It is a form of the noun ēg and probably refers to a patch of cultivable land amidst the moors. In the churchyard is an Anglo-Saxon cross in Mercian style dated to the 8th century, grade I listed and a Scheduled Ancient Monument, it is covered in complex carvings and is almost complete, but for a missing section of the shaft. The present parish church of St, there have been alterations since the Middle Ages, including a large sun dial dated 1775 mounted on a wall outside. The lead mining tithe was due to the rectors by ancient custom and they received one penny for every dish of ore and twopence farthing for every load of hillock-stuff. Owing to the working of a newly discovered rich vein during the 18th century, mining continued into the 19th century, after which better sources were discovered and a change-over was made to the working and treatment of fluorspar as a slagging agent in smelting. The last to close was the Ladywash Mine, which was operative between 1948–79, within a 3 miles radius of the village there are 439 known mines, that are drained by 49 drainage levels. According to the 1841 Census for Eyam, there were 954 inhabitants living in the parish, chiefly employed in agriculture, lead mining, and cotton and silk weaving. By the 1881 Census, most men worked as lead miners or in the manufacture of boots and shoes. Today, up to a dozen coach loads of visiting children arrive each day in the village, the history of the plague in the village began in 1665 when a flea-infested bundle of cloth arrived from London for the local tailor. Within a week his assistant George Vicars was dead and more began dying in the soon after
3.
Derbyshire
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Derbyshire is a county in the East Midlands of England. A substantial portion of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire, in 2003 the Ordnance Survey placed Church Flatts Farm at Coton in the Elms as the furthest point from the sea in Great Britain. The city of Derby is a unitary authority area, but remains part of the county of Derbyshire. The non-metropolitan county contains 30 towns with between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants, there is a large amount of sparsely populated agricultural upland, 75% of the population live in 25% of the area. Further occupation came with the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age when Mesolithic hunter gatherers roamed the hilly tundra, evidence of these nomadic tribes has been found in limestone caves located on the Nottinghamshire border. Deposits left in the date the occupancy at around 12,000 to 7,000 BCE. Burial mounds of Neolithic settlers are also situated throughout the county and these chambered tombs were designed for collective burial and are mostly located in the central Derbyshire region. There are tombs at Minninglow and Five Wells that date back to between 2000 and 2500 BCE, three miles west of Youlgreave lies the Neolithic henge monument of Arbor Low, which has been dated to 2500 BCE. It is not until the Bronze Age that real signs of agriculture, in the moors of the Peak District signs of clearance, arable fields and hut circles were discovered after archaeological investigation. However this area and another settlement at Swarkestone are all that have been found, during the Roman invasion the invaders were attracted to Derbyshire because of the lead ore in the limestone hills of the area. They settled throughout the county with forts built near Brough in the Hope Valley, later they settled around Buxton, famed for its warm springs, and set up a fort near modern-day Derby in an area now known as Little Chester. Several kings of Mercia are buried in the Repton area, following the Norman Conquest, much of the county was subject to the forest laws. To the northwest was the Forest of High Peak under the custodianship of William Peverel, the rest of the county was bestowed upon Henry de Ferrers, a part of it becoming Duffield Frith. In time the area was given to the Duchy of Lancaster. Meanwhile, the Forest of East Derbyshire covered the county to the east of the River Derwent from the reign of Henry II to that of Edward I. The main rivers in the county are the River Derwent and the River Dove which both join the River Trent in the south. The varied landscapes within Derbyshires have been formed mainly as a consequence of the underlying geology, the oldest rocks occur in the northern, more upland half of the county, and are mostly of Carboniferous age, comprising limestones, gritstones, sandstones and shales. In its north-east corner to the east of Bolsover there are also Magnesian Limestone rocks of Permian age, across both regions can be found drift deposits of Quaternary age – mainly terrace and river gravel deposits and boulder clays
4.
Lichfield
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Lichfield /ˈlɪtʃfiːld/ is a cathedral city and civil parish in Staffordshire, England. One of eight parishes with city status in England, Lichfield is situated roughly 16 mi north of Birmingham. At the time of the 2011 Census the population was estimated at 32,219, notable for its three-spired medieval cathedral, Lichfield was the birthplace of Samuel Johnson, the writer of the first authoritative Dictionary of the English Language. The citys recorded history began when Chad of Mercia arrived to establish his Bishopric in 669 CE, in 2009, the Staffordshire Hoard, the largest hoard of Anglo-Saxon gold and silver metalwork, was found 5.9 km southwest of Lichfield. Lichfields heyday was in the 18th century when it developed into a thriving coaching city, today, the city still retains its old importance as an ecclesiastical centre, and its industrial and commercial development has been limited. The centre of the city retains an unspoilt charm with over 230 listed buildings in its streets, fine Georgian architecture. Lichfield is also home to sports presenter, Matt Bradbury. The origin of the modern name Lichfield is twofold and this passed into Old English as Lyccid, cf. Old Welsh, Luitcoyt, to which was appended Old English, feld open country. This word Lyccidfeld is the origin of the word Lichfield, popular etymology has it that a thousand Christians were martyred in Lichfield around 300 AD during the reign of Diocletian and that the name Lichfield actually means field of the dead. There is no evidence to support this legend, the earliest evidence of settlement has been the discovery of Mesolithic flints on the high ground of the cemetery at St Michael on Greenhill, which may indicate an early flint industry. Traces of Neolithic settlement have been discovered on the side of the sandstone ridge occupied by Lichfield Cathedral. 2.2 mi southwest of Lichfield, near the point where Icknield Street crosses Watling Street was the site of Etocetum, established in AD50 as a Roman military fortress, it had become a civilian settlement with a bath house and a mansio by the 2nd century. Letocetum fell into decline by the 4th century and the Romans had left by the 5th century, there have been scattered Romano-British finds in Lichfield and it is possible that a burial discovered beneath the cathedral in 1751 was Romano-British. There is no evidence of what happened to Letocetum after the Romans left, a Cair Luit Coyd listed by Nennius among the 28 cities of Britain in his Historia Brittonum, although these were largely historic remembrances of early Sub-Roman Britain. The early history of Lichfield is obscure, the first authentic record of Lichfield occurs in Bedes history, where it is called Licidfelth and mentioned as the place where St Chad fixed the episcopal see of the Mercians in 669. The first Christian king of Mercia, Wulfhere, donated land at Lichfield for St Chad to build a monastery. It was because of this that the centre of Mercia became settled as the Diocese of Lichfield. The burial in the cathedral of the kings of Mercia, Wulfhere in 674 and Ceolred in 716, in 786 King Offa made the city an archbishopric with authority over all the bishops from the Humber to the River Thames, his appointee was Archbishop Hygeberht
5.
Staffordshire
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Staffordshire is a landlocked county in the West Midlands of England. It adjoins Cheshire to the north west, Derbyshire and Leicestershire to the east, Warwickshire to the south east, West Midlands and Worcestershire to the south, and Shropshire to the west. The largest city in Staffordshire is Stoke-on-Trent, which is administered separately from the rest of the county as an independent unitary authority, Lichfield also has city status, although this is a considerably smaller cathedral city. Major towns include Stafford, Burton upon Trent, Cannock, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Leek, smaller towns include Stone, Uttoxeter, and Rugeley, and large villages Eccleshall, Wombourne, Kinver, Penkridge, Tutbury and Stretton. Cannock Chase AONB is within the county as well as parts of the National Forest, Wolverhampton, Walsall, West Bromwich, and Smethwick were historic Staffordshire towns until local government reorganisation created the West Midlands county in 1974. Historically, Staffordshire was divided into the five hundreds of Cuttlestone, Offlow, Pirehill, Seisdon, the historic boundaries of Staffordshire cover much of what is now the metropolitan county of West Midlands. The Act also saw the towns of Tamworth and Burton upon Trent united entirely in Staffordshire, in 1553 Queen Mary made Lichfield a county separate from the rest of Staffordshire. Handsworth and Perry Barr became part of the county borough of Birmingham in the early 20th century, Burton, in the east of the county, became a county borough in 1901, and was followed by Smethwick, another town in the Black Country in 1907. In 1910 the six towns of the Staffordshire Potteries, including Hanley, a major reorganisation in the Black Country in 1966, under the recommendation of the Local Government Commission for England led to the creation of an area of contiguous county boroughs. Meanwhile, the county borough of Dudley, historically a part of Worcestershire, expanded. County boroughs were abolished, with Stoke becoming a district in Staffordshire. On 1 April 1997, under a recommendation of the Banham Commission, in July 2009 the largest hoard of Anglo-Saxon gold ever found in Britain was discovered in a field near Lichfield. The artefacts, known as The Staffordshire Hoard have tentatively dated to the 7th or 8th centuries. Some nationally and internationally known companies have their base in Staffordshire. They include the Britannia Building Society which is based in Leek, JCB is based in Rocester near Uttoxeter and bet365 based in Stoke-on-Trent. The theme park Alton Towers is in the Staffordshire Moorlands and several of the worlds largest pottery manufacturers are based in Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire has a completely comprehensive system with eight independent schools. Most secondary schools are from 11–16 or 18, but two in Staffordshire Moorlands and South Staffordshire are from 13–18, there are two universities in the county, Keele University in Newcastle-under-Lyme and Staffordshire University, which has campuses in Stoke-on-Trent, Stafford, Lichfield and Shrewsbury. The modern county of Staffordshire currently has three football clubs – Stoke City and Port Vale, both from Stoke-on-Trent, and Burton Albion, who play in Burton upon Trent. They were among the 12 founder members of the Football League in 1888, in 1972, the club finally won a major trophy when they lifted the Football League Cup, but after relegation from the First Division in 1985 they would not experience top flight football for 23 years
6.
Lichfield Cathedral
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Lichfield Cathedral is situated in Lichfield, Staffordshire, England. It is the only medieval English cathedral with three spires, the Diocese of Lichfield covers all of Staffordshire, much of Shropshire and part of the Black Country and West Midlands. The 99th and current Bishop of Lichfield is the Right Rev Michael Ipgrave who was appointed on 10 June 2016, the cathedral is dedicated to St Chad and Saint Mary. Its internal length is 113 metres, and the breadth of the nave is 21m, the central spire is 77m high and the western spires are about 58m. The stone is sandstone and came from a quarry on the side of Lichfield. Lichfield suffered severe damage during the English Civil War in which all of the glass was destroyed. In spite of this the windows of the Lady Chapel contain some of the finest medieval Flemish painted glass in existence. Dating from the 1530s it came from the Abbey of Herkenrode in Belgium, in 1801 and it was sold on to the cathedral for the same price. There are also some fine windows by Betton and Evans, and many fine late 19th century windows, there were originally two volumes but one went missing around the time of the English Civil War. It is closely related in style to the Lindisfarne Gospels, the manuscript is on display in the Chapter House from Easter to Christmas. The Close is one of the most complete in the country, the three spires are often referred to as the Ladies of the Vale. When Chad was made Bishop of Mercia in 669 he moved his See from Repton to Lichfield, possibly because this was already a holy site, as the scene of martyrdoms during the Roman period. Offa, King of Mercia seemed to resent his own bishops paying allegiance to the Archbishop of Canterbury in Kent who, Offa therefore created his own archbishopric in Lichfield, who presided over all the bishops from the Humber to the Thames. All this began in 786, with the consent of Pope Adrian and it was vehemently opposed, but Offa and the papal representatives defeated Archbishop Jaenbert, installing Higbert as the new Archbishop of Lichfield. Pope Adrian sent Higbert the pallium, denoting his support for this move, in gratitude, Offa promised to send an annual shipment of gold to the pope for alms and supplying the lights in St. Peters church in Rome. However, The Archbishopric of Lichfield lasted for only 16 years, ending soon after Offas death and it was completed by the building of the Lady Chapel in the 1330s. The Choir dates from 1200, the Transepts from 1220 to 1240, there were three great sieges of Lichfield during the period 1643–1646 as the cathedral was surrounded by a ditch and defensive walls it made a natural fortress. The cathedral authorities with a certain following were for the king, but the townsfolk generally sided with the parliament, brookes deputy Sir John Gell, took over the siege
7.
Thomas Seward
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Thomas Seward was the son of John Seward of Badsey, Worcestershire. He married Elizabeth, daughter of the Rev. John Hunter, headmaster of Lichfield grammar school and he was admitted a foundation scholar of Westminster school in 1723. A. in 1730 and M. A. in 1734. Seward became travelling tutor to Lord Charles FitzRoy, third son of Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Grafton, the Duke promised some preferment for Seward, he became rector of Eyam in Derbyshire, and Kingsley, Staffordshire. He was installed in the prebend of Lyme and Halstock in Salisbury Cathedral on 5 June 1755, Seward resided at Lichfield from 1754, and was acquainted with Samuel Johnson, whom he used to entertain on his visits to Lichfield. James Boswell described him as a great valetudinarian, Seward died at the bishops palace, Lichfield, on 4 March 1790. His progressive ideas on education, authoring The Female Right to Literature, facilitated his daughters career. The Female Right to Literature and four poems by Seward were printed in Robert Dodsleys Collection of Poems. Seward also edited, with Thomas Sympson, the Works of Beaumont and Fletcher, the female right to literature, in a letter to a young lady from Florence. In Dodsley, Volume 2, pp. 309–315 The Conformity between Popery and Paganism, London,1746, a sermon, preached at Lichfield in 1756, entitled The late dreadful Earthquakes no proof of Gods particular Wrath against the Portuguese. Anna Seward caused a monument to be erected to her parents in Lichfield Cathedral, the monument was executed by John Bacon, and the verses which form part of the epitaph were the composition of Sir Walter Scott. In 1779 he was portrayed as the Canon in the novel Columella by Richard Graves, Thomas Seward at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive
8.
Romantic poetry
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Romantic poetry is the poetry of the Romantic era, an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century. Although many stress the notion of spontaneity in Romantic poetry, the movement was greatly concerned with the difficulty of composition. Indeed, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, another prominent English Romantic poet and critic, Romantic poetry contrasts with neoclassical poetry, which was the poetry of intellect and reason, while romantic poetry is more the product of emotion. Romantic poetry at the beginning of the century was a reaction against the set standards. According to William J. ” Belief in the importance of the imagination is a feature of romantic poets such as John Keats, Samuel Coleridge. Keats said, “I am certain of nothing but of the holiness of the Hearts affections, the secret of great art, Blake claimed, is the capacity to imagine. To define imagination, in his poem Auguries of Innocence, Blake said, To see a world in a grain of sand, And heaven in a wild flower, love for nature is another important feature of romantic poetry, as a source of inspiration. This poetry involves a relationship with nature and places. However, the romantic poets differed in their views about nature, wordsworth recognized nature as a living thing, teacher, god and everything. These feelings are developed and expressed in his epic poem The Prelude. In his poem The Tables Turn he writes, One impulse from the vernal wood Can teach you more of man, Of moral evil and good, Shelley was another nature poet, who believed that nature is a living thing and there is a union between nature and man. Wordsworth approaches nature philosophically, while Shelley emphasises the intellect, John Keats is another a lover of nature, but Coleridge differs from other romantic poets of his age, in that he has a realistic perspective on nature. He believes that nature is not the source of joy and pleasure, Coleridge believed that joy does not come from external nature, but that it emanates from the human heart. Melancholy occupies a prominent place in poetry, and is an important source of inspiration for the Romantic poets. In Ode to a Nightingale, Keats wrote, Romantic poetry was attracted to nostalgia and medievalism is another important characteristic of romantic poetry, especially in the works of John Keats and Coleridge. They were attracted to exotic, remote and obscure places, the world of classical Greece was important to the Romantics. John Keats poetry is full of allusions to the art, literature and culture of Greek, most of the romantic poets used [[supernaturalism|supernatural elements\\ in their poetry. Samuel Coleridge is the romantic poet in this regard
9.
Salisbury
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Salisbury is a cathedral city in Wiltshire, England, and the only city within the county. It is the third-largest settlement in the county, after Swindon and Chippenham, with a population of 40,302, the city is located in the southeast of Wiltshire, near the edge of Salisbury Plain. Its cathedral was located to the north at Old Sarum, following its relocation. The new town received its city charter in 1227 under the name New Sarum, which continued to be its name until 2009. It sits at the confluence of five rivers, the Nadder, Ebble, Wylye, and Bourne are tributary to the Hampshire Avon, which flows to the south coast and into the sea at Christchurch in Dorset. Salisbury railway station serves the city and is a regional interchange, Stonehenge, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is about 8 miles northwest of Salisbury and greatly aids the local economy. The city itself, Old Sarum, the present cathedral and the ruins of the one also attract visitors. The first part of the name is of obscure origin, the form Sarum is a Latinization of Sar, a medieval abbreviation for Sarisberie. Salisbury appeared in the Welsh Chronicle of the Britons as Caer-Caradog, Caer-Gradawc, cair-Caratauc, one of the 28 British cities listed in the History of the Britons, has also been identified with Salisbury. The hilltop at Old Sarum lies near the Neolithic sites of Stonehenge and Avebury and it commanded a salient between the River Bourne and the Hampshire Avon near a crossroads of several early trade routes. During the Iron Age, a hillfort was constructed around it sometime between 600 and 300 BC, the Romans may have occupied the site or left it in the hands of an allied tribe. Amid the Saxon invasions, Old Sarum fell to King Cynric of Wessex in 552, preferring settlements in bottomland like nearby Wilton, the Saxons largely ignored Old Sarum until the Viking invasions led King Alfred to restore its fortifications. Along with Wilton, however, it was abandoned by its residents to be sacked and burned by the Dano-Norwegian king Sweyn Forkbeard in 1003 and it subsequently became the site of Wiltons mint. Following the Norman invasion, a castle was constructed by 1070. The castle was directly by the Norman kings, its castellan was generally also the sheriff of Wiltshire. Hermann and his successor Saint Osmund began the construction of the first Salisbury cathedral, the cathedral was consecrated on 5 April 1092 but suffered extensive damage in a storm, traditionally said to have occurred only five days later. Bishop Roger was an ally of Henry I who served as his viceroy during the kings absence to Normandy and directed the royal administration. He refurbished and expanded Old Sarums cathedral in the 1110s and began work on a palace during the 1130s
10.
Peak District
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The Peak District is an upland area in England at the southern end of the Pennines. It is mostly in northern Derbyshire, but also parts of Cheshire, Greater Manchester. The Peak District National Park became the first national park in the United Kingdom in 1951, with its proximity to the cities of Manchester, Stoke-on-Trent, Derby and Sheffield and easy access by road and rail, it attracts millions of visitors every year. The Peak District forms the end of the Pennines and much of the area is uplands above 1,000 feet. Despite its name, the landscape generally lacks sharp peaks, being characterised by rounded hills, the area is surrounded by major conurbations, including Huddersfield, Manchester, Sheffield, Derby and Stoke-on-Trent. The National Park covers 555 square miles of Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Cheshire, Greater Manchester and South and West Yorkshire, including the majority of the area commonly referred to as the Peak. Its northern limits lie along the A62 road between Marsden and Meltham, north east of Oldham, while its southernmost point is on the A52 road on the outskirts of Ashbourne in Derbyshire. The town of Bakewell and numerous villages are included within the boundaries, as of 2010, it is the fifth largest National Park in England and Wales. 12% of the Peak District National Park is owned by the National Trust and it does not receive government funding. The Peak District National Park Authority directly owns around 5%, the Peak District is formed almost exclusively from sedimentary rocks dating from the Carboniferous period. They comprise the Carboniferous Limestone, the overlying Gritstone and finally the Coal Measures, in addition there are infrequent outcrops of igneous rocks including lavas, tuffs and volcanic vent agglomerates. The general geological structure of the Peak District is that of a broad dome, the southern edge of the dome is overlain by sandstones of Triassic age though these barely impinge upon the National Park. Earth movements after the Carboniferous period resulted in the up-doming of the area and, particularly in the west, the region was raised in a north–south line which resulted in this dome-like shape and the shale and sandstone were worn away until limestone was exposed. At the end of period, the Earths crust sank here which led to the area being covered by sea. Some time after its deposition, mineral veins were formed in the limestone and these veins and rakes have been mined for lead since Roman times. The Peak District was covered by ice during at least one of the ice ages of the last 2 million years as evidenced by the patches of glacial till or boulder clay that can be found across the area. It was not covered by ice during the last glacial period, a mix of Irish Sea and Lake District ice abutted against its western margins. Glacial meltwaters eroded a complex of channels along this margin of the Peak District during this period
11.
East Midlands
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The East Midlands is one of nine official regions of England at the first level of NUTS for statistical purposes. The eastern part of the Midlands, it consists of Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire, the region has an area of 15,627 km2, and was home to over 4.5 million people in 2011. The regions relative proximity to London and its connectivity on the national motorway and it is also the location of East Midlands Airport in north Leicestershire. The high point at 636 m is Kinder Scout, in the Peak District of the southern Pennines in northwest Derbyshire near Glossop. Other upland, hilly areas of 95 to 280 m in altitude, together with lakes and reservoirs, rise in and around the Charnwood Forest north of Leicester, and in the Lincolnshire Wolds. The regions major rivers, the Nene, the Soar, the Trent and the Welland, flow in a direction towards the Humber. The Derwent, conversely, rises in the High Peak before flowing south to join the Trent some 2 miles before its conflux with the Soar, the centre of the East Midlands area lies roughly between Bingham, Nottinghamshire and Bottesford, Leicestershire. The geographical centre of England lies in Higham on the Hill in west Leicestershire, some 88% of the land is rural in character, although agriculture accounts for less than three per cent of the regions jobs. Lincolnshire is the only county of the six, with a true North Sea coastline of about 30 miles due to the protection afforded by Spurn Head. Church Flatts Farm in Coton in the Elms, South Derbyshire, is the furthest place from the sea in the UK, in April 1936 the first Ordnance Survey trig point was sited at Cold Ashby in Northamptonshire. The Royal Society of Wildlife Trusts and The Wildlife Trusts are based next to the River Trent, the National Centre for Earth Observation is at the University of Leicester. The region is home to large quantities of limestone, and the East Midlands Oil Province, Charnwood Forest is noted for its abundant levels of volcanic rock, estimated to be approximately 600 million years old. 25% of the UKs cement is manufactured in the region at three sites in Hope and Tunstead in Derbyshire, and in Ketton Cement Works in Rutland. Of the aggregates that are produced in the region, 25% is from Derbyshire, Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire each produce around 30% of the regions sand and gravel output. Barwell in Leicestershire had Britains largest meteorite on 24 December 1965, the 2008 Lincolnshire earthquake was 5.2 magnitude. Rockingham Forest was designated as a hunting forest by William the Conqueror. The National Forest is a project in central England run by The National Forest Company. It stretches from the outskirts of Leicester in the east to Burton upon Trent in the west
12.
West Midlands (region)
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The West Midlands is one of nine official regions of England at the first level of NUTS for statistical purposes. It covers the western half of the area known as the Midlands. The city of Coventry is also located within the West Midlands county, the region is geographically diverse, from the urban central areas of the conurbation to the rural western counties of Shropshire and Herefordshire which border Wales. The region also encompasses five Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the Wye Valley, Shropshire hills, Cannock Chase, Malvern Hills, Warwickshire is home to the town of Stratford upon Avon, the birthplace of the writer William Shakespeare. The highest point in the region is Black Mountain, at 703 metres in west Herefordshire on the border with Powys, Wales. The region contains five Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, including all of the Shropshire Hills, Malvern Hills and Cannock Chase, the Peak District national park also stretches into the northern corner of Staffordshire. Served by many lines in the areas such as the West Coast Main Line. The Welsh Marches Line and the Cotswold Line transect the region as well as the Cross Country Route, there are plans to reopen the Honeybourne Line. Numerous notable roads pass through the region, with most converging around the central conurbation, the M6 toll provides an alternative route to the M6 between Coleshill and Cannock, passing north of Sutton Coldfield and just south of Lichfield. The M40 connects the region through South East England to London, with its terminus at its junction with the M42, it passes close to Warwick. The M42 connects the M5 at Bromsgrove, passing around the south and east of Birmingham, joining the M40 and M6, passing Solihull and Castle Bromwich, to Tamworth, the M50 connects the M5 from near Tewkesbury to Ross-on-Wye in the southwest. The M54 connects Wellington in the west, passing Telford, to the M6 near Cannock, the A5 road traverses the region northwest-southeast, passing through Shrewsbury, Telford, Cannock, Tamworth and Nuneaton. As part of the planning system, the Regional Assembly is under statutory requirement to produce a Regional Transport Strategy to provide long term planning for transport in the region. This involves region wide transport schemes such as those carried out by the Highways Agency, within the region, the local transport authorities carry out transport planning through the use of a Local Transport Plan which outlines their strategies, policies and implementation programme. The most recent LTP is that for the period 2006-11, in the West Midlands region, the following transport authorities have published their LTP online, Herefordshire, Shropshire U. A. The transport authority of Stoke-on-Trent U. A, Major towns and cities in the West Midlands region include, Bold indicates city status. The region is based on the former region of Mercia. The Battle of Edgehill in October 1642 started the English Civil War, jane Bunford of Bartley Green until 1982 was the tallest woman ever in the world, and now the second tallest, and the tallest person ever in the UK, at 7 ft 11in
13.
Canon (priest)
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A canon is a member of certain bodies subject to an ecclesiastical rule. This way of life grew common in the eighth century, in the eleventh century, some churches required clergy thus living together to adopt the rule first proposed by Saint Augustine that they renounce private wealth. Those who embraced this change were known as Augustinians or Canons Regular, in the Roman Catholic Church, the members of the chapter of a cathedral or of a collegiate church are canons. Depending on the title of the church, several languages use specific titles, e. g. in German Domherr or Domkapitular in a Dom, Stiftsherr in a prelature that has the status of a Stift. One of the functions of the chapter in the Roman Catholic Church was to elect a Vicar Capitular to serve during a sede vacante period of the diocese. All canons of the Church of England have been secular since the Reformation, mostly, however, they are ordained, that is, priests or members of the clergy. Today, the system of canons is retained almost exclusively in connection with cathedral churches, a canon is a member of the chapter of priests, headed by a dean, which is responsible for administering a cathedral or certain other churches that are styled collegiate churches. The dean and chapter are the body which has legal responsibility for the cathedral. The title of Canon is not a permanent title and when no longer in a position entitling preferment, however, it is still given in many dioceses to senior parish priests as a largely honorary title. It is usually awarded in recognition of long and dedicated service to the diocese, honorary canons are members of the chapter in name but are non-residential and receive no emoluments. They are entitled to call themselves canon and may have a role in the administration of the cathedral, in some Church of England dioceses, the title Prebendary is used instead of canon when the cleric is involved administratively with a cathedral. Honorary canons within the Roman Catholic Church may still be nominated after the Second Vatican Council, on the demise of the Kingdom of France this honour became transferred to the Presidents of the Republic, and hence is currently held by François Hollande. This applies even when the French President is not Catholic, as is the case with the atheist Hollande, the proto-canon of the papal basilica of Saint Mary Major is the King of Spain, currently Felipe VI. The rank of lay canon is especially conferred upon diocesan chancellors and it has traditionally been said that the King of England is a canon or prebendary of St David’s Cathedral, Wales. However, this is based on a misconception, the canonry of St Mary’s College, St David’s became the property of the Crown on the dissolution of the monasteries. The Sovereign was never a canon of St David’s, even as a layman, though he or she may occupy the first prebendal stall, a canon professor is a canon at an Anglican cathedral who also holds a university professorship. Section 2 of the Church of England Measure 1995 was passed for the purpose of enabling Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford. Historically, the chair in Greek at the university was also a canon professorship and this canonry was transferred to the Lightfoot Professor of Divinity in 1940
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Bishop's Palace, Lichfield
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The Bishops Palace is a 17th-century building situated in the north east corner of the Cathedral Close in Lichfield, Staffordshire in the United Kingdom. The current building replaced a medieval Bishops Palace built in the 14th century for Bishop Langton, the first palace was destroyed during the English Civil War and rebuilt in 1687 as the current building. The palace was residence to the Bishop of Lichfield from the late 1860s until 1954, the palace is a Grade I listed building. Construction of the began in 1686 and was completed in 1687. The architect was Edward Pierce who had worked as one of Christopher Wren’s masons. The building was built in the Queen Anne style and comprises two storeys with a seven window range, low pitched hipped roof with dormer windows, the front of the house has a symmetrical layout and is topped with a classical pediment over the doorway. As built the palace comprised on the floor, a central hall and parlour with a drawing room on the east. A bakehouse, brewhouse, and pigsty were built in the north west corner of the grounds, the rest of which was out as gardens. In 1868-69 two wings were added to either side of the house and a chapel to the north west angle, the chapel is built in a gothic style with lancet windows. All of the original and subsequent buildings are faced in grey Ashlar stone, the first building at this location was built for Bishop Langton in 1304-14. This building stretched along the east wall of the Close and was enclosed by its own wall. Walter the carpenter and Hugh de la Dale, a mason were responsible for a palace whose great hall was the fifth or sixth largest in England at the time at 100 ft x 56 ft. The hall was probably aisled, with supporting an elaborately carved wooden roof admired in 1634 for its gilt carvings. Paintings of the coronation, marriages, wars and funeral of Edward I decorated the walls and were visible in the 1590s. The bishops private quarters lay north of the hall, to the south what was called the Ladys Chamber in 1685 was possibly a reception room. A chapel was built south of the hall, whose east end was a tower protruding from the Close wall. The chapel may have had two storeys, a one with access from the passage for the use of servants. At the south end of the courtyard was a gateway which faced the main, the palace grounds were entered through a gateway in the south west corner of an inner courtyard
15.
Cathedral Close, Lichfield
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The Cathedral Close is a historic set of buildings surrounding Lichfield Cathedral in Lichfield in the United Kingdom. The Close comprises buildings associated with the cathedral and the clergy which encircle the Cathedral, the Close grew up around the cathedral during medieval times and today some medieval buildings remain in the Close but the majority of buildings date from the 17th and 18th and 19th centuries. After raids from the Vikings during 9th century the Cathedral lost some of its power, Bishop Clinton fortified the Cathedral in the 12th century. On three sides a deep ditch was dug and the south was defended naturally by Minster Pool. This fortification effecively created the Close, in 1299 Bishop Langton was licensed to wall the Close in stone and crenellate it. The work was unfinished at his death in 1321, the fortification comprised corner towers and interval towers along the wall. An octagonal tower at the north-east corner was incorporated in Langtons palace, at the south-east corner there was a parapet along the top of the wall and a projecting turret, which survive as part of the later St. Marys House. The south-west tower was recorded in 1312–13 and was shown on Speeds 1610 map of Lichfield, the north-west tower had a statue of Bishop Walter, presumably Walter Langton, in the 1390s, the tower was evidently another Civil War casualty. Three interval towers were placed on the east wall, two of them incorporated in Langtons palace and the third on the site of the later Selwyn House, the Deans Tower, so called in 1315, apparently stood on the west wall, it had been demolished by 1661. The gate built by Langton at the south-east corner of the Close had two towers, the eastern one, whose base was excavated in the late 1980s, was a half-octagon with 12-ft. The western tower was presumably of similar dimension, the gate had a portcullis in 1376. There was a drawbridge, still in existence in the earlier 18th century, which crossed the outflow of water from Minster Pool, the gate was removed in the mid 18th century in order to improve access for coaches into the Close. A northward extension of the tower was used as a porters lodge in the early 17th century. After being damaged in the Civil War, it was rebuilt, by 1734 the porter or verger lived in a house at the west gate, and the former lodge was demolished between 1812 and 1836. The west gate was completed by the chapter in the time of Bishop Northburgh and it was in the form of a tall block with side windows. It was decorated with coats of arms, and there was a statue of the Virgin Mary by 1530, the gate was demolished in 1800 to make room for Newtons College. Traces of its stonework survive on the side of the road from Beacon Street. A house, evidently at the north-west corner of the gate, was let in 1661 to James Barrow, a tailor
16.
Honora Sneyd
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There, she formed a close friendship with their daughter, Anna Seward. Having had an engagement to John André and having declined the hand of Thomas Day, she married Richard Edgeworth as his second wife in 1773. There she helped raise his children from his first marriage, including Maria Edgeworth, returning to England she fell ill with tuberculosis, which was incurable, dying at Weston in Staffordshire in 1780. She is known for her stand on womens rights through her vigorous rejection of the proposal by Day, Honora Sneyd was born the third daughter to Edward Sneyd, of Bishton Staffordshire and Susanna Cook of Sible Hedingham, Essex, in Bath in 1751. Her father was a Major in the Royal Horse Guards, with an appointment at Court as a Gentleman Usher. Her parents married in 1742 and she was one of eight children and the surviving daughter of six. Her father found himself unable to care of all of his children and various friends. The Sewards had lost five children after their first two daughters, and such fostering was not uncommon at the time, there she was brought up by the Sewards as one of their own, being variously described as an adopted or foster sister. Anna Seward describes how she and her younger sister Sarah first met Honora, on returning from a walk, in her poem The Anniversary. Initially Honora was more attached to Sarah, to whom she was closer in age, but Sarah died of typhus at the age of nineteen, following Sarahs death Honora became the responsibility of Anna, the older sister. Anna consoled herself with her affection for Honora Sneyd, as she describes in Visions, in the poem she expresses the hope that Honora will replace her sister in her and her parents affections. Throughout her life Honora Sneyds health was fragile, experiencing the first bout of the tuberculosis that would claim her life in 1766. At Lichfield Honora Sneyd came under the influence of Canon Seward, who raised her, and his views on female education. She was described as clever and interested in science, From Anna she developed a love of literature. Honora Sneyd was a scholar, attending day school in Lichfield where she became fluent in French. Though Canon Sewards attitudes towards the education of girls was progressive relative to the times, amongst the subjects he taught them were theology and numeracy, and how to read, appreciate, write and recite poetry. Although this deviated from what were considered conventional drawing room accomplishments, however, the omissions were also notable, including languages and science, although they were left free to pursue their own inclinations in this regard. The children were encouraged to participate in the conversations, as Anna later relates, Sneyd had a reputation for both intelligence and beauty, as commented on by many, including Anna Seward and Richard Edgeworth
17.
Female education
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Female education is a catch-all term for a complex set of issues and debates surrounding education for girls and women. It includes areas of gender equality and access to education, while the feminist movement certainly promoted the importance of the issues attached to female education the discussion is wide-ranging and by no means narrowly defined. It may include, for example, AIDS education, universal education, meaning state-provided primary and secondary education independent of gender is not yet a global norm, even if it is assumed in most developed countries. In some Western countries, women have surpassed men at many levels of education, for example, in the United States in 2005/2006, women earned 62% of associate degrees, 58% of bachelors degrees, 60% of masters degrees, and 50% of doctorates. Education for disabled women has also improved, in 2011, Giusi Spagnolo became the first woman with Down Syndrome to graduate college in Europe. Improving girls educational levels has been demonstrated to have clear impacts on the health and economic future of young women, the infant mortality rate of babies whose mothers have received primary education is half that of children whose mothers are illiterate. In the poorest countries of the world, 50% of girls do not attend secondary school, yet, research shows that every extra year of school for girls increases their lifetime income by 15%. Improving female education, and thus the potential of women, improves the standard of living for their own children. Yet, many barriers to education for girls remain, in some African countries, such as Burkina Faso, girls are unlikely to attend school for such basic reasons as a lack of private latrine facilities for girls. Education increases a level of health and health awareness. It can lead to rates of barrier and chemical contraceptive use. It has been shown, in addition, to increase communication with their partners and their employers. Education and Violence Against Women In Pakistan, a relationship was found between the formal level of education a woman attains and the likelihood of violence against that woman. The researcher used snowball convenient sampling, a method where participants are referred. Ethical and privacy issues made this the most convenient method, an informant played a major role in gathering information that was then cross-checked. The sample of victims of violence was made up of married women from ages 18–60 both from rural and urban communities, the study described different forms of physical violence that are already present and provided an idea of what women go through, even across communities. Education in this study was stressed to be the solution and a necessity in eliminating violence, a discussion of political and social barriers is needed. The relationship is a lot more complicated than it seems, women can be illiterate, immigrant Latina Women are a highly affected group by domestic violence
18.
John Milton
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John Milton was an English poet, polemicist, man of letters, and civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell. He wrote at a time of flux and political upheaval. Miltons poetry and prose reflect deep personal convictions, a passion for freedom and self-determination, Samuel Johnson praised Paradise Lost as a poem which. The phases of Miltons life parallel the major historical and political divisions in Stuart Britain, the Restoration of 1660 deprived Milton, now completely blind, of his public platform, but this period saw him complete most of his major works of poetry. Miltons views developed from his extensive reading, as well as travel and experience. By the time of his death in 1674, Milton was impoverished and on the margins of English intellectual life, yet famous throughout Europe, John Milton was born in Bread Street, London on 9 December 1608, the son of composer John Milton and his wife Sarah Jeffrey. The senior John Milton moved to London around 1583 after being disinherited by his devout Catholic father Richard Milton for embracing Protestantism, in London, the senior John Milton married Sarah Jeffrey and found lasting financial success as a scrivener. He lived in and worked from a house on Bread Street, the elder Milton was noted for his skill as a musical composer, and this talent left his son with a lifelong appreciation for music and friendships with musicians such as Henry Lawes. Miltons fathers prosperity provided his eldest son with a tutor, Thomas Young. Research suggests that Youngs influence served as the introduction to religious radicalism. After Youngs tutorship, Milton attended St Pauls School in London, there he began the study of Latin and Greek, and the classical languages left an imprint on his poetry in English. Miltons first datable compositions are two psalms done at age 15 at Long Bennington, one contemporary source is the Brief Lives of John Aubrey, an uneven compilation including first-hand reports. In the work, Aubrey quotes Christopher, Miltons younger brother, When he was young, he studied hard and sat up very late. In 1625, Milton began attending Christs College, Cambridge and he graduated with a B. A. in 1629, and ranked fourth of 24 honours graduates that year in the University of Cambridge. Preparing to become an Anglican priest, Milton stayed on to obtain his Master of Arts degree on 3 July 1632, Milton was probably rusticated for quarrelling in his first year with his tutor, Bishop William Chappell. He was certainly at home in the Lent Term 1626, there he wrote his Elegia Prima, a first Latin elegy, to Charles Diodati, based on remarks of John Aubrey, Chappell whipt Milton. This story is now disputed, though certainly Milton disliked Chappell, historian Christopher Hill cautiously notes that Milton was apparently rusticated, and that the differences between Chappell and Milton may have been either religious or personal. It is also possible that, like Isaac Newton four decades later, Milton was sent home because of the plague, in 1626, Miltons tutor was Nathaniel Tovey
19.
Erasmus Darwin
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Erasmus Darwin was an English physician. One of the key thinkers of the Midlands Enlightenment, he was also a philosopher, physiologist, slave-trade abolitionist, inventor. His poems included much natural history, including a statement of evolution and he was a member of the Darwin–Wedgwood family, which includes his grandsons Charles Darwin and Francis Galton. Darwin was a member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham. He turned down an invitation of George IIIs to become a physician to the King, Erasmus Darwin House, his home in Lichfield, is now a museum dedicated to Erasmus Darwin and his lifes work. A school in nearby Chasetown recently converted to Academy status and is now known as Erasmus Darwin Academy, Darwin was born at Elston Hall, Nottinghamshire near Newark-on-Trent, England, the youngest of seven children of Robert Darwin of Elston, a lawyer, and his wife Elizabeth Hill. The name Erasmus had been used by a number of his family and derives from his ancestor Erasmus Earle and he obtained his medical education at the University of Edinburgh Medical School. Whether Darwin ever obtained the degree of MD is not known. Darwin settled in 1756 as a physician at Nottingham, but met little success. A few weeks after his arrival, using a course of treatment. This ensured his success in the new locale, Darwin was a highly successful physician for more than fifty years in the Midlands. George III invited him to be Royal Physician, but Darwin declined, in Lichfield, Darwin wrote didactic poetry, developed his system of evolution, and invented amongst other things, a carriage steering mechanism, a manuscript copier and a speaking machine. Darwin married twice and had 14 children, including two daughters by an employee, and, possibly, at least one further illegitimate daughter. In 1757 he married Mary Howard, a governess, Mary Parker, was hired to look after Robert. In 1782, Mary Sr married Joseph Day, a Birmingham merchant, Darwin may have fathered another child, this time with a married woman. A Lucy Swift gave birth in 1771 to a baby, also named Lucy, who was christened a daughter of her mother and William Swift, Lucy Jr. married John Hardcastle in Derby in 1792 and their daughter, Mary, married Francis Boott, the physician. When Edward Pole died, Darwin married Elizabeth and moved to her home, Radbourne Hall, the hall and village are these days known as Radbourne. In 1782, they moved to Full Street, Derby, harriet Darwin, married Admiral Thomas James Maling Darwin died suddenly on 18 April 1802, weeks after having moved to Breadsall Priory, just north of Derby
20.
Samuel Johnson
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Johnson was a devout Anglican and committed Tory, and is described by the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history. He is also the subject of perhaps the most famous biography in English literature, born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, Johnson attended Pembroke College, Oxford for just over a year, before his lack of funds forced him to leave. After working as a teacher, he moved to London, where he began to write for The Gentlemans Magazine and his early works include the biography Life of Mr Richard Savage, the poems London and The Vanity of Human Wishes, and the play Irene. After nine years of work, Johnsons A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755 and it had a far-reaching effect on Modern English and has been described as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship. This work brought Johnson popularity and success, until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 150 years later, Johnsons was viewed as the pre-eminent British dictionary. His later works included essays, an annotated edition of The Plays of William Shakespeare. In 1763, he befriended James Boswell, with whom he travelled to Scotland. Towards the end of his life, he produced the massive and influential Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets, Johnson was a tall and robust man. His odd gestures and tics were disconcerting to some on first meeting him, after a series of illnesses, he died on the evening of 13 December 1784, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Born on 18 September 1709, to Michael Johnson, a bookseller and he did not cry and, with doubts surrounding the newborns health, his aunt exclaimed that she would not have picked such a poor creature up in the street. Since it was feared that the baby die, the vicar of St Marys was summoned to perform a baptism. Two godfathers were chosen, Samuel Swynfen, a physician and graduate of Pembroke College, Oxford, and Richard Wakefield, a lawyer, coroner, Johnsons health improved and he was put to wet-nurse with Joan Marklew. He soon contracted scrofula, known at time as the Kings Evil because it was thought royalty could cure it. Sir John Floyer, former physician to King Charles II, recommended that the young Johnson should receive the royal touch, however, the ritual was ineffective, and an operation was performed that left him with permanent scars across his face and body. Johnson demonstrated signs of intelligence as a child, and his parents, to his later disgust. His education began at the age of three, and was provided by his mother, who had him memorise and recite passages from the Book of Common Prayer. When Samuel turned four, he was sent to a nearby school, a year later, Johnson went to Lichfield Grammar School, where he excelled in Latin. During this time, Johnson started to exhibit the tics that would influence how people viewed him in his years
21.
James Boswell
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James Boswell, 9th Laird of Auchinleck, was a Scottish biographer and diarist, born in Edinburgh. Boswells surname has passed into the English language as a term for a constant companion and observer, Boswell was born in Blairs Land on the east side of Parliament Close behind St Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh on 29 October 1740. He was the eldest son of a judge, Alexander Boswell, Lord Auchinleck, as the eldest son, he was heir to his familys estate of Auchinleck in Ayrshire. Boswells mother was a strict Calvinist, and he felt that his father was cold to him, as a child, he was delicate and suffered from some type of nervous ailment which appeared to be inherent and would afflict him sporadically all through his life. At the age of five, he was sent to James Mundells academy, an institution by the standards of the time. Boswell was unhappy there, and his sickliness began to manifest itself in the physical incidents associated with nightmares, in view of this, the now-eight-year-old was removed from the academy and educated by a string of private tutors who included John Dunn and a Mr. Fergusson. The former had more success than his successor, he versed his charge in the joys of literature. Dunn was also present during, if not directly involved in, Boswells serious affliction of 1752 and this afforded him his first experience of genuine society, and his recovery was rapid and complete. It may, however, have inculcated the notion that travel, at thirteen, Boswell was enrolled into the arts course at the University of Edinburgh, studying there from 1753 to 1758. Midway through his studies, he suffered a depression and nervous illness, but. Boswell had swarthy skin, black hair and dark eyes, he was of average height and his appearance was alert and masculine, and he had an ingratiating sense of good humour. Upon turning nineteen, he was sent to continue his studies at the University of Glasgow, while at Glasgow, Boswell decided to convert to Catholicism and become a monk. Upon learning of this, his father ordered him home, instead of obeying, though, Boswell ran away to London, where he spent three months, living the life of a libertine, before he was taken back to Scotland by his father. Upon returning, he was re-enrolled at Edinburgh University and forced by his father to sign away most of his inheritance in return for an allowance of £100 a year, on 30 July 1762, Boswell took his oral law exam, which he passed with some skill. Upon this success, Lord Auchinleck decided to raise his sons allowance to £200 a year and it was during his second spell there that Boswell wrote his London Journal and, on 16 May 1763, met Johnson for the first time. The pair became friends almost immediately, the first conversation between Johnson and Boswell is quoted in Life of Samuel Johnson as follows, Mr. Johnson, I do indeed come from Scotland, but I cannot help it. That, Sir, I find, is what a great many of your countrymen cannot help. It was around three months after this first encounter with Johnson that Boswell departed for Europe with the goal of continuing his law studies at Utrecht University
22.
Separate spheres
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Separate spheres or the domestic–public dichotomy is an ideology that defines and prescribes separate spheres for women and men. Culturally located in Europe and North America, it emerged as a distinct ideology during the Industrial Revolution, although the basic idea of gendered separation of spheres is much older. The notion of separate spheres dictates that men, based primarily on their biological makeup as well as the will of God, inhabit the public sphere – the world of politics, economy, commerce, and law. Womens proper sphere, according to the ideology, is the realm of domestic life, child-rearing, housekeeping. The idea that women should inhabit a separate domestic sphere has been extant in Western thought for centuries, in Politics, Aristotle described two separate spheres in Greek society, the home and the city. Women were confined to the realm while men occupied the public sphere of the polis. In the hunting/gathering communities, men are usually the hunters and the warriors, where they use such as spears, bows. “Men make better because they are bigger and stronger than women in the same population” and this phenomenon, however, was not studied until much later. Drawing on Friedan, historian Barbara Welter identified a Cult of True Womanhood, True women were supposed to be pious, pure, submissive, and domestic. Domesticity, in particular, was regarded as a virtue as the home was considered a womans proper sphere. Unlike Tocqueville, Welter and other 20th-century historians were critical of the separate spheres ideology, the ideology of separate spheres emerged in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. Prior to the industrialization of the Western world, family members worked side by side, with the shift from home-based to factory production, men left the home to sell their labor for wages while women stayed home to perform unpaid domestic work. The separate spheres ideology reflected and fueled these changes, theorists such as Friedrich Engels and, to a lesser extent, Karl Marx have stressed the importance of industrialization. Marx argued that following the rise of capitalism, the home lost its control of the means of production, as a result, Engels contended, women were excluded from participating directly in the production process and relegated to the subordinate domestic sphere. Women were considered passive, dependent on men, and, due to their reproductive capacity, rousseau described womens primary duties in Emile, or On Education, stating that womens entire education should be planned in relation to men. The popular beliefs about inherent sex differences remained deeply embedded in popular consciousness throughout the Progressive Era, despite these new insights and social and economic changes such as womens entry into the labor force, the separate spheres ideology did not disappear. Strong support for the separation of spheres came from antisuffragists who relied on the notion of inherent sexual differences to argue that women were unfit for political participation. Similarly, Christian fundamentalists supported the separate spheres ideology and opposed womens suffrage as well as attempts to broaden womens influence in the public sphere
23.
Walter Scott
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Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronet, FRSE was a Scottish historical novelist, playwright and poet. Many of his works remain classics of both English-language literature and of Scottish literature, famous titles include Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, Old Mortality, The Lady of the Lake, Waverley, The Heart of Midlothian and The Bride of Lammermoor. A prominent member of the Tory establishment in Edinburgh, Scott was an member of the Highland Society. He survived a bout of polio in 1773 that left him lame. To cure his lameness he was sent in 1773 to live in the rural Scottish Borders at his grandparents farm at Sandyknowe, adjacent to the ruin of Smailholm Tower. Here he was taught to read by his aunt Jenny, and learned from her the speech patterns and many of the tales and legends that characterised much of his work. In January 1775 he returned to Edinburgh, and that went with his aunt Jenny to take spa treatment at Bath in England. In the winter of 1776 he went back to Sandyknowe, with another attempt at a cure at Prestonpans during the following summer. In 1778, Scott returned to Edinburgh for private education to him for school. In October 1779 he began at the Royal High School of Edinburgh and he was now well able to walk and explore the city and the surrounding countryside. His reading included chivalric romances, poems, history and travel books and he was given private tuition by James Mitchell in arithmetic and writing, and learned from him the history of the Church of Scotland with emphasis on the Covenanters. Scott began studying classics at the University of Edinburgh in November 1783, at the age of 12, in March 1786 he began an apprenticeship in his fathers office to become a Writer to the Signet. While at the university Scott had become a friend of Adam Ferguson, Scott met the blind poet Thomas Blacklock, who lent him books and introduced him to James Macphersons Ossian cycle of poems. During the winter of 1786–87 the 15-year-old Scott saw Robert Burns at one of these salons, for what was to be their only meeting. When Burns noticed a print illustrating the poem The Justice of the Peace and asked who had written the poem, only Scott knew that it was by John Langhorne, and was thanked by Burns. When it was decided that he would become a lawyer, he returned to the university to study law, first taking classes in Moral Philosophy, after completing his studies in law, he became a lawyer in Edinburgh. As a lawyers clerk he made his first visit to the Scottish Highlands directing an eviction and he was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates in 1792. He had an unsuccessful love suit with Williamina Belsches of Fettercairn, as a boy, youth and young man, Scott was fascinated by the oral traditions of the Scottish Borders
24.
Thomas Day
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Thomas Day was a British author and abolitionist. He was well known for the book The History of Sandford, Day was born on 22 June 1748 in London, the only child of Thomas and Jane Day. His father died when he was about an old. He first attended a school in Stoke Newington, Middlesex, and he subsequently attended Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he became a master debater and developed a close friendship with William Jones, he did not graduate and left the college in 1767. Day moved back to his estate at Barehill, Berkshire. There he met the progressive educator Richard Lovell Edgeworth, from whom he became almost inseparable, together they resolved to educate Edgeworths son, Dick, in the style of Jean-Jacques Rousseaus Emile. Edgeworth and the project converted Day to Rousseauism and he declared in 1769 that the two books he would save, were all the worlds books to be destroyed, would be the Bible and Emile. He, Edgeworth and Dick visited Rousseau in France, because of his connection with Edgeworth, Day was able to join the Lunar Society in Lichfield and meet and converse with Erasmus Darwin as well as Anna Seward. After this education project, Day undertook a second, he tried to train a wife, after failing to find the perfect wife, he decided to adopt two foundlings from orphanages and, using Rousseaus maxims, educate them to be the perfect wife. He adopted a 12-year-old and an 11-year-old whom he renamed Sabrina Sidney and Lucretia, the girls became ill, and quarrelled. Day decided to give up on Lucretia, who he did not think could satisfy him intellectually, Sabrina he felt was still a possibility, but her character had to be further strengthened. After dropping hot wax on her arms and hearing her scream, though, Day decided to study the law and in 1776 was admitted to Lincolns Inn, he rarely practised. In 1773, Day published his first work—The Dying Negro—a poem he had written with John Bicknell and it tells the story of a runaway slave, and sold well. Day argued for the rights of the American colonists in his poem The Devoted Legions and his speeches were also published as pamphlets. But it was as a writer for children that Day made his reputation, the History of Little Jack was extremely popular, but it could not match the sales of The History of Sandford and Merton which was a bestseller for over a hundred years. Embracing Rousseaus dictates in many ways, it narrates the story of the rich, noble but spoiled Tommy Merton and his poor, through trials and stories, Harry and the boys tutor teach Tommy the importance of labor and the evils of the idle rich. He met Esther Milnes, an heiress from Chesterfield, and they were married on 7 August 1778, the couple subsequently moved to a small estate at Stapleford Abbotts, near Abridge in Essex. They lived an ascetic lifestyle and Esther was not allowed to contact her family
25.
Francis Noel Clarke Mundy
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Francis Noel Clarke Mundy 1739 –1815 was an English poet. His most noted work was written to defend Needwood Forest which was enclosed at the beginning of the 19th century and he was the father of Francis Mundy. He received his education at Repton School and at Winchester and then proceeded to New College, Oxford in 1757, in 1762-3, Joseph Wright exhibited a set of six portraits that were commissioned by Mundy. Each of the portraits were in the dress of the Markearton Hunt consisting of yellow breeches. These paintings hung at the home of Markeaton Hall. The subjects of these included old school friends like Harry Peckham K. C. and relatives like his brother-in-law. Mundy married first Elizabeth Ayrton who died in Falmouth aged 22 on 1 October 1768 and he then married Elizabeth eldest daughter of Sir Robert Burdett bart in 1770 and had two sons, Francis and Charles Godfrey His second wife died in 1807 aged 64. As a poet he is considered part of the Lichfield circle, the picture also features in the foreground the manuscript of Mundys ‘The Fall of Needwood Forest’. South Derbyshire magistrates court also own an oil painting of him after Thomas Lawrence, Mundy was the author of two admired descriptive poems Needwood Forest and the Fall of Needwood. Needwood Forest was an ancient woodland in Staffordshire which was destroyed under the authority of the Inclosure Act of 1803. Despite Mundys and other protests it was removed by 1811, however she also claimed that large portions of Needwood Forest were actually written by herself and by Erasmus Darwin. Needwood Forest was well regarded in its time, and is an example of the verse that was starting to become a feature of late eighteenth century English literature. The poem, which is in five parts is written in couplets and contains allusions to Milton, Spenser, Denham. It was printed privately and is appended with a number of verses, by fellow Lichfield poets Sir Brooke Boothby, Erasmus Darwin. Seward tried to persuade Mundy to publish the poem publicly, the Fall of Needwood also contains three shorter poems, see below. There also existed an edition combining the two volumes, with different pagination to the original volumes. Following the grand climacteric there are two poems, by Seward and by Hayley. In the posthumous 1830 edition are appended the 1808 poems and five others, one of these, The Backwardness of the Present Spring Accounted For, May 5th,1782, has also been attributed to Anna Seward
26.
Sir Brooke Boothby, 6th Baronet
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Sir Brooke Boothby, 6th Baronet was a linguist, translator, poet and landowner, based in Derbyshire, England. He was part of the intellectual and literary circle of Lichfield, in 1766 he welcomed the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau to Ashbourne circles, after Rousseaus short stay in London with Hume. Ten years later, in 1776, Boothby visited Rousseau in Paris, Boothby translated the manuscript and published it in Lichfield in 1780 after the authors death, and donated the document to the British Library in 1781. Several portraits were made of Boothbys daughter, Penelope — by Henry Fuseli and Joshua Reynolds. She died young, and was the subject of a book of poetry by her grieving father and he inherited his unusual forename from Hill Brooke, the second wife of the fourth Baronet Boothby, of Broadlow Ash, Sir William. Brooke Boothby is sometimes referred to as the seventh Baronet as there was confusion over the appointment of the first Baronet. He was educated at St Johns College, Cambridge, matriculating in 1761, Boothby later visited Rousseau in Paris and promised him that he would publish his Confessions, an autobiographical work to which Boothby gave the title Dialogues ou Rousseau, Juge de Jean-Jacques. The book was published in Lichfield by Boothby in the French language and this achievement is immortalised in Joseph Wright of Derbys painting. The portrait shows Boothby reclining by a stream in a wooded glade once known as the Twenty Oaks where he and Rousseau met for discussion and where Rousseau went to write in peace and solitude. He is holding a leather bound book with the name Rousseau on the rather than a specific title. The landscape setting can be interpreted as referring to the Rousseauian idea that all of mans troubles, according to Andrew Graciano, the plants in the setting refer to Boothbys interest in botany and the botanical aspect of the painting has previously been ignored. Both Boothby and Rousseau were interested in botany and Rousseau studied local flora when he lived at Wootton Hall, two other of Wrights paintings of Dovedale were sold to Brooke Boothby who had helped Wright when he put on the first one-man exhibition in London. Boothby also purchased two views of nearby Matlock, two paintings of bridges in Rome as well as the portrait of himself. He began the restoration of Ashbourne Hall, using his wifes dowry to renovate the structure, remodel the parkland, purchase rare plants, like his father before him, Boothby was extravagant in the extreme. That weakness and his emotional self-indulgence were to be his nemeses and his only daughter, Penelope, was born in the following April. Sir Joshua Reynolds portrait of Penelope, often called The Mob Cap, is one of the most famous of English child portraits, Reynolds had painted portraits of Boothby and his younger half-sister Anne. His full sister, Maria, was portrayed by Wright a decade before he painted the portrait of Brooke Boothby himself. On 19 March 1791, disaster struck when Boothbys daughter died at the age of five and this sad event permanently affected him and he subsequently published a book of poetry, Sorrows Sacred to the Memory of Penelope
27.
Thomas Sedgwick Whalley
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Thomas Sedgwick Whalley was an English cleric, poet and traveller. He was educated at St. Johns College, Cambridge, graduating B. A. in 1767, M. A. in 1774, for over 50 years the duties were discharged by a curate. About 1825 Whalley built a parsonage-house for the benefice and he was appointed on 22 August 1777 to the prebendal stall of Combe in Wells Cathedral, and retained it until 1826. About 1776 Whalley purchased the house in the Crescent at Bath and entertained there. He associated with the set around Anna, Lady Miller at Bath Easton, frances Burney described him in her diary as immensely tall, thin and handsome, but affected, delicate, and sentimentally pathetic. In the summer of 1783, for reasons, he and his wife broke up their establishments in England. Langford Court, after being let for many years, was sold in 1804, Whalley spent the spring and winter for a long period in southern France, Italy, Switzerland, and Belgium. At Paris in 1783 his appearance drew from Marie-Antoinette the compliment of Le bel Anglais and he often spent the summer at Mendip Lodge, on the Mendip hills, where the grounds had grottos and terrace walks. Whalley was created D. D. of Edinburgh University on 10 July 1808, next winter he bought a house in Baker Street, London, and for some years lived there in great style. After the peace of 1814 he went abroad again, on his return in 1818 he purchased the centre house in Portland Place, Bath. In 1825 Whalley bought the lease of a house at Clifton, and in 1828 he left England, for the last time. He was a patron of painting, a picture of The Woodman, by Barker of Bath, was painted for him, Whalley kept journals of his continental experiences. Two volumes were edited in 1863 by Hill Wickham, rector of Horsington and they contain letters from Hester Piozzi, Sarah Siddons, and Anna Seward. His other writings included, Edwy and Edilda, a tale in five parts,1779, republished in 1794. The Castle of Montval, a tragedy in five acts,1781, 2nd edit. with a dedication to Mrs. Siddons,1799, it was played at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in 1799. The Fatal Kiss, a poem,1781, in the style of Aphra Behn, verses addressed to Mrs. Siddons on her being engaged at Drury Lane Theatre,1782. This was assigned to him in Literary Memoirs, kenneth and Fenella, a legendary tale,1809. Hannah More was a neighbour in the Mendips, Whalley supported her action over the school at Blagdon in an anonymous pamphlet, Animadversions on the Curate of Blagdons Three Publications,1802
28.
William Hayley
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This was also the name of his great uncle William Hayley a 17th-century Dean of Chichester and also a contemporary architect b.1797 at Thornhill, West Yorkshire. William Hayley was an English writer, best known as the friend and biographer of William Cowper. Born at Chichester, he was sent to Eton in 1757, and to Trinity Hall, Cambridge, in 1762, his connection with the Middle Temple, London, in 1767 he left Cambridge and went to live in London. His private means enabled Hayley to live on his estate at Eartham, Sussex. So great was Hayleys fame that on Thomas Wartons death in 1790 he was offered the laureateship, in 1792, while writing the Life of Milton, Hayley made Cowpers acquaintance. A warm friendship sprang up between the two which lasted till Cowpers death in 1800, Hayley indeed was mainly instrumental in getting Cowper his pension. In 1800 Hayley also lost his son, Thomas Alphonso Hayley. He had been a pupil of John Flaxmans, to whom Hayleys Essay on Sculpture is addressed, flaxman introduced William Blake to Hayley, and after the latter had moved in 1800 to his marine hermitage at Felpham, Sussex. Blake settled near him for three years to engrave the illustrations for the Life of Cowper and this, Hayleys best known work, was published in 1803-1804 in 5 vols. Hayley died at Felpham on 12 November 1820, Hayley had already written occasional poems, when in 1771 his tragedy, The Afflicted Father, was rejected by David Garrick. In the same year his translation of Pierre Corneilles Rodogune as The Syrian Queen was also declined by George Colman. The last-mentioned work was so popular as to run to twelve or fourteen editions, together with the Triumphs of Music it was ridiculed by Byron in English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. In 1805 he published Ballads founded on Anecdotes of Animals, with illustrations by Blake, for the last twelve years of his life Hayley received an allowance for writing his Memoirs. It was appropriate that the new wing is situated on 8 North Pallant. A portrait of Hayley by George Romney is currently on display in the gallery. In 1769 Hayley married Eliza, daughter of Thomas Ball, dean of Chichester and she died in 1797, her mind had been seriously affected, and since 1789 they had been separated. He married in 1809 Mary Welford, but they separated after three years. Works by William Hayley at Project Gutenberg Works by or about William Hayley at Internet Archive
29.
Robert Southey
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Robert Southey was an English poet of the Romantic school, one of the so-called Lake Poets, and Poet Laureate for 30 years from 1813 until his death in 1843. Although his fame has long been eclipsed by that of his contemporaries and friends William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Southey was also a prolific letter writer, literary scholar, essay writer, historian and biographer. His biographies include the life and works of John Bunyan, John Wesley, William Cowper, Oliver Cromwell, the last has rarely been out of print since its publication in 1813 and was adapted for the screen in the 1926 British film, Nelson. He also wrote on issues, which led to a brief, non-sitting. Robert Southey was born in Wine Street, Bristol, to Robert Southey and he was educated at Westminster School, London, and Balliol College, Oxford. Southey later said of Oxford, All I learnt was a little swimming, experimenting with a writing partnership with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, most notably in their joint composition of The Fall of Robespierre, Southey published his first collection of poems in 1794. Each young man should take to himself a mild and lovely woman for his wife, it would be her part to prepare their innocent food, and tend their hardy and beautiful race. Southey was the first to reject the idea as unworkable, suggesting that they move the location to Wales. In 1799 Southey and Coleridge were involved with experiments with nitrous oxide. Southey married Edith Fricker at St. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol and she was a sister of Sara Fricker, Coleridges wife. The Southeys made their home at Greta Hall, Keswick, in the Lake District, also living at Greta Hall and supported by him were Sara Coleridge and her three children, after Coleridge abandoned them, as well as the widow of poet Robert Lovell and her son. In 1808 Southey met Walter Savage Landor, whose work he admired and that same year he wrote Letters from England under the pseudonym Don Manuel Alvarez Espriella, an account of a tour supposedly from a foreigners viewpoint. From 1809 Southey contributed to the Quarterly Review and he had become so well known by 1813 that he was appointed Poet Laureate after Walter Scott refused the post. In 1819, through a friend, Southey met the leading civil engineer Thomas Telford. From mid-August to 1 October 1819, Southey accompanied Telford on an tour of his engineering projects in the Scottish Highlands. This was published in 1929 as Journal of a Tour in Scotland in 1819 and he was also a friend of the Dutch poet Willem Bilderdijk, whom he met twice, in 1824 and 1826, at Bilderdijks home in Leiden. In 1837 Southey received a letter from Charlotte Brontë, seeking his advice on some of her poems and he wrote back praising her talents, but also discouraging her from writing professionally. He said Literature cannot be the business of a womans life, years later, Brontë remarked to a friend that the letter was kind and admirable, a little stringent, but it did me good
30.
Helen Maria Williams
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Helen Maria Williams was a British novelist, poet, and translator of French-language works. She was born on 17 June 1759 in London to a Scottish mother, Helen Hay, and her 1786 Poems touch on topics ranging from religion to a critique of Spanish colonial practices. She allied herself with the cult of sensibility, deploying it politically in opposition to war. Du Fossé, who had earlier, in London, given her lessons in French and her letters from France marked a turn from being primarily a writer of poetry to one of prose. After the September Massacres of 1792, she allied herself with the Girondists, as a saloniere, she also hosted Mary Wollstonecraft, Francisco de Miranda, pierres novel Paul et Virginie, to which she appended her own prison sonnets. Upon her release, she travelled with John Hurford Stone to Switzerland, nonetheless, her few poems from this period continue to express Dissenting piety and were published in volumes with those of other religiously like-minded poets. In 1798, she published A Tour in Switzerland, which included an account of her travels, political commentary, and the poem A Hymn Written Amongst the Alps. After the Bourbon Restoration, she became a naturalised French citizen in 1818, nonetheless, Williams works consist of poetry, novels, volumes of letters, and translations. The lines are not always clear, as she might include a poem in the preface of another work. The following list is by no means complete, a legendary tale,1782, her first published work Ode on the Peace,1783, celebrated the end of the American Revolution Perù,1784, a long poem in six cantos Paula R. Feldman Peru and Peruvian Tales. Poems,1786 kindle ebook ASIN B00849523Q The Bastille,1790 Poems on various Subjects,1823 Julia,1790 Fruchtman, Jack, Jr. An Eye-Witness Account of the French Revolution by Helen Maria Williams, fraistat, Neil and Lanser, Susan S. Letters Written in France, In the Summer 1790, to a Friend in England, Containing Various Anecdotes Relative to the French Revolution Broadview Press, Williams, Helen Maria, Letters Written in France,1790. ISBN 978-2-05-102265-1 Paul and Virginia by Bernardin de Saint Pierre, the political and confidential correspondence of Lewis XVI with observations on each letter. Williams also translated works of Alexander von Humboldt, who was German. Personal narrative of travels to the regions of the New continent during the years 1799–1804, by Alexander de Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland, with maps, plans. London 1814–1829 Researches concerning the institutions & monuments of the ancient inhabitants of America, une Anglaise, amie de la révolution française, Hélène Maria Williams et ses amis. Kennedy, Deborah, Helen Maria Williams and the Age of Revolution, blakemore, Steven, Crisis in Representation, Thomas Paine, Mary Wollstonecraft, Helen Maria Williams, and the Rewriting of the French Revolution
31.
Hannah More
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Hannah More was an English religious writer and philanthropist. Born in Bristol she taught at a school established by her father and she became involved with the literary elite in London becoming a leading member of the Bluestocking group. Her plays and poetry became more evangelical and she became part of a group of campaigners against the slave trade, in the 1790s she wrote several Cheap Repository Tracts which covered moral, religious and political topics for sale or distribution to literate poor people. This coincided with her philanthropic work in the Mendip area, encouraged by William Wilberforce. Born in 1745 at Fishponds in the parish of Stapleton, near Bristol, Hannah More was the fourth of five daughters of Jacob More, a schoolmaster originally from Harleston, Norfolk. They were a family and the sisters were first educated by their father, learning Latin and mathematics, Hannah was also taught by her elder sisters. Her conversational French was improved by spending time with French prisoners of war in Frenchay during the Seven Years War and she was keen to learn, and possessed a sharp intellect - she was assiduous in studying and, according to family tradition, began writing at an early age. Hannah More became a pupil when she was years old. In 1767 More gave up her share in the school after becoming engaged to William Turner of Tyntesfield, Wraxall, Somerset, as compensation, Hannah More was induced to accept a £200 annuity from Turner. This set her free for literary pursuits, and in the winter of 1773–74 she went to London in the company of her sisters, Sarah, some verses that she had written on David Garricks version of King Lear led to an acquaintance with the celebrated actor and playwright. Metastasio was one of her models, on his opera of Attilio Regulo she based a drama. More attempted to associate herself with Londons literary elite, including Samuel Johnson, Joshua Reynolds, Johnson is quoted as saying to her Madam, before you flatter a man so grossly to his face, you should consider whether or not your flattery is worth having. He would later be quoted as calling her the finest versifatrix in the English language and she later wrote a witty celebration of her friends and the circle to which they belonged in her 1782 poem The Bas Bleu, or, Conversation, published in 1784. Garrick wrote the prologue and epilogue for Hannah Mores tragedy Percy, Percy was revived in 1785 with Sarah Siddons at Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. A copy of Percy was found amongst Mozarts possessions in 1791, another drama, The Fatal Falsehood, produced in 1779 after Garricks death, was less successful and, as a consequence of its failure, she never wrote for the stage again. However a tragedy entitled The Inflexible Captive was published in 1818, in 1781 she first met Horace Walpole, man of letters and art historian, and corresponded with him from that time. At Bristol she discovered the poet Ann Yearsley and, when Yearsley became destitute, lactilia, as Yearsley was called, published Poems, on Several Occasions in 1785, earning about £600. These literary and social failures caused Mores withdrawal from Londons intellectual circles, in the 1780s Hannah More became a friend of James Oglethorpe, who had long been concerned with slavery as a moral issue and who was working with Granville Sharp in an early abolitionist capacity
32.
Ladies of Llangollen
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The Ladies of Llangollen was a nickname for Eleanor Butler and Sarah Ponsonby, two upper-class Irish women whose relationship scandalized and fascinated their contemporaries. Eleanor Charlotte Butler was a member of the Butlers, the Earls of Ormond, Butler was considered an over-educated bookworm by her family, who resided at the Butler family seat Kilkenny Castle. She spoke French and was educated in a convent in France and her mother tried to make her join a convent because she was remaining a spinster. Sarah Ponsonby lived with relatives in Woodstock, County Kilkenny, Ireland and she was a second cousin of Frederick Ponsonby, 3rd Earl of Bessborough, and thus a second cousin once removed of his daughter Lady Caroline Lamb. Their families lived two miles from each other and they met in 1768, and quickly became close. Over the years they formulated a plan for a rural retreat. It was their dream to live a life together. Rather than face the possibility of being forced into unwanted marriages and their families hunted them down and forcefully tried to make them give up their plans—but in vain. They proceeded to live according to their system, though they could rely on only a modest income from intolerant relatives. They restructured Plas Newydd in the Gothic style with draperies, arches and they hired a gardener, a footman and two maids. This led to significant debt, and they had to rely on the generosity of friends and they devoted their time to seclusion, private studies of literature and languages and improving their estate. They did not actively socialise and were uninterested in fashion, over the years they added a circular stone dairy and created a sumptuous garden. Eleanor kept a diary of their activities, Llangollen people simply referred to them as the ladies. After a couple of years, their life attracted the interest of the outside world, anne Lister from Yorkshire visited the couple, and was possibly inspired by their relationship to informally marry her own close female friend before her official wedding to her husband. The ladies were known throughout Britain, but have said to have led a rather unexciting life. Queen Charlotte wanted to see their cottage and persuaded the King to grant them a pension, eventually their families came to tolerate them. Butler and Ponsonby lived together for the rest of their lives and their books and glassware carried both sets of initials and their letters were jointly signed. Some consider Butler and Ponsonbys relationship to be a Boston marriage, Sarah Ponsonby died two years later
33.
Lunar Society of Birmingham
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At first called the Lunar Circle, Lunar Society became the formal name by 1775. The name arose because the society would meet during the full moon, the members cheerfully referred to themselves as lunarticks, a pun on lunatics. Venues included Erasmus Darwins home in Lichfield, Matthew Boultons home, Soho House, Bowbridge House in Derbyshire, the Lunar Society evolved through various degrees of organisation over a period of up to fifty years, but was only ever an informal group. Historians therefore disagree on what qualifies as membership of the Lunar Society, who can be considered to have been members, and even when the society can be said to have existed. Josiah Wedgwood, for example, is described by commentators as being one of five principal members of the society. Dates given for the establishment of the society range from sometime before 1760 to 1775, some historians argue that it had ceased to exist by 1791, others that it was still operating as late as 1813. James Keir, Joseph Priestley, William Small, Jonathan Stokes, James Watt, Josiah Wedgwood, John Whitehurst and William Withering. These include Richard Kirwan, John Smeaton, Henry Moyes, John Michell, Pieter Camper, R. E. Raspe, John Baskerville, Thomas Beddoes, John Wyatt, William Thomson, Cyril V. All the world came to Soho to meet Boulton, Watt or Small and its essential sociability meant that any might be invited to attend its meetings. The origins of the Lunar Society lie in a pattern of friendships that emerged in the late 1750s, soon they were visiting each other regularly and conducting investigations into scientific subjects such as electricity, meteorology and geology. Although Michell seems to have withdrawn slightly from the group when he moved to Thornhill in 1767, there he had taught and been a major influence over Thomas Jefferson, and had formed the focus of a local group of intellectuals. In 1767 James Keir visited Darwin in Lichfield, where he was introduced to Boulton, Small, Wedgwood and Whitehurst, the Lunar Circle also attracted more distant involvement. Joseph Priestley, then living in Leeds and a friend of John Mitchell, became associated with the Society in 1767 when Darwin. In the same year James Watt visited Birmingham on the recommendation of his business patron John Roebuck, being shown around the Soho Manufactory by Small and Darwin in Boultons absence. By 1768 the core group of nine individuals who would form the nucleus of the Lunar Society had come together with Small at their heart. Small had been the key link between the members, and in his absence those remaining moved to place the group on an organised footing. Meetings were to be held on the Sunday nearest the full moon, the first was probably that held on 31 December 1775, and the Lunar name is first recorded in 1776. The era also saw significant changes in membership, William Withering – like Small a physician – was already an acquaintance of Darwin, Boulton and Wedgwood when he moved from Stafford to Birmingham and became a member of the Society in 1776
34.
Birmingham
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Birmingham is a major city and metropolitan borough of West Midlands, England lying on the River Rea, a small river that runs through Birmingham. It is the largest and most populous British city outside London, the city is in the West Midlands Built-up Area, the third most populous urban area in the United Kingdom, with a population of 2,440,986 at the 2011 census. Birminghams metropolitan area is the second most populous in the UK with a population of 3.8 million and this also makes Birmingham the 8th most populous metropolitan area in Europe. By 1791 it was being hailed as the first manufacturing town in the world, perhaps the most important invention in British history, the industrial steam engine, was invented in Birmingham. From the summer of 1940 to the spring of 1943, Birmingham was bombed heavily by the German Luftwaffe in what is known as the Birmingham Blitz. The damage done to the infrastructure, in addition to a deliberate policy of demolition and new building by planners, led to extensive demolition. Today Birminghams economy is dominated by the service sector and its metropolitan economy is the second largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $121. 1bn, and its six universities make it the largest centre of higher education in the country outside London. Birmingham is the fourth-most visited city in the UK by foreign visitors, Birminghams sporting heritage can be felt worldwide, with the concept of the Football League and lawn tennis both originating from the city. Its most successful football club Aston Villa has won seven league titles, people from Birmingham are called Brummies, a term derived from the citys nickname of Brum. This originates from the citys name, Brummagem, which may in turn have been derived from one of the citys earlier names. There is a distinctive Brummie accent and dialect, Birminghams early history is that of a remote and marginal area. The main centres of population, power and wealth in the pre-industrial English Midlands lay in the fertile and accessible river valleys of the Trent, the Severn and the Avon. The area of modern Birmingham lay in between, on the upland Birmingham Plateau and within the wooded and sparsely populated Forest of Arden. Birmingham as a settlement dates from the Anglo-Saxon era, within a century of the charter Birmingham had grown into a prosperous urban centre of merchants and craftsmen. By 1327 it was the third-largest town in Warwickshire, a position it would retain for the next 200 years, by 1700 Birminghams population had increased fifteenfold and the town was the fifth-largest in England and Wales. The importance of the manufacture of goods to Birminghams economy was recognised as early as 1538. Equally significant was the emerging role as a centre for the iron merchants who organised finance, supplied raw materials. The 18th century saw this tradition of free-thinking and collaboration blossom into the phenomenon now known as the Midlands Enlightenment
35.
Josiah Wedgwood
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Josiah Wedgwood was an English potter and entrepreneur. The renewed classical enthusiasms of the late 1760s and early 1770s was of importance to his sales promotion. His expensive goods were in demand from the nobility, while he used emulation effects to market cheaper sets to the rest of society. Every new invention that Wedgwood produced - green glaze, creamware, black basalt, having once achieved perfection in production, he achieved perfection in sales and distribution. His showrooms in London gave the public the chance to see his complete range of tableware and he pioneered direct mail, money back guarantees, travelling salesmen, carrying pattern boxes for display, self-service, free delivery, buy one get one free, and illustrated catalogues. A prominent abolitionist, Wedgwood is remembered too for his Am I Not a Man And a Brother and he was a member of the Darwin–Wedgwood family, and he was the grandfather of Charles and Emma Darwin. By the age of nine, he was proving himself to be a skilled potter and he survived a childhood bout of smallpox to serve as an apprentice potter under his eldest brother Thomas Wedgwood IV. Smallpox left Josiah with a permanently weakened knee, which made him unable to work the foot pedal of a potters wheel, as a result, he concentrated from an early age on designing pottery and then making it with the input of other potters. In his early twenties, Wedgwood began working with the most renowned English pottery-maker of his day, Thomas Whieldon and he began experimenting with a wide variety of techniques, an experimentation that coincided with the burgeoning of the nearby industrial city of Manchester. Inspired, Wedgwood leased the Ivy Works in the town of Burslem, from 1768 to 1780 he partnered with Thomas Bentley, a potter of sophistication and astute taste. Over the course of the decade, his experimentation transformed the sleepy artisan works into the first true pottery factory. In January 1764 Wedgwood married Sarah Wedgwood, his third cousin and they had eight children, Susannah Wedgwood married Robert Darwin and became the mother of the English naturalist Charles Darwin. Charles married Emma Wedgwood, his cousin and this double-barreled inheritance of Wedgwoods money gave Charles Darwin the leisure time to formulate his theory of evolution. His unique glazes began to distinguish his wares from anything else on the market, by 1763, he was receiving orders from the highest levels of the British nobility, including Queen Charlotte. Wedgwood convinced her to let him name the line of pottery she had purchased Queens Ware, anything Wedgwood made for the Queen was automatically exhibited before it was delivered. In 1764 he received his first order from abroad, Wedgwood marketed his Queens Ware at affordable prices, everywhere in the world British trading ships sailed. In 1767 he wrote, The demand for this sd, creamcolour, Alias, Queen Ware, Alias, Ivory, still increases -- It is amazing how rapidly the use of it has spread all most over the whole Globe. He first opened a warehouse at Charles Street, Mayfair in London as early as 1765, in two years his trade had outgrown his rooms in Grosvenor Square
36.
Richard Lovell Edgeworth
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Richard Lovell Edgeworth was an Anglo-Irish politician, writer and inventor. Edgeworth was born in Pierrepont Street, Bath, England, great-grandson of Sir Salathiel Lovell through his granddaughter, a Trinity College, Dublin and Oxford alumnus, he is credited for creating, among other inventions, a machine to measure the size of a plot of land. He also made strides in the educational methods. He anticipated the track with an invention that he played around with for forty years. He described it as a cart that carries its own road and he was married four times, including both Honora Sneyd and Frances Beaufort, older sister of Francis Beaufort of the Royal Navy. The two men installed a line for Ireland. Richard Lovell Edgeworth was a member of the Lunar Society, the Lunar Society evolved through various degrees of organization over a period of years, but was only ever an informal group. Dates given for the society range from sometime before 1760 to it still operating as late as 1813, James Keir, Joseph Priestley, William Small, Jonathan Stokes, James Watt, Josiah Wedgwood, John Whitehurst and William Withering. Richard Edgeworth and his family lived in Ireland at his estate at Edgeworthstown, County Longford and he sat in Grattans Parliament for St Johnstown from 1798 until the Act of Union in 1801, and advocated Catholic Emancipation and parliamentary reform. He was a founder-member of the Royal Irish Academy and he died in Edgworthstown on 13 June 1817. He was the father of 22 children by his four wives Anna Maria Elers, of whom four childrenRichard Edgeworth, m. Elizabeth Knight 1788. Died in America Lovell Edgeworth Maria Edgeworth the novelist Emmeline Edgeworth, married Dr. John King of Bristol, October 1802 Anna Maria Edgeworth, henrica Broadhurst 1813, succeeded his brother Lovell Edgeworth William Edgeworth Thomas Day Edgeworth Honora Edgeworth, married Francis Beaufort 1838 William Edgeworth, engineer. Frances Ann Beaufort, botanical artist, daughter of Daniel Augustus Beaufort and Esther Gougeon, of six children. Lestock Wilson 1829 Harriet Edgeworth m, Richard Butler 1826 Sophia Edgeworth m. Barry Fox 1824 Lucy Jane, married the Irish astronomer Thomas Romney Robinson 1843, Francis Beaufort Edgeworth, Mentioned in Thomas Carlyles Life of Sterling. Married Rosa Florentina Eroles of Spain,1831, by whom 2 children Antonio Eroles Edgeworth succeeded his uncle Charles Sneyd Edgeworth Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, the Memoirs of Richard Lovell Edgeworth. The Memoirs of Richard Lovell Edgeworth, the four wives of Richard Edgeworth Portraits The Edgeworth Family, National Portrait Gallery
37.
Salon (gathering)
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These gatherings often consciously followed Horaces definition of the aims of poetry, either to please or to educate. Salons, commonly associated with French literary and philosophical movements of the 17th and 18th centuries, were carried on until as recently as the 1940s in urban settings, the salon was an Italian invention of the 16th century which flourished in France throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. The salon continued to flourish in Italy throughout the 19th century, one important place for the exchange of ideas was the salon. The word salon first appeared in France in 1664, Literary gatherings before this were often referred to by using the name of the room in which they occurred, like cabinet, réduit, ruelle and alcôve. Before the end of the 17th century, these gatherings were held in the bedroom. This practice may be contrasted with the formalities of Louis XIVs petit lever. She established the rules of etiquette of the salon which resembled the earlier codes of Italian chivalry, the historiography of the salons is far from straightforward. The salons have been studied in depth by a mixture of feminist, Marxist, each of these methodologies focus on different aspects of the salons, and thus have varying analyses of the salons’ importance in terms of French history and the Enlightenment as a whole. Major historiographical debates focus on the relationship between the salons and the sphere, as well as the role of women within the salons. Breaking down the salons into historical periods is complicated due to the various historiographical debates that surround them, most studies stretch from the early 16th century up until around the end of the 18th century. Goodman is typical in ending her study at the French Revolution where, she writes, Steven Kale is relatively alone in his recent attempts to extend the period of the salon up until Revolution of 1848. This world did not disappear in 1789, as recently as the 1940s, salons hosted by Gertrude Stein gained notoriety for including Pablo Picasso and other twentieth-century luminaries like Alice B. The content and form of the salon to some extent defines the character, contemporary literature about the salons is dominated by idealistic notions of politesse, civilité and honnêteté, but whether the salons lived up to these standards is matter of debate. Older texts on the salons tend to paint a picture of the salons. Today, however, this view is considered an adequate analysis of the salon. Dena Goodman claims that rather than being leisure based or schools of civilité salons were instead at the heart of the philosophic community. In short, Goodman argues, the 17th and 18th century saw the emergence of the academic, Enlightenment salons, politeness, argues Goodman, took second-place to academic discussion. The period in which salons were dominant has been labeled the age of conversation, the topics of conversation within the salons - that is, what was and was not polite to talk about - are thus vital when trying to determine the form of the salons
38.
Batheaston
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Batheaston is a village and civil parish 2 miles east of Bath, England, on the north bank of the River Avon. The parish has a population of 2,735, the northern area of the parish on the road to St Catherine is an area known as Northend. Batheaston has been twinned with Oudon in France since 2005, Batheaston is named Estone in the Domesday Book. Batheaston was part of the hundred of Bath Forum, in the 16th century the Lord of the Manor was John Hussey, 1st Baron Hussey of Sleaford. In the 18th century, Sir John Riggs Miller, 1st Baronet and Anna Miller held a fortnightly literary salon along with competitions. The couple there held a literary salon along with competitions. Distinguished contributions were received from the like of David Garrick, Christopher Anstey, the parish council has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept to cover the council’s operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security. Conservation matters and environmental issues are also of interest to the council, the parish falls within the unitary authority of Bath and North East Somerset which was created in 1996, as established by the Local Government Act 1992. Bath and North East Somersets area covers part of the county of Somerset. Its administrative headquarters are in Bath, between 1 April 1974 and 1 April 1996, it was the Wansdyke district and the City of Bath of the county of Avon. Before 1974 that the parish was part of the Bathavon Rural District, the parish is represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom as part of North East Somerset. It elects one Member of Parliament by the first past the post system of election and it is also part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament which elects seven MEPs using the dHondt method of party-list proportional representation. The village is overlooked by Solsbury Hill which is within the Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and was an Iron Age hill fort occupied between 300 BC and 100 BC. It is also linked to Bathampton on the bank of the river via a toll bridge. The Bybrook River which springs up near Marshfield in Gloucestershire, flows through such as Castle Combe. The Roman road of the Fosseway descends into Batheaston via the Bannerdown hill, the hill rises to 189 metres above sea level, and on the top of the hill rest the Three Shire Stones which mark where the counties of Gloucestershire, Wiltshire and Somerset meet. The stones are formed in the style of a burial chamber, the previous Shire stones are shown on a John Speede map dated 1610
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Bath, Somerset
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Bath is a city in the ceremonial county of Somerset, England, known for its Roman-built baths. In 2011, the population was 88,859, Bath is in the valley of the River Avon,97 miles west of London and 11 miles south-east of Bristol. The city became a World Heritage Site in 1987, the city became a spa with the Latin name Aquæ Sulis c. AD60 when the Romans built baths and a temple in the valley of the River Avon, Bath Abbey was founded in the 7th century and became a religious centre, the building was rebuilt in the 12th and 16th centuries. In the 17th century, claims were made for the properties of water from the springs. Many of the streets and squares were laid out by John Wood, the Elder, and in the 18th century the city became fashionable, Jane Austen lived in Bath in the early 19th century. Further building was undertaken in the 19th century and following the Bath Blitz in World War II, the city has software, publishing and service-oriented industries. Theatres, museums, and other cultural and sporting venues have helped make it a centre for tourism with more than one million staying visitors and 3.8 million day visitors to the city each year. There are several museums including the Museum of Bath Architecture, Victoria Art Gallery, Museum of East Asian Art, the city has two universities, the University of Bath and Bath Spa University, with Bath College providing further education. Sporting clubs include Bath Rugby and Bath City F. C. while TeamBath is the name for all of the University of Bath sports teams. Bath became part of the county of Avon in 1974, and, the hills in the locality such as Bathampton Down saw human activity from the Mesolithic period. Several Bronze Age round barrows were opened by John Skinner in the 18th century, solsbury Hill overlooking the current city was an Iron Age hill fort, and the adjacent Bathampton Camp may also have been one. A long barrow site believed to be from the Beaker people was flattened to make way for RAF Charmy Down, messages to her scratched onto metal, known as curse tablets, have been recovered from the sacred spring by archaeologists. The tablets were written in Latin, and cursed people whom the writers felt had wronged them, for example, if a citizen had his clothes stolen at the baths, he might write a curse, naming the suspects, on a tablet to be read by the goddess. A temple was constructed in AD 60–70, and a complex was built up over the next 300 years. Engineers drove oak piles into the mud to provide a stable foundation, in the 2nd century, the spring was enclosed within a wooden barrel-vaulted structure that housed the caldarium, tepidarium, and frigidarium. The town was given defensive walls, probably in the 3rd century. After the failure of Roman authority in the first decade of the 5th century, in March 2012 a hoard of 30,000 silver Roman coins, one of the largest discovered in Britain, was unearthed in an archaeological dig
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Maria Edgeworth
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Maria Edgeworth was a prolific Anglo-Irish writer of adults and childrens literature. She was one of the first realist writers in literature and was a significant figure in the evolution of the novel in Europe. Maria Edgeworth was born at Black Bourton, Oxfordshire and she was the second child of Richard Lovell Edgeworth and Anna Maria Edgeworth, Maria was thus an aunt of Francis Ysidro Edgeworth. She spent her years with her mothers family in England. When her father married his second wife Honora Sneyd in 1773, she went with him to his estate, Edgeworthstown, in County Longford, Maria was sent to Mrs. Lattafières school in Derby after Honora fell ill in 1775. After Honora died in 1780 Marias father married Honoras sister Elizabeth, Maria transferred to Mrs. Deviss school in London. Her fathers attention became focused on her in 1781 when she nearly lost her sight to an eye infection. Returning home at the age of 14, she took charge of her younger siblings and was home-tutored in law, Irish economics and politics, science. She also started her lifelong correspondences with learned men, mainly members of the Lunar Society and she became her fathers assistant in managing the Edgeworthstown estate, which had become run-down during the familys 1777–1782 absence, she would live and write there for the rest of her life. With their bond strengthened, Maria and her father began an academic collaboration of which she was the more able and nimble mind. Present at Edgeworthstown was a family, servants and tenants. She observed and recorded the details of daily Irish life, later drawing on this experience for her novels about the Irish and she also mixed with the Anglo-Irish gentry, particularly Kitty Pakenham, Lady Moira, and her aunt Margaret Ruxton of Black Castle. Margaret supplied her with the novels of Anne Radcliffe and William Godwin, in 1798 Richard married Frances Beaufort, daughter of Daniel Augustus Beaufort, who instigated the idea of travelling to England and the European continent. Frances, a younger than Maria, became her lifelong confidante. The family travelled first to London in 1800, in 1802 the Edgeworths toured the English midlands. They then travelled to the continent, first to Brussels and then to Consulate France and they met all the notables, and Maria received a marriage proposal from a Swedish courtier, Count Edelcrantz. Her letter on the subject seems very cool, but her stepmother assures us in the Augustus Hare Life and Letters that Maria loved him very much and they came home to Ireland in 1803 on the eve of the resumption of the wars and Maria returned to writing. Tales of Fashionable Life, The Absentee and Ormond are novels of Irish life, Edgeworth was an extremely popular author who was compared with her contemporary writers Jane Austen and Sir Walter Scott
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Aristotle
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Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Classical Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, at seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Platos Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books and he believed all peoples concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotles views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works, Aristotles views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, some of Aristotles zoological observations, such as on the hectocotyl arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as The First Teacher and his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotles philosophy continue to be the object of academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his style as a river of gold – it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived. Aristotle, whose means the best purpose, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice. His father Nicomachus was the physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was orphaned at a young age, although there is little information on Aristotles childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Platos Academy and he remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BC. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor, there, he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermiass adoptive daughter or niece and she bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC, Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave not only to Alexander
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Elegy
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In English literature, an elegy is a poem of serious reflection, typically a lament for the dead. The Greek term elegeia originally referred to any written in elegiac couplets. The term also included epitaphs, sad and mournful songs, the Latin elegy of ancient Roman literature was most often erotic or mythological in nature. Because of its potential for rhetorical effects, the elegiac couplet was also used by both Greek and Roman poets for witty, humorous, and satiric subject matter. Ovid wrote elegies bemoaning his exile, which he likened to a death and this looser concept is especially evident in the Old English Exeter Book which contains serious meditative and well-known poems such as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, and The Wife’s Lament. In these elegies, the use the lyrical I to describe their own personal. They tell the story of the rather than the collective lore of his or her people as epic poetry seeks to tell. For Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others, the term had come to mean serious meditative poem and it may treat of any subject, but it must treat of no subject for itself, but always and exclusively with reference to the poet. As he will feel regret for the past or desire for the future, so sorrow, Elegy presents every thing as lost and gone or absent and future. A famous example of elegy is Thomas Grays Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, in French, perhaps the most famous elegy is Le Lac by Alphonse de Lamartine. Elegy may denote a type of work, usually of a sad or somber nature. A well-known example is the Élégie, Op.10, by Jules Massenet, dirge Elegiac Funeral march Kommós Lament Marsiya Noha Obituary poetry Pastoral elegy history Poetry Rithā Soaz Threnody Ağıt Casey, Brian. Genres and Styles, in Funeral Music Genres, With a Stylistic/Topical Lexicon, american Elegy, The Poetry of Mourning from the Puritans to Whitman. Poetry of Mourning, The Modern Elegy from Hardy to Heaney, the English Elegy, Studies in the Genre from Spenser to Yeats. Media related to Elegies at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of elegy at Wiktionary Elegy Explained at Literary Devices
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Sonnet
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A sonnet is a poem in a specific form which originated in Italy, Giacomo da Lentini is credited with its invention. The term sonnet is derived from the Italian word sonetto, by the thirteenth century it signified a poem of fourteen lines that follows a strict rhyme scheme and specific structure. Conventions associated with the sonnet have evolved over its history, writers of sonnets are sometimes called sonneteers, although the term can be used derisively. The sonnet was created by Giacomo da Lentini, head of the Sicilian School under Emperor Frederick II, guittone dArezzo rediscovered it and brought it to Tuscany where he adapted it to his language when he founded the Siculo-Tuscan School, or Guittonian school of poetry. Other Italian poets of the time, including Dante Alighieri and Guido Cavalcanti, wrote sonnets, other fine examples were written by Michelangelo. The structure of a typical Italian sonnet of the included two parts that together formed a compact form of argument. First, the octave, forms the proposition, which describes a problem, or question, followed by a sestet, typically, the ninth line initiates what is called the turn, or volta, which signals the move from proposition to resolution. Even in sonnets that dont strictly follow the structure, the ninth line still often marks a turn by signaling a change in the tone, mood. Later, the abba, abba pattern became the standard for Italian sonnets, for the sestet there were two different possibilities, cde, cde and cdc, cdc. In time, other variants on this scheme were introduced. Petrarch typically used an abba, abba pattern for the octave, in English, both the English or Shakespearean sonnet, and the Italian Petrarchan sonnet are traditionally written in iambic pentameter. Early twentieth-century American poet Edna St. Vincent Millay also wrote mostly Petrarchan sonnets, on His Blindness by Milton, gives a sense of the Petrarchan rhyme scheme, Most Sonnets in Dantes La Vita Nuova are Petrarchan. Chapter VII gives sonnet O voi che per la via, with two sestets and two quatrains, and Ch. VIII, Morte villana, with two sestets and two quatrains and it was written by Paolo Lanfranchi da Pistoia and is addressed to Peter III of Aragon. It employs the rhyme scheme a-b-a-b, a-b-a-b, c-d-c-d-c-d and this poem is historically interesting for its information on north Italian perspectives concerning the War of the Sicilian Vespers, the conflict between the Angevins and Aragonese for Sicily. It congratulates Robert of Naples on his recent victory, there are also two poorly regarded sonnets by the Italian Dante de Maiano. By the late 17th century poets on increasingly relied on stanza forms incorporating rhymed couplets, and by the 18th century fixed-form poems – and, in particular, the resulting versification – less constrained by meter and rhyme patterns than Renaissance poetry – more closely mirrored prose. The Romantics were responsible for a return to many of the poems used during the 15th and 16th centuries. The sonnet however was used until the Parnassians brought it back into favor
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Horace Walpole
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Horatio Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford — also known as Horace Walpole — was an English art historian, man of letters, antiquarian and Whig politician. He had Strawberry Hill House built in Twickenham, south-west London and his literary reputation rests on his Gothic novel, The Castle of Otranto and his Letters, which are of significant social and political interest. He was the son of the first British Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole, as Horace Walpole was childless, on his death his barony descended to his cousin of the same surname, who was created the new Earl of Orford. Walpole was born in London, the youngest son of British Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole, like his father, he received early education in Bexley, he was also educated at Eton College and Kings College, Cambridge. Walpoles first friends were probably his cousins Francis and Henry Conway, to whom Walpole became strongly attached, at Eton he formed with Charles Lyttelton and George Montagu the Triumvirate, a schoolboy confederacy. More important were another group of friends dubbed the Quadruple Alliance, Walpole, Thomas Gray, Richard West, at Cambridge Walpole came under the influence of Conyers Middleton, an unorthodox theologian. Walpole came to accept the nature of Middletons attitude to some essential Christian doctrines for the rest of his life, including a hatred of superstition. Walpole ceased to reside at Cambridge at the end of 1738, according to one biographer his love for his mother was the most powerful emotion of his entire life. the whole of his psychological history was dominated by it. Walpole did not have any relationships with women, he has been called a natural celibate. Walpoles sexual orientation has been the subject of speculation, many contemporaries described him as effeminate. Biographers such as Timothy Mowl explore his possible homosexuality, including a passionate, some previous biographers such as Lewis, Fothergill, and Robert Wyndham Ketton-Cremer, however, have interpreted Walpole as asexual. Upon coming of age he became Comptroller of the Pipe and Clerk of the Estreats which gave him an income of £300 per annum, Walpole decided to go travelling with Thomas Gray and wrote a will whereby he left Gray all his belongings. They left Dover on 29 March and arrived at Calais later that day and they then travelled through Boulogne, Amiens and Saint-Denis, arriving at Paris on 4 April. Here they met many aristocratic Englishmen, in early June they left Paris for Rheims, then in September going to Dijon, Lyons, Dauphiné, Savoy, Aix-les-Bains, Geneva, and then back to Lyons. In October they left for Italy, arriving in Turin in November, then going to Genoa, Piacenza, Parma, Reggio, Modena, Bologna, and in December arriving at Florence. Here he struck up a friendship with Horace Mann, an assistant to the British Minister at the Court of Tuscany and wrote Epistle from Florence to Thomas Ashton, tutor to the Earl of Plymouth, a mixture of Whig history and Middletons teachings. In February 1740 Walpole and Gray left for Rome with the intention of witnessing the papal conclave upon the death of Pope Clement XII, Walpole wanted to attend fashionable parties and Gray wanted to visit all the antiquities. At social occasions in Rome he saw the Old Pretender James Francis Edward Stuart, Walpole and Gray returned to Florence in July
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Seward, Anna". Encyclopædia Britannica. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 733.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
