1.
Dynasty
–
A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
Dynasty
–
Charles I of England and his son, the future
James II
2.
House of Bourbon
–
The House of Bourbon is a European royal house of French origin, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. Bourbon kings first ruled France and Navarre in the 16th century, by the 18th century, members of the Bourbon dynasty also held thrones in Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Parma. Spain and Luxembourg currently have Bourbon monarchs, the royal Bourbons originated in 1268, when the heiress of the lordship of Bourbon married a younger son of King Louis IX. The house continued for three centuries as a branch, while more senior Capetians ruled France, until Henry IV became the first Bourbon king of France in 1589. Restored briefly in 1814 and definitively in 1815 after the fall of the First French Empire, a cadet Bourbon branch, the House of Orléans, then ruled for 18 years, until it too was overthrown. The Princes de Condé were a branch of the Bourbons descended from an uncle of Henry IV. Both houses were prominent in French affairs, even during exile in the French Revolution, until their respective extinctions in 1830 and 1814. When the Bourbons inherited the strongest claim to the Spanish throne, the claim was passed to a cadet Bourbon prince, a grandson of Louis XIV of France, who became Philip V of Spain. The Spanish House of Bourbon has been overthrown and restored several times, reigning 1700–1808, 1813–1868, 1875–1931, Bourbons ruled in Naples from 1734–1806 and in Sicily from 1734–1816, and in a unified Kingdom of the Two Sicilies from 1816–1860. They also ruled in Parma from 1731–1735, 1748–1802 and 1847–1859, all legitimate, living members of the House of Bourbon, including its cadet branches, are direct agnatic descendants of Henry IV. The term House of Bourbon is sometimes used to refer to this first house and the House of Bourbon-Dampierre, the second family to rule the seigneury. In 1268, Robert, Count of Clermont, sixth son of King Louis IX of France, married Beatrix of Bourbon, heiress to the lordship of Bourbon and their son Louis was made Duke of Bourbon in 1327. His descendant, the Constable of France Charles de Bourbon, was the last of the senior Bourbon line when he died in 1527. Because he chose to fight under the banner of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and lived in exile from France, the remaining line of Bourbons henceforth descended from James I, Count of La Marche, the younger son of Louis I, Duke of Bourbon. With the death of his grandson James II, Count of La Marche in 1438, all future Bourbons would descend from James IIs younger brother, Louis, who became the Count of Vendôme through his mothers inheritance. In 1514, Charles, Count of Vendôme had his title raised to Duke of Vendôme and his son Antoine became King of Navarre, on the northern side of the Pyrenees, by marriage in 1555. Two of Antoines younger brothers were Cardinal Archbishop Charles de Bourbon, Louis male-line, the Princes de Condé, survived until 1830. Finally, in 1589, the House of Valois died out and he was born on 13 December 1553 in the Kingdom of Navarre
House of Bourbon
–
The castle of
Bourbon-l'Archambault
House of Bourbon
–
House of Bourbon
House of Bourbon
–
Henry IV of France, the first Bourbon King of France
House of Bourbon
–
Dynastic group portrait of Louis XIV (seated) with his son
le Grand Dauphin (to the left), his grandson
Louis, Duke of Burgundy (to the right), his great-grandson the duc d'Anjou, later Louis XV, and
Madame de Ventadour, his governess, who commissioned this painting some years later; busts of
Henry IV and
Louis XIII in the background.
3.
Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency
–
Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency was an heiress of one of Frances leading ducal families, and Princess de Condé by her marriage to Henri de Bourbon. She almost became a mistress of Henry IV of France, but her husband escaped with her after the wedding, the daughter of Henri de Montmorency and his second wife, Louise de Budos, Charlotte lost her mother before she was five years of age. She was brought up under the care of her aunt Charlotte, widow of Charles, in 1609, fifteen-year-old Charlotte-Marguerite wed the Prince of Condé in a glittering ceremony. Along with many other French nobles, her husband opposed the rule of Marshal dAncre. In September 1616, Condé and Charlotte-Marguerite were arrested and imprisoned at Vincennes, in 1632, Charlotte-Marguerites only brother, Henri, Duke de Montmorency was executed for intriguing against Cardinal Richelieu. She was buried at the Carmel du faubourg Saint-Jacques, a Carmelite convent in Paris and her children with the Prince de Condé were, Anne Genevieve married Henri dOrléans, Duke de Longueville. Louis, Prince of Condé, le Grand Condé married Claire-Clémence de Maillé-Brézé, armand de Bourbon, Prince de Conti married Anne Marie Martinozzi. List of Princesses of Condé Media related to Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency at Wikimedia Commons
Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency
–
Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency, Princesse of Condé
4.
Roman Catholicism
–
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
Roman Catholicism
–
Saint Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholicism
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholicism
–
Pope Francis, elected in the
papal conclave, 2013
Roman Catholicism
–
Traditional graphic representation of the Trinity: The earliest attested version of the diagram, from a manuscript of
Peter of Poitiers ' writings, c. 1210
5.
Early Modern France
–
The Kingdom of France in the early modern period, from the Renaissance to the Revolution, was a monarchy ruled by the House of Bourbon. This corresponds to the so-called Ancien Régime, the territory of France during this period increased until it included essentially the extent of the modern country, and it also included the territories of the first French colonial empire overseas. In the mid 15th century, France was significantly smaller than it is today, in addition, certain provinces within France were ostensibly personal fiefdoms of noble families. The late 15th, 16th and 17th centuries would see France undergo a massive territorial expansion, France also embarked on exploration, colonisation, and mercantile exchanges with the Americas, India, the Indian Ocean, the Far East, and a few African trading posts. The administrative and legal system in France in this period is called the Ancien Régime. The Black Death had killed an estimated one-third of the population of France from its appearance in 1348, the concurrent Hundred Years War slowed recovery. It would be the early 16th century before the population recovered to mid-14th century levels and these demographic changes also led to a massive increase in urban populations, although on the whole France remained a profoundly rural country. Paris was one of the most populated cities in Europe, other major French cities include Lyon, Rouen, Bordeaux, Toulouse, and Marseille. These centuries saw several periods of epidemics and crop failures due to wars, between 1693 and 1694, France lost 6% of its population. In the extremely harsh winter of 1709, France lost 3. 5% of its population, in the past 300 years, no period has been so proportionally deadly for the French, both World Wars included. Linguistically, the differences in France were extreme, before the Renaissance, the language spoken in the north of France was a collection of different dialects called Oïl languages whereas the written and administrative language remained Latin. Nevertheless, in 1790, only half of the spoke or understood standard French. The southern half of the continued to speak Occitan languages, and other inhabitants spoke Breton, Catalan, Basque, Dutch. In the north of France, regional dialects of the various langues doïl continued to be spoken in rural communities, during the French revolution, the teaching of French was promoted in all the schools. The French used would be that of the system, which differed from the French spoken in the courts of France before the revolution. Like the orators during the French revolution, the pronunciation of every syllable would become the new language, France would not become a linguistically unified country until the end of the 19th century. The Peace of Etaples marks, for some, the beginning of the modern period in France. The invasion of Italy by Charles VIII in 1494 began 62 years of war with the Habsburgs, in 1445, the first steps were made towards fashioning a regular army out of the poorly disciplined mercenary bands that French kings traditionally relied on
Early Modern France
–
Francis I by
Jean Clouet
Early Modern France
–
France on the eve of the modern era (1477). The red line denotes the boundary of the French kingdom, while the light blue the royal domain.
Early Modern France
–
Henry IV of France by
Frans Pourbus the younger.
Early Modern France
–
Louis XIV King of France and of Navarre By
Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701)
6.
Prince du Sang
–
A prince du sang is a person legitimately descended in dynastic line from any of a realms hereditary monarchs. In some European kingdoms, especially France, this appellation was a rank in its own right. Under the House of Capet, the monarchy was feudal, in the feudal era, the agnates of the king held no special status. This was because agnatic primogeniture had not yet received its sanction as the law governing the succession to the French throne, following the Valois succession, the agnates of the king, being capable of the crown, rose in prominence. New peerages were created for the kings agnates, and for a time this continued to be so. Over time, the dignity of a peer, which is feudal in nature, and the dignity of a prince of the blood, non-royal peers and princes of the blood who were peers constantly disputed for higher precedence than the other. As the royal line contracted, each prince of the blood gained greater prominence, in France, the rank of prince du sang was the highest held at court after the immediate family of the king during the ancien régime and the Bourbon Restoration. The rank of prince du sang or princesse du sang was restricted to legitimate agnates of the Capetian dynasty who were not members of the family of the king. In theory, the princes of the blood included all members of the Capetian dynasty, in practice, only the agnatic descendants of Saint Louis IX, such as the Valois and the Bourbons, were acknowledged as princes du sang. Frances kings, for instance, refused to recognize the Courtenay Capetians as princes of the blood, the Courtenays descended in legitimate male-line from King Louis VI, but had become impoverished, minor nobles over the centuries. Their repeated petitions for recognition to the Bourbon rulers were in vain, in 1715 Louis-Charles de Courtenay, his son Charles-Roger and his brother Roger were once again rebuffed in their attempt to seek recognition of their status. They descended from Jean, seigneur de Carency, the youngest son of Jean I de Bourbon, since 1733, all legitimate Capetians were of the House of Bourbon, of the Vendôme branch, descended from Charles, Duke of Vendôme. A cadet branch of the Condés was the House of Conti, though the Parlement de Paris refused to register the decree, the king exercised his right to compel registration by conducting a lit de justice. The edict was revoked and annulled on 18 August 1715 by the Parlement on the authority of the regent after the kings death, as a chancellor of Louis XIV had warned, a king could only make princes of the blood through his queen. Those who held this rank were usually styled by their main ducal peerage, the style Serene Highness was used in writing only. This was the style of the First Prince of the Blood, in practice, it was not always clear who was entitled to the rank, and it often took a specific act of the king to make the determination. The rank carried with it various privileges, including the right to a household out of state revenues. The rank was held for life, the birth of a new, the Princes of Condé used the style of Monsieur le Prince for over a century
Prince du Sang
–
Antoine, Duke of Vendôme
Prince du Sang
Prince du Sang
–
Louis II, Prince of Condé by Joost van Egmont
Prince du Sang
–
Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans (1703-1752),
Duke of Chartres; the first
Orléans Prince to use the style
7.
Civil war
–
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region or to change government policies. The term is a calque of the Latin bellum civile which was used to refer to the civil wars of the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC. A civil war is a high-intensity conflict, often involving regular armed forces, Civil wars may result in large numbers of casualties and the consumption of significant resources. Most modern civil wars involve intervention by outside powers, according to Patrick M. Civil wars since the end of World War II have lasted on average just over four years, a dramatic rise from the one-and-a-half-year average of the 1900–1944 period. For example, there were no more than five civil wars underway simultaneously in the first half of the 20th century while there were over 20 concurrent civil wars close to the end of the Cold War. Since 1945, civil wars have resulted in the deaths of over 25 million people, ann Hironaka further specifies that one side of a civil war is the state. The intensity at which a civil disturbance becomes a war is contested by academics. Some political scientists define a civil war as having more than 1000 casualties, the Correlates of War, a dataset widely used by scholars of conflict, classifies civil wars as having over 1000 war-related casualties per year of conflict. Based on the 1000 casualties per year criterion, there were 213 civil wars from 1816 to 1997,104 of which occurred from 1944 to 1997. If one uses the less-stringent 1000 casualties total criterion, there were over 90 civil wars between 1945 and 2007, with 20 ongoing civil wars as of 2007. The Geneva Conventions do not specifically define the term civil war and this includes civil wars, however no specific definition of civil war is provided in the text of the Conventions. That the legal Government is obliged to have recourse to the military forces against insurgents organized as military. That the insurgents have an organization purporting to have the characteristics of a State and that the insurgent civil authority exercises de facto authority over the population within a determinate portion of the national territory. That the armed forces act under the direction of an authority and are prepared to observe the ordinary laws of war. That the insurgent civil authority agrees to be bound by the provisions of the Convention, scholars investigating the cause of civil war are attracted by two opposing theories, greed versus grievance. Scholarly analysis supports the conclusion that economic and structural factors are more important than those of identity in predicting occurrences of civil war, a comprehensive study of civil war was carried out by a team from the World Bank in the early 21st century. A second source of finance is national diasporas, which can fund rebellions, the study found that statistically switching the size of a countrys diaspora from the smallest found in the study to the largest resulted in a sixfold increase in the chance of a civil war. Opportunity cost of rebellion Higher male secondary school enrollment, per capita income, the study interpreted these three factors as proxies for earnings forgone by rebellion, and therefore that lower forgone earnings encourage rebellion
Civil war
–
Aftermath of the
Battle of Gettysburg,
American Civil War, 1863
Civil war
–
Battle of Tewkesbury (1471) of the
Wars of the Roses in
England
Civil war
–
Tanks in the streets of
Addis Ababa after rebels seized the capital during the
Ethiopian Civil War (1991)
Civil war
–
An economic dependence on commodities, such as
diamonds being mined by these children in
Sierra Leone, is correlated with an increased risk of civil war. (See also
blood diamond and
resource curse.)
8.
Fronde
–
The Fronde was a series of civil wars in France between 1648 and 1653, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. The king confronted the opposition of the princes, the nobility, the law courts, and most of the French people. The Fronde was divided into two campaigns, the Fronde of the parlements and the Fronde of the nobles, the timing of the outbreak of the Fronde des parlements, directly after the Peace of Westphalia that ended the Thirty Years War, was significant. A. Lloyd Moote argues that Cardinal Mazarin blundered into the crisis, the Fronde represented the final attempt of the French nobility to do battle with the king, and they were humiliated. The long-term result was to strengthen Royal authority, but to weaken the economy, the Fronde facilitated the emergence of absolute monarchy. The French word fronde means sling, Parisian crowds used slings to smash the windows of supporters of Cardinal Mazarin, the Fronde in the end provided an incentive for the establishment of royalist absolutism, since the disorders eventually discredited the feudal concept of liberty. The pressure that saw the traditional liberties under threat came in the form of extended and increased taxes as the Crown needed to recover from its expenditures in the recent wars. The costs of the Thirty Years War constrained Mazarins government to raise funds by means, the impôts, the taille. The nobility refused to be so taxed, based on their old liberties, or privileges, and the brunt fell upon the bourgeoisie. When Louis XIV became king in 1643, he was only a child, most historians consider that Louiss later insistence on absolutist rule and depriving the nobility of actual power was a result of these events in his childhood. The military record of the first Fronde is almost blank, the noble faction demanded the calling of an assembly of the Estates General. The nobles believed that in the Estates-General they could continue to control the element as they had in the past. The royal faction, having no army at its disposal, had to release the prisoners. But Frances signing of the Peace of Westphalia allowed the French army to return from the frontiers, the two warring parties signed the Peace of Rueil after little blood had been shed. From then on the Fronde became a story of intrigues, half-hearted warfare in a scramble for power and control of patronage, the military operations fell into the hands of war-experienced mercenaries, led by two great, and many lesser, generals. The peace of Rueil lasted until the end of 1649, the princes, received at court once more, renewed their intrigues against Mazarin. On 14 January 1650, Cardinal Mazarin, having come to an understanding with Monsieur Gondi and Madame de Chevreuse, suddenly arrested Condé, Conti, the war which followed this coup is called the Princes Fronde. This time it was Turenne, before and afterwards the most loyal soldier of his day, listening to the promptings of Madame de Longueville, he resolved to rescue her brother Condé, his old comrade in the battles of Freiburg and Nördlingen
Fronde
–
Cardinal Mazarin, French diplomat and statesman, by Pierre-Louis Bouchart
Fronde
–
Battle of the Faubourg St Antoine (1652) by the walls of the
Bastille,
Paris
Fronde
–
"Louis XIV Crushes the Fronde" by
Gilles Guérin 1654
Fronde
–
The
Battle of the Dunes in 1658
9.
Jansenism
–
Jansenism was a Catholic heretical theological movement, primarily in France, that emphasized original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination. The movement originated from the published work of the Dutch theologian Cornelius Jansen. It was first popularized by Jansens friend Abbot Jean Duvergier de Hauranne, of Saint-Cyran-en-Brenne Abbey, through the 17th and into the 18th centuries, Jansenism was a distinct movement within the Catholic Church. The theological centre of the movement was the convent of Port-Royal Abbey, Paris, which was a haven for writers including Duvergier, Arnauld, Pierre Nicole, Blaise Pascal, Jansenism was opposed by many in the Catholic hierarchy, especially the Jesuits. Although the Jansenists identified themselves only as rigorous followers of Augustine of Hippos teachings, Jansenist leaders endeavored to accommodate the popes pronouncements while retaining their uniqueness, and enjoyed a measure of peace in the late 17th century under Pope Clement IX. However, further controversy led to the apostolic constitution Unigenitus Dei Filius, promulgated by Pope Clement XI in 1713, the origins of Jansenism lie in the friendship of Jansen and Duvergier, who met in the early 17th century when both were studying theology at the University of Leuven. Duvergier was Jansens patron for a number of years, getting Jansen a job as a tutor in Paris in 1606, two years later, he got Jansen a position teaching at the bishops college in Duvergiers hometown of Bayonne. The duo studied the Church Fathers together, with a focus on the thought of Augustine of Hippo. Duvergier became abbot of Saint Cyran Abbey in Brenne and was known as the Abbé de Saint-Cyran for the rest of his life, Jansen returned to the University of Leuven, where he completed his doctorate in 1619 and was named professor of exegesis. Jansen and Duvergier continued to correspond about Augustine, especially Augustines teachings on grace, upon the recommendation of King Philip IV of Spain, Jansen was consecrated as bishop of Ypres in 1636. Jansen died in a 1638 epidemic and this manuscript, published in 1640 as Augustinus, expounded Augustines system and formed the basis for the subsequent Jansenist Controversy. Jansen emphasized a particular reading of Augustines idea of efficacious grace which stressed that only a portion of humanity were predestined to be saved. Jansen insisted that the love of God was fundamental, and that only perfect contrition, Duvergier was not released until after Richelieus death in 1642, and he died shortly thereafter, in 1643. Jansen also insisted on justification by faith, although he did not contest the necessity of revering saints, of confession, Jansens opponents condemned his teachings for their alleged similarities to Calvinism. Pascal himself claimed that Molinists were correct concerning the state of humanity before the Fall, the heresy of Jansenism, as stated by subsequent Roman Catholic doctrine, lay in denying the role of free will in the acceptance and use of grace. Jansenism asserts that Gods role in the infusion of grace cannot be resisted, Catholic doctrine, in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, is that Gods free initiative demands mans free response—that is, humans freely assent or refuse Gods gift of grace. However, on August 1,1642, the Holy Office issued a decree condemning Augustinus, in 1602, Marie Angélique Arnauld become abbess of Port-Royal-des-Champs, a Cistercian convent in Magny-les-Hameaux. There, she reformed discipline after an experience in 1608
Jansenism
–
Abbé de Saint-Cyran –
Jean Duvergier de Hauranne, abbot of Saint Cyran Abbey in Brenne (1581–1643), one of the intellectual fathers of Jansenism.
Jansenism
–
Jansenism:
Cornelius Jansen (1585–1638), professor at the
Old University of Louvain
Jansenism
–
The title page of Augustinus by
Cornelius Jansen, published posthumously in 1640. The book formed the foundation of the subsequent Jansenist controversy.
Jansenism
–
La mère –
Marie Angélique Arnauld (1591–1661),
abbess of
Port-Royal-des-Champs.
10.
Concino Concini
–
Concino Concini, marquis dAncre, was an Italian politician, best known for being a minister of Louis XIII of France, as the favourite of his mother. A nobleman native of Florence, Concini went to France with Maria de Medici, wife of Henri IV and it is generally thought that the favour his wife enjoyed with the queen, combined with his wit and boldness, contributed to make Concinis fortune. In 1610, he purchased the marquisate of Ancre and the position of First Gentleman-in-waiting, then he obtained successively the governments of Amiens and of Normandy, governor of Péronne, Roye and Montdidier and, in 1613, the baton of Marshal of France. From then first minister of the realm, he abandoned the policy of Henri IV, compromised his wise legislation, allowed the treasury to be pillaged, and drew upon himself the hatred of all classes. The nobles were bitterly hostile to him, particularly Henry II de Bourbon, Prince of Condé, with whom he negotiated the Treaty of Loudun in 1616, and this was done on the advice of Cardinal de Richelieu, whose introduction into politics was favoured by Concini. By 1617, Louis XIII, incited by his favourite Charles de Luynes, was tired of Concinis tutelage, nicolas de LHôpital, as head of the royal guards, received in the Kings name the order to imprison him. According to some authors, young Louis XIII agreed that Concini could be killed if he resisted, apprehended on the bridge of the Louvre, Concini was killed by guards after allegedly calling out À moi. for help, which was interpreted as resistance. According to other authors, it was decided that Concini would be killed regardless, the action was the result of a secret plot organised by Louis XIII king of France and Charles de Luynes, which was then executed by the Baron of Vitry. After his murder, the Queen Mother was ordered to retire to Blois, Concinis wife, Leonora Dori, was arrested, imprisoned in Blois and accused of sorcery. She was beheaded and her body burned at the stake on July 8 of the same year in Place de Grève. Concinis son, Henry, born in 1605, fled France, the Concinis chattels and estates, in particular the castle of Lésigny and the palace of Rue de Tournon, were confiscated by King Louis XIII and given to Charles de Luynes. In 1617-1618, many rumours, fake news and pamphlets were distributed in Paris to justify Concini’s murder. In 1767, D. Sandellius published at Brescia, De Concini vita, On the role of Concini, see the Histoire de France, published under the direction of Ernest Lavisse, vol. vi. by Mariejol
Concino Concini
–
Concino Concini
Concino Concini
–
Concino Concini at the beginning of his career
Concino Concini
–
Contemporary depiction of the assassination of Concini
11.
Favourite
–
A favourite or favorite was the intimate companion of a ruler or other important person. In medieval and Early Modern Europe, among other times and places, from 1600 to 1660 there were particular successions of all-powerful minister-favourites in much of Europe, especially in Spain, England, France and Sweden. The term is sometimes employed by writers who want to avoid terms such as royal mistress, or friend. Too close a relationship between monarch and favourite was seen as a breach of the order and hierarchy of society. Since many favourites had flamboyant over-reaching personalities, they led the way to their own downfall with their rash behaviour. As the opinions of the gentry and bourgeoisie grew in importance, dislike from all classes could be especially intense in the case of favourites who were elevated from humble, or at least minor, backgrounds by royal favour. Titles and estates were usually given lavishly to favourites, who were compared to mushrooms because they sprang up suddenly overnight, the Kings favourite Piers Gaveston is a night-grown mushrump to his enemies in Christopher Marlowes Edward II. Their falls could be even more sudden, but after about 1650, favourites who came from the higher nobility, such as Leicester, Lerma, Olivares, and Oxenstierna, were often less resented and lasted longer. Oxenstierna and William Cecil, who died in office, successfully trained their sons to succeed them. Elizabeth I had Cecil as Secretary of State and later Lord High Treasurer from the time she ascended the throne in 1558 until his death 40 years later. She had more colourful relationships with several courtiers, the most lasting and intimate one was with Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, who was also a leading politician. Only in her last decade was the position of the Cecils, father and son, challenged by Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, Cardinal Wolsey was one figure who rose through the administrative hierarchy, but then lived extremely ostentatiously, before falling suddenly from power. Cardinal Granvelle, like his father, was a trusted Habsburg minister who lived grandly and it has been claimed that le Daims career was the origin of the term, as favori first appeared around the time of his death in 1484. Privado in Spanish was older, but was partly replaced by the term valido, in Spanish. Queen Victorias John Brown came much too late, the devotion of the monarch, in England, the scope for giving political power to a favourite was reduced by the growing importance of Parliament. Strafford can therefore hardly be called a favourite in the usual sense even though his relationship with Charles became very close and he was also from a well-established family, with powerful relations. After several years in power, Strafford was impeached by a Parliament now very hostile to him, there were later minister-favourites in England, but they knew that the favour of the monarch alone was not sufficient to rule, and most also had careers in Parliament. In France, the movement was in the opposite direction, the absolute monarchy pioneered by Cardinal Richelieu, Mazarins predecessor, was to be led by the monarch himself
Favourite
–
Equestrian portrait of the Count-Duke of Olivares by
Diego Velázquez.
Favourite
–
The Duke of Buckingham by
Rubens
Favourite
–
Cardinal Richelieu, one of the most successful from the golden age of the favourite
Favourite
–
Prince
Grigori Potemkin
12.
Regent
–
A regent is a person appointed to administer a state because the monarch is a minor, is absent or is incapacitated. The rule of a regent or regents is called a regency, a regent or regency council may be formed ad hoc or in accordance with a constitutional rule. Regent is sometimes a formal title, if the formally appointed regent is unavailable or cannot serve on a temporary basis, a Regent ad interim may be appointed to fill the gap. In a monarchy, a regent usually governs due to one of these reasons and this was the case in the Kingdom of Finland and the Kingdom of Hungary, where the royal line was considered extinct in the aftermath of World War I. In Iceland, the regent represented the King of Denmark as sovereign of Iceland until the country became a republic in 1944, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, kings were elective, which often led to a fairly long interregnum. In the interim, it was the Roman Catholic Primate who served as the regent, in the small republic of San Marino, the two Captains Regent, or Capitani Reggenti, are elected semi-annually as joint heads of state and of government. Famous regency periods include that of the Prince Regent, later George IV of the United Kingdom, giving rise to terms such as Regency era. Strictly this period lasted from 1811 to 1820, when his father George III was insane, as of 1 December 2016, Liechtenstein is the only country with an active regency. The term regent may refer to lower than the ruler of a country. The term may be used in the governance of organisations, typically as an equivalent of director, some university managers in North America are called regents and a management board for a college or university may be titled the Board of Regents. The term regent is used for members of governing bodies of institutions such as the national banks of France. This type of group portrait was popular in Dutch Golden Age painting during the 17th century, in the Dutch East Indies, a regent was a native prince allowed to rule de facto colonized state as a regentschap. Consequently, in the state of Indonesia, the term regent is used in English to mean a bupati. Again in Belgium and France, Regent is the title of a teacher in a lower secondary school. In the Philippines, specifically, the University of Santo Tomas, the Father Regent and they also form the Council of Regents that serves as the highest administrative council of the university. In the Society of Jesus, a regent is a training to be a Jesuit. A regent in the Jesuits is often assigned to teach in a school or some other academic institution as part of the formation toward final vows, list of regents Viceroy, an individual who, in a colony or province, exercised the power of a monarch on his behalf
Regent
–
Regentesses of the Old Men's Almshouse in
Haarlem,
Frans Hals, 1664
13.
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1610 to 1643 and King of Navarre from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged with the French crown. Shortly before his birthday, Louis became king of France. His mother, Marie de Medici, acted as regent during his minority, Louis XIII, taciturn and suspicious, relied heavily on his chief ministers, first Charles dAlbert, duc de Luynes then Cardinal Richelieu, to govern the kingdom of France. King and cardinal are remembered for establishing the Académie française, the reign of Louis the Just was also marked by the struggles against Huguenots and Habsburg Spain. This battle marked the end of Spains military ascendancy in Europe and foreshadowed French dominance in Europe under Louis XIV, his son, born at the Château de Fontainebleau, Louis XIII was the oldest child of King Henry IV of France and his second wife Marie de Medici. As son of the king, he was a Fils de France and his father Henry IV was the first French king of the House of Bourbon, having succeeded his ninth cousin, Henry III of France, in application of Salic law. Louis XIIIs paternal grandparents were Antoine de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme and his maternal grandparents were Francesco I de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Joanna of Austria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany. Eleonora de Medici, his aunt, was his godmother. His mother Marie de Medici acted as Regent until 1617, although Louis XIII became of age at thirteen, his mother did not give up her position as Regent until 1617. Marie maintained most of her husbands ministers, with the exception of Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully and she mainly relied on Nicolas de Neufville, seigneur de Villeroy, Noël Brûlart de Sillery, and Pierre Jeannin for political advice. Marie pursued a policy, confirming the Edict of Nantes. She was not, however, able to prevent rebellion by nobles such as Henri, Prince of Condé second in line to the throne after Maries second surviving son Gaston, Duke of Orléans. Condé squabbled with Marie in 1614, and briefly raised an army, but he found support in the country. Nevertheless, Marie agreed to call an Estates General assembly to address Condés grievances, the assembly of this Estates General was delayed until Louis XIII formally came of age on his thirteenth birthday. Although Louiss coming-of-age formally ended Maries Regency, she remained the de facto ruler of France, the Estates General accomplished little, spending its time discussing the relationship of France to the Papacy and the venality of offices, but reaching no resolutions. Beginning in 1615, Marie came to rely increasingly on the Italian Concino Concini, Concini was widely unpopular because he was a foreigner. This further antagonised Condé, who launched another rebellion in 1616, Huguenot leaders supported Condés rebellion, which led the young Louis XIII to conclude that they would never be loyal subjects. Eventually, Condé and Queen Marie made peace via the Treaty of Loudun, which allowed Condé great power in government, but did not remove Concini
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII
Louis XIII of France
–
Half Louis d'Or (1643) depicting Louis XIII
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII in 1611 by
Frans Pourbus the Younger (
Palazzo Pitti)
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII, young King, by
Frans Pourbus the younger, 1620
14.
Carmelite
–
However, historical records about its origin remain uncertain. The charism of the Carmelite Order is contemplation, Carmelites understand contemplation in a broad sense encompassing prayer, community, and service. These three elements are at the heart of the Carmelite charism, the most recent statement about the charism of Carmel was in the 1995 Constitutions of the Order, in which Chapter 2 is entirely devoted to the idea of charism. Carmel understands contemplation and action to be complementary, not contradictory, the Order is considered by the Church to be under the special protection of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and thus has a strong Marian devotion to Our Lady of Mount Carmel. There are also such as active Carmelite sisters. Carmelite tradition traces the origin of the order to a community of hermits on Mount Carmel, There are no certain records of hermits on this mountain before the 1190s. By this date a group of men had gathered at the well of Elijah on Mount Carmel and these men, who had gone to Palestine from Europe either as pilgrims or as crusaders, chose Mount Carmel in part because it was the traditional home of Elijah. The foundation is believed to have dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary. Some time between 1206 and 1214 the hermits, about very little is known, approached St. Albert of Jerusalem. The Rule of St. Albert addresses a prior name is only listed as B. When later required to name their founders, the Brothers referred to both Elijah and the Blessed Virgin as early models of the community. Later, under pressure from other European Mendicant orders to be more specific, virtually nothing is known of the Carmelites from 1214, when Albert died, until 1238. The Rule of St. Albert was approved by Pope Honorius III in 1226, the Carmelites next appear in the historical record, in 1238, when with the increasing cleavage between the West and the East, the Carmelites found it advisable to leave the Near East. Many moved to Cyprus and Sicily, in 1242, the Carmelites migrated west, establishing a settlement at Aylesford, Kent, England, and Hulne, near Alnwick in Northumberland. Two years later, they established a chapter in southern France, settlements were established at Losenham, Kent, and Bradmer, on the north Norfolk coast, before 1247. By 1245 the Carmelites were so numerous in England that they were able to hold their first general chapter at Aylesford, where Saint Simon Stock, then eighty years old, was chosen general. During his rule of twenty years the order prospered, foundations were made at London and Cambridge, Marseilles, Cologne, York, Monpellier, Norwich, Oxford and Bristol, Paris, and elsewhere. By 1274, there were 22 Carmelite houses in England, about the number in France, eleven in Catalonia
Carmelite
–
Pietro Novelli,
Our Lady of Mount Carmel and Carmelite Saints (
Simon Stock (c. 1165–1265) (standing),
Angelus of Jerusalem (1185–1220) (kneeling),
Mary Magdalene de Pazzi (1566–1607),
Teresa of Ávila (1515–82)), 1641 (Museo Diocesano, Palermo).
Carmelite
–
Order of the Brothers of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel
Carmelite
–
Carmelite nuns.
Carmelite
–
Saint Teresa of Ávila (1515–82).
15.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
16.
Henri II de Montmorency
–
Henri II de Montmorency was a French nobleman and military commander. Born at Chantilly, Oise, Henri was the son of Henri I de Montmorency and he was the godson of Henri IV, and was constantly receiving marks of the royal affection. His name and his personality rendered him at an age the darling of the court. He was seventeen when Louis XIII raised him to the office of grand admiral and he succeeded to his fathers title in 1614. He was also governor of Languedoc and he wrested several important places from the Protestants, and was present at the sieges of Montauban and Monpellier. On the renewal of the war in 1625, the fleet sent from Holland to the aid of the French king was placed under his command. In 1628–1629, Henri took command of an army to fight the forces of duke of Rohan, in Languedoc. In 1630, he won renown as a leader in the war against the Spaniards in Piedmont. This victory was followed by the raising of the siege of Casal, for these achievements, he was appointed a Marshal of France later in the same year. At the height of his fame and influence, he was solicited to join the opponents of Cardinal Richelieu, negotiation was tried in vain, Henri was confronted and defeated by Marshal Schomberg at the battle of Castelnaudary. Trying to emulate his victory at Avigliana, Henri led a charge into the camp at the head of a few horsemen. He cut his way through six ranks of infantry amidst a continuing shower of shot, abandoned by Gaston, he was doomed to death by the remorseless Richelieu, as an example to the rest of the plotting nobility. In vain was his life begged by all ranks throughout France, the only palliation of punishment that could be obtained from Louis XIII was that the execution should be in private. Henri was therefore beheaded in Toulouses town hall 30 October 1632 and his title passed to his sister, Charlotte-Marguerite, princess of Condé. Attribution This article incorporates text from a work in the domain, Traill, Thomas Stewart, ed. Montmorency. The Encyclopaedia Britannica, or, Dictionary of arts, sciences and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Montmorency
Henri II de Montmorency
–
Henri II Duke of Montmorency
Henri II de Montmorency
–
Engraving by Pierre Daret (1610-1675)
Henri II de Montmorency
–
The funerary monument, by
Michel Anguier.
17.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Cardinal Armand Jean du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu and Fronsac, commonly referred to as Cardinal Richelieu, was a French clergyman, nobleman, and statesman. He was consecrated as a bishop in 1607 and was appointed Foreign Secretary in 1616, Richelieu soon rose in both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a cardinal in 1622, and King Louis XIIIs chief minister in 1624. He remained in office until his death in 1642, he was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, Cardinal de Richelieu was often known by the title of the kings Chief Minister or First Minister. He sought to consolidate power and crush domestic factions. By restraining the power of the nobility, he transformed France into a strong and his chief foreign policy objective was to check the power of the Austro-Spanish Habsburg dynasty, and to ensure French dominance in the Thirty Years War that engulfed Europe. Although he was a cardinal, he did not hesitate to make alliances with Protestant rulers in attempting to achieve his goals. While a powerful figure, events like the Day of the Dupes show that in fact he very much depended on the kings confidence to keep this power. As alumnus of the University of Paris and headmaster of the Collège de Sorbonne, Richelieu was also famous for his patronage of the arts, most notably, he founded the Académie Française, the learned society responsible for matters pertaining to the French language. Richelieu is also known by the sobriquet lÉminence rouge, from the red shade of a cardinals clerical dress and this in part allowed the colony to eventually develop into the heartland of Francophone culture in North America. He is also a character in The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas. Born in Paris, Armand du Plessis was the fourth of five children, at the age of nine, young Richelieu was sent to the College of Navarre in Paris to study philosophy. Thereafter, he began to train for a military career and his private life seems to have been typical of a young officer of the era, in 1605, aged twenty, he was treated by Théodore de Mayerne for gonorrhea. King Henry III had rewarded Richelieus father for his participation in the Wars of Religion by granting his family the bishopric of Luçon. The family appropriated most of the revenues of the bishopric for private use, they were, however, challenged by clergymen, to protect the important source of revenue, Richelieus mother proposed to make her second son, Alphonse, the bishop of Luçon. Alphonse, who had no desire to become a bishop, became instead a Carthusian monk, thus, it became necessary that the younger Richelieu join the clergy. He had strong interests, and threw himself into studying for his new post. In 1606 King Henry IV nominated Richelieu to become Bishop of Luçon, as Richelieu had not yet reached the canonical minimum age, it was necessary that he journey to Rome for a special dispensation from the Pope. This secured, Richelieu was consecrated bishop in April 1607, soon after he returned to his diocese in 1608, Richelieu was heralded as a reformer
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Portrait of Cardinal Richelieu, 1633–40,
Philippe de Champaigne,
National Gallery,
London
Cardinal Richelieu
–
The young King
Louis XIII was only a figurehead during his early reign; power actually rested with his mother,
Marie de Médicis.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Henri Motte 's depiction of Cardinal Richelieu at the
Siege of La Rochelle.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Letter of Cardinal Richelieu to
Claude de Razilly asking him to do everything in his power to relieve
Ré Island in the
Siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré, July 1627.
18.
Duel
–
A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two individuals with matched weapons in accordance with agreed-upon rules. Duels in this form were chiefly practiced in early modern Europe with precedents in the code of chivalry. During the 17th and 18th centuries, duels were fought with swords. But beginning in the late 18th century in England, duels were more commonly fought using pistols, fencing and pistol duels continued to co-exist throughout the 19th century. The duel was based on a code of honor, on rare occasions, duels with pistols or swords were fought between women, these were sometimes known as petticoat duels. Legislation against dueling goes back to the medieval period, the Fourth Council of the Lateran outlawed duels, and civil legislation in the Holy Roman Empire against dueling was passed in the wake of the Thirty Years War. From the early 17th century, duels became illegal in the countries where they were practiced, Dueling largely fell out of favor in England by the mid-19th century and in Continental Europe by the turn of the 20th century. Dueling declined in the Eastern United States in the 19th century and by the time the American Civil War broke out, dueling had begun to decline, public opinion, not legislation, caused the change. In Western society, the concept of a duel developed out of the medieval judicial duel. In Medieval society, judicial duels were fought by knights and squires to end various disputes, countries like Germany, United Kingdom, and Ireland practiced this tradition. Judicial combat were of two forms in society, the feat of arms and chivalric combat. The feat of arms were done to settle hostilities between two parties and supervised by a judge. The battle was fought when one partys honor was disrespected or challenged upon in which the conflict cannot be resolved in court, a spiked hand guard for pumbling, and extra grip for half swording. The duel lasted until the party was too weak to fight back. In early cases, the party was then subsequently executed. If a traveling venans did not have weapons or horse to meet the challenge, one might be provided, if a lady passed unescorted, she would leave behind a glove or scarf, to be rescued and returned to her by a future knight who passed that way. The Roman Catholic Church was critical of dueling throughout medieval history, judicial duels were deprecated by the Lateran Council of 1215, but the judicial duel persisted in the Holy Roman Empire into the 15th century. The word duel comes from the Latin duellum, cognate with bellum, during the early Renaissance, dueling established the status of a respectable gentleman, and was an accepted manner to resolve disputes
Duel
–
"The Code Of Honor—A Duel In The Bois De Boulogne, Near Paris", wood engraving by
Godefroy Durand (
Harper's Weekly, January 1875)
Duel
–
German students of a
Burschenschaft fighting a sabre duel, around 1900, painting by
Georg Mühlberg (1863–1925)
Duel
–
Dueling remained highly popular in European society, despite various attempts at banning the practice.
Duel
–
An anti-duelling sermon written by an acquaintance of
Alexander Hamilton.
19.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
20.
Anselm van Hulle
–
Anselm van Hulle or Anselmus van Hulle was a Flemish painter mainly of portraits whose works were highly prized at the Northern European Courts. Anselm van Hulle was baptized in the St. Bavo Church in Gent on 23 July 1601 and he was the son of Egidius van Hulle. He may have been a pupil of Gaspar de Crayer, a leading Baroque painter from Antwerp working mainly in Brussels, a training with such a prominent painter was relatively expensive. Van Hulle became a master in the Guild of St. Luke of Gent in 1620 and he probably made a trip to Italy in 1631 but was back in Gent in the same year. He married on 14 December 1631 with Livina of Thuyne, the couple had four children, who were all baptized in the St. Bavo Church. It is not clear when he moved to the Dutch Republic and he became court painter to the Dutch stadtholder Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange. Van Hulle made various portraits of persons of the Orange dynasty, the Prince sent him in 1645 or 1646 to Münster to make portraits of the delegates who attended the peace negotiations for the Peace of Münster. Van Hulle established a workshop in Münster to make the portraits. The Flemish painter Jean-Baptist Floris was likely initially an employee of van Hulle’s workshop, Floris is recorded as having received a commission for 34 portrait paintings of the delegates for the Münster Town Council at a price of ten thalers. Van Hulle typically charged 10 ducats for a bust painted by himself, van Hulle was active as an art dealer during his residence in Münster. He left Münster for a while in 1647 to attend to a matter in the family of his wife. After the conclusion of the negotiations in Münster, van Hulle followed the delegates to Nuremberg where the debriefings took place in 1649. His patron Frederick Henry died the same year and he travelled to Kassel in 1650 and was active at the Dresden court in 1651. He probably also worked at courts in the region. From 1652 he was active in Vienna where he entered the service of Emperor Ferdinand III, the emperor gave him a peerage on 27 August 1652. The Emperor sent him to Gottorf Castle in 1653 to paint a portrait of Frederick III, the last known record about van Hulle relates to his administration of the estate of Livina van den Tuyne for which he appeared before a notary in Gent, together with his son Pieter. Van Hulle has been described as a painter of portraits and history paintings, however, only portrait paintings are currently attributed to him. His portrait paintings include portraits, family portraits, bust portraits
Anselm van Hulle
–
Portrait of Count
Ottavio Piccolomini
Anselm van Hulle
–
Family portrait group
Anselm van Hulle
–
Portrait of Ottho Ottho from the 1717 edition of Les Hommes Illustres...
21.
Normandy
–
Normandy is one of the regions of France, roughly corresponding to the historical Duchy of Normandy. Administratively, Normandy is divided into five departments, Calvados, Eure, Manche, Orne and it covers 30,627 km², forming roughly 5% of the territory of France. Its population of 3.37 million accounts for around 5% of the population of France, Normans is the name given to the inhabitants of Normandy, and the region is the homeland of the Norman language. The historical region of Normandy comprised the region of Normandy, as well as small areas now part of the départements, or departments of Mayenne. For a century and a following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, Normandy and England were linked by Norman. Archaeological finds, such as paintings, prove that humans were present in the region in prehistoric times. Celts invaded Normandy in successive waves from the 4th to the 3rd century BC, when Julius Caesar invaded Gaul, there were nine different Celtic tribes living in Normandy. The Romanisation of Normandy was achieved by the methods, Roman roads. Classicists have knowledge of many Gallo-Roman villas in Normandy, in the late 3rd century, barbarian raids devastated Normandy. Coastal settlements were raided by Saxon pirates, Christianity also began to enter the area during this period. In 406, Germanic tribes began invading from the east, while the Saxons subjugated the Norman coast, the Roman Emperor withdrew from most of Normandy. As early as 487, the area between the River Somme and the River Loire came under the control of the Frankish lord Clovis, the Vikings started to raid the Seine Valley during the middle of the 9th century. As early as 841, a Viking fleet appeared at the mouth of the Seine, after attacking and destroying monasteries, including one at Jumièges, they took advantage of the power vacuum created by the disintegration of Charlemagnes empire to take northern France. The fiefdom of Normandy was created for the Norwegian Viking leader Hrólfr Ragnvaldsson, Rollo had besieged Paris but in 911 entered vassalage to the king of the West Franks, Charles the Simple, through the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for his homage and fealty, Rollo legally gained the territory which he, the name Normandy reflects Rollos Viking origins. The descendants of Rollo and his followers adopted the local Gallo-Romance language and they became the Normans – a Norman-speaking mixture of Saxons and indigenous Franks and Celts. Besides the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent conquests of Wales and Ireland, Norman families, such as that of Tancred of Hauteville, Rainulf Drengot and Guimond de Moulins played important parts in the Norman conquest of southern Italy and Crusades. They also carved out a place for themselves and their descendants in the Crusader states of Asia Minor, the 14th century Norman explorer Jean de Béthencourt established a kingdom in the Canary Islands
Normandy
–
Roman theatre in
Lillebonne
Normandy
Normandy
–
Allied invasion of Normandy,
D-Day, 1944
Normandy
–
A typical northeastern Norman village
22.
Louise de Bourbon
–
Louise de Bourbon called Mademoiselle de Soissons was the wife of Henri dOrléans, Duke of Longueville. She was the mother of the famous Marie de Nemours, the eldest daughter of Charles de Bourbon, Count of Soissons and Anne de Montafié, she was the older sister of the Princess of Carignano as well as the last Count of Soissons. Bought up at the Abbey of Fontevraud, she was placed in the care of her great-aunt Éléonore de Bourbon, Mademoiselle de Soissons married the duke of Longueville in Paris on 10 April 1617. The newly-weds had ancestors in common, their fathers both grandsons of François dOrléans, Duke of Fronsac, the couple eventually had three children, only one of which would survive infancy. Dying in 1637, her husband married once more, another princess of the blood in the form of Mademoiselle de Bourbon, Marie married Henri II, Duke of Nemours. X. Media related to Louise de Bourbon at Wikimedia Commons
Louise de Bourbon
–
For the Duchess of Montpensier, see
Louise de Bourbon, Duchess of Montpensier.
23.
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis XIV by
Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701)
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis-Dieudonné,
Dauphin of France, in 1643 by
Claude Deruet
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis XIV as a child, unknown painter
Louis XIV of France
–
1655 portrait of Louis, the Victor of the Fronde, portrayed as the god
Jupiter
24.
Battle of Rocroi
–
The battle is considered by many to be the turning point of the perceived invincibility of the Spanish tercio. The Habsburg Spanish army of about 27,000 men advanced from Flanders, through the Ardennes, the Spanish troops set siege to Rocroi, which lay athwart the route to the valley of the Oise. The French, under the command of 21-year-old Louis, duc dEnghien, reacted quickly, the Spanish failed to block the route to Rocroi, which passed through a defile bordered by woods and marsh. Enghien advanced through the defile and assembled his force along a ridge looking down on the town of Rocroi. The Spanish quickly formed up between the town and the ridge, the French army, some 23,000 strong, was arranged with two lines of infantry in the center, squadrons of cavalry on each wing and with a thin line of artillery at the front. The Spanish army was arranged, but with its infantry in their traditional tercios. The two armies bivouacked in their positions for the night, the French army attacked, but the French infantry in the centre were bested by the Spanish. The cavalry on the French left, advancing against Enghiens orders, was thrown back. But the cavalry on the French right, under the command of Jean de Gassion, Enghien was able to follow this up by attacking the exposed left flank of the Spanish infantry. Spanish cavalry made a successful counter-attack to drive off the French cavalry, the Spanish horse was put to flight, leaving the Spanish infantry to carry on the fight. The French were twice repulsed by the stubborn Spanish squares, so Enghien arranged for his artillery, Enghien then offered surrender conditions just like those obtained by a besieged garrison in a fortress. Having agreed to terms, the remains of the two tercios left the field with deployed flags and weapons. The total Spanish losses were about 7,000 dead, wounded, despite this, the battle was of great symbolic importance because of the high reputation of the Army of Flanders. They were given the treatment usually given to a garrison and retired from the field with their arms, flags. With the end of the Fronde, Cardinal Mazarin slowly turned the tide against the Spanish in France and in the Low Countries. Mazarins alliance with England resulted in the defeat of the Spanish at the Battle of the Dunes and consequently the taking of Dunkirk in 1658, although Spain looked to be all-powerful in 1652, the peace settlement reflected the demise of Spains mastery of Europe in the late 1650s. A2006 Spanish movie, Alatriste, directed by Agustín Díaz Yanes, the sedan chair belonging to the elderly Spanish infantry general Fontaines was taken as a trophy by the French and may be seen in the museum of Les Invalides in Paris. Fontaines was killed in the battle, Enghien is reported to have said, Had I not won the day I wish I had died like him
Battle of Rocroi
–
The
duc d'Enghien ordering his troops to stop fighting the Spanish, who have come to him to surrender (
Galerie des Batailles)
Battle of Rocroi
–
Duc d'Enghien at the Battle of Rocroi
Battle of Rocroi
–
Rocroi, the last tercio, by
Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau
25.
Cardinal Mazarin
–
Mazarin succeeded his mentor, Cardinal Richelieu. He was a collector of art and jewels, particularly diamonds. His personal library was the origin of the Bibliothèque Mazarine in Paris, some of these principles, such as the nation states sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs and the legal equality among states, remain the basis of international law to this day. Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino was born in Pescina, then part of the Kingdom of Naples, giulio was the older brother of Michele Mazzarino, Master of the Sacred Palace under Pope Urban VIII, and later Archbishop of Aix-en-Provence and a cardinal. Contemporary John Bargrave suggested that his father Pietro Mazzarini had lost a significant amount of money during a transaction and was forced to flee to Rome. Regardless, Pietro was a notary who made use of his connections to the Colonna once he arrived in Rome and became chamberlain to the Constable Filippo I Colonna and he had a younger sister, Laura Margherita Mazzarini. Mazarin studied at the Jesuit College in Rome, though he declined to join their order, at seventeen he accompanied Girolamo Colonna, one of the sons of Filippo I Colonna, to the university of Alcalá de Henares in Spain, to serve as his chamberlain. His stay was brief, a notary who had advanced some cash to cover gaming debts urged the charming and personable young Mazarino to take his daughter as bride, with a substantial dowry. Later Mazarin frequented the University of Rome La Sapienza, gaining the title of Doctor in jurisprudence, Mazarin followed Filippo I Colonna as captain of infantry in his regiment during the war in Monferrato of 1628, over the succession to Mantua. During this war he gave proofs of much ability, and Pope Urban VIII entrusted him, in 1629. At the time Anna Colonna, daughter of Filippo I Colonna, was married to Urbans nephew Taddeo Barberini, and the Pope now made her brother, Girolamo Colonna, Archbishop of Albano and a new cardinal. The Cardinal was sent to Monferrat as papal legate, to treat of peace between France and Spain in the matter of Mantua, and insisted that Mazarin be attached to his legation as secretary. As papal vice-legate at Avignon, and nuncio extraordinary in France, under Habsburg pressure, Mazarin was sent back to Avignon, where he was dismissed by Urban VIII on 17 January 1636. Richelieu, who felt the weight of his years, though he was as assiduous in the Kings service as ever, detected in Mazarin a likely aide in carrying on government. He confided to the man several sensitive missions, in which Mazarin acquitted himself well, then presented him to the King. He attributed his winnings to the Queens presence, and in thanks, the Queen demurred, Mazarin pressed, and she accepted. Several days later, Mazarin quietly received a deal more than he had given. Thus he was affirmed in the favour of the King, the court and above all of Anne of Austria, who would soon be regent
Cardinal Mazarin
–
Cardinal Mazarin by
Pierre Mignard
Cardinal Mazarin
–
Cardinal Mazarin by
Robert Nanteuil, 1656
26.
Treaty of Westphalia
–
The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück and Münster, effectively ending the European wars of religion. The Treaty of Osnabrück, involving the Holy Roman Empire, Sweden, the treaties did not restore peace throughout Europe, but they did create a basis for national self-determination. Inter-state aggression was to be held in check by a balance of power, a norm was established against interference in another states domestic affairs. As European influence spread across the globe, these Westphalian principles, especially the concept of states, became central to international law. Peace negotiations between France and the Habsburgs, provided by the Holy Roman Emperor and the Spanish King, were started in Cologne in 1641 and these negotiations were initially blocked by France. Cardinal Richelieu of France desired the inclusion of all its allies, in Hamburg and Lübeck, Sweden and the Holy Roman Empire negotiated the Treaty of Hamburg. This was done with the intervention of Richelieu, the Holy Roman Empire and Sweden declared the preparations of Cologne and the Treaty of Hamburg to be preliminaries of an overall peace agreement. This larger agreement was negotiated in Westphalia, in the cities of Münster. Both cities were maintained as neutral and demilitarized zones for the negotiations, Münster was, since its re-Catholization in 1535, a strictly mono-denominational community. It housed the Chapter of the Prince-Bishopric of Münster, only Roman Catholic worship was permitted. No places of worship were provided for Calvinists and Lutherans, in the years of 1628–1633 Osnabrück had been subjugated by troops of the Catholic League. The Catholic Prince-Bishop Franz Wilhelm, Count of Wartenberg then imposed the Counter-Reformation onto the city with many Lutheran burgher families being exiled, while under Swedish occupation Osnabrückss Catholics were not expelled, but the city severely suffered from Swedish war contributions. Therefore, Osnabrück hoped for a great relief becoming neutralised and demilitarised, since Lutheran Sweden preferred Osnabrück as a conference venue, its peace negotiations with the Empire, including the allies of both sides, took place in Osnabrück. The Empire and its opponent France, including the allies of each, as well as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, between January 1646 and July 1647 probably the largest number of diplomats were present. The French delegation was headed by Henri II dOrléans, duc de Longueville and further comprised the diplomats Claude dAvaux, the Swedish delegation was headed by Count Johan Oxenstierna and was assisted by Baron Johan Adler Salvius. Philip IV of Spain was represented by a double delegation, the Spanish delegation was headed by Gaspar de Bracamonte y Guzmán, and notably included the diplomats and writers Diego de Saavedra Fajardo, and Bernardino de Rebolledo. The Burgundian lawyer Antoine Brun represented Philip as hereditary ruler of the Franche Comté, the papal nuncio in Cologne, Fabio Chigi, and the Venetian envoy Alvise Contarini acted as mediators. Various Imperial States of the Holy Roman Empire also sent delegations, Brandenburg sent several representatives, including Vollmar
Treaty of Westphalia
–
The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster, 15 May 1648 (1648) by
Gerard ter Borch
Treaty of Westphalia
–
Historical map
27.
Armand, Prince of Conti
–
Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti was a French nobleman, the younger son of Henri, Prince of Condé and brother of le Grand Condé and Anne Geneviève, Duchess of Longueville. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince du Sang, the title of Prince of Conti was revived in his favour in 1629. He was destined for the church and studied theology at the university of Bourges, said to be mystic and full of strange ideas, Conti turned slightly mad while in prison. Having a secret passion for his sister the Duchess of Longueville and he tried alchemy and potions for some time and eventually bruised himself with a spatula. He was concerned in the Fronde of 1651, but soon became reconciled with Mazarin, and in 1654 married the cardinals niece, Anne Marie Martinozzi. They had two children, Louis Armand and François Louis and he took command of the army which in 1654 invaded Catalonia, where he captured three towns from the Spanish. He afterwards led the French forces in Italy, but after his defeat before Alessandria in 1657 retired to Languedoc, Conti also wrote Lettres sur la grâce, and Du devoir des grands et des devoirs des gouverneurs de province. 11 October 1629 –26 February 1666, His Serene Highness The Prince of Conti This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Conti
Armand, Prince of Conti
–
Armand de Bourbon-Conti
28.
Prince de Conti
–
The title of Prince of Conti was a French noble title, assumed by a cadet branch of the princely house of Bourbon-Condé. François de Bourbon, the son of this marriage, was given the title of marquis de Conti and was later elevated to the rank of prince de Conti. He died in 1614 and the title lapsed, since his only child had predeceased him in 1610. In 1629, the title of Prince of Conti was revived in favor of Armand de Bourbon, second son of Henry II, Prince of Condé, and brother of Louis, the holders of this title used the style of Serene Highness. 1558-1614, marquis, then from 1581 onwards 1st prince François de Bourbon At his death, princess of Conti Château de LIsle-Adam This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Conti, Princes of
Prince de Conti
–
Coat of arms of the Princes of Conti
29.
Aquitaine
–
Aquitaine, archaic Guyenne/Guienne was a traditional region of France, and was an administrative region of France until 1 January 2016. It is now part of the new region Nouvelle-Aquitaine and it is situated in the south-western part of Metropolitan France, along the Atlantic Ocean and the Pyrenees mountain range on the border with Spain. It is composed of the five departments of Dordogne, Lot-et-Garonne, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, Landes, in the Middle Ages, Aquitaine was a kingdom and a duchy, whose boundaries fluctuated considerably. This has been demonstrated by various Aquitanian names and words that were recorded by the Romans, whether this Aquitanian language was a remnant of a Vasconic language group that once extended much farther, or whether it was generally limited to the Aquitaine/Basque region is not known. The original Aquitania at the time of Caesars conquest of Gaul included the area bounded by the Garonne River, the Pyrenees, the name may stem from Latin aqua, maybe derived from the town Aquae Augustae, Aquae Tarbellicae or just Aquis or as a more general geographical feature. In 392, the Roman imperial provinces were restructured and Aquitania Prima, Aquitania Secunda, accounts of Aquitania during the Early Middle Ages are a blur, lacking precision, but there was much unrest. The Visigoths were called into Gaul as foederati, legalizing their status within the Empire, eventually they established themselves as the de facto rulers in south-west Gaul as central Roman rule collapsed. Visigoths established their capital in Toulouse, but their tenure on Aquitaine was feeble, in 507, they were expelled south to Hispania after their defeat in the Battle of Vouillé by the Franks, who became the new rulers in the area to the south of the Loire. The Roman Aquitania Tertia remained in place as Novempopulania, where a duke was appointed to hold a grip over the Basques and these dukes were quite detached from central Frankish overlordship, sometimes governing as independent rulers with strong ties to their kinsmen south of the Pyrenees. As of 660, the foundations for an independent Aquitaine/Vasconia polity were established by the duke Felix of Aquitaine, a united Basque-Aquitanian realm reached its heyday under Odo the Greats rule. Odo was required to pledge allegiance to the Frankish Charles Martel in exchange for help against the advancing Arabic forces, Basque-Aquitanian self-rule temporarily came to a halt, definitely in 768 after the assassination of Waifer. Seguin, count of Bordeaux and Duke of Vasconia, seemed to have attempted a detachment from the Frankish central authority on Charlemagnes death, the new emperor Louis the Pious reacted by removing him from his capacity, which stirred the Basques into rebellion. Before Pepins death, emperor Louis had appointed a new king in 832, his son Charles the Bald, however scarce, some Frankish population and nobles settled down in regions like Albigeois, Carcassone, Toulouse, and Provence and Lower Rhone. After the death of the king Dagobert I, the Merovingian tenure south of the Loire became largely nominal, with the power being in the hands of autonomous regional leaders. The Franks may have largely assimilated to the preponderant Gallo-Roman culture by the 8th century. Still, in the Battle of Toulouse, the Aquitanian duke Odo is said to be leading an army of Aquitanians, on the other hand, the Franks didnt mix with the Basques, keeping separate paths. Recorded evidence points to their deployment across Aquitaine in a capacity as a mainstay of the Dukes forces. Romans are cited as living in the cities of Aquitaine, as opposed to the Franks, in 1058, the Duchy of Vasconia and Aquitaine merged under the rule of William VIII, Duke of Aquitaine
Aquitaine
–
Landscape in Dordogne, Aquitaine
Aquitaine
–
Flag
Aquitaine
–
Situation in the duchies of Vasconia and Aquitaine (760)
Aquitaine
–
Landscape in Pyrénées-Atlantiques, Aquitaine
30.
Marie de Rohan-Montbazon, duchesse de Chevreuse
–
Marie de Rohan was a French aristocrat, famed for being the center of many of the intrigues of the first half of the 17th century in France. In various sources, she is known simply as Madame de Chevreuse. Her mother was Madeleine de Lenoncourt, in September 1617, she married the Grand Constable Charles dAlbert, Duke of Luynes, a favourite of King Louis XIII. He formed her taste for political intrigue, introducing her at court. In December 1618, Louis XIII named her surintendante of the queens household and her influence with the queen consort, Anne of Austria, was unrivaled. In 1620, she gave birth to Louis Charles dAlbert, for whom Louis XIII stood godfather, louis-Charles became the second Duke of Luynes and married his mothers sister, Anne de Rohan. His daughter Jeanne Baptiste, simultaneously Maries granddaughter and niece, was the mistress of Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia and her youngest half brother was Francois de Rohan, Prince of Soubise, founder of the Soubise line of the House of Rohan. His wife was Anne de Rohan-Chabot, Madame de Soubise, who was one time mistress of Louis XIV, after Luynes died of scarlet fever in 1621, she married Claude of Lorraine, Duke of Chevreuse on 21 April 1622. From this second marriage, she had three daughters, two of them became nuns, Anne-Marie of Lorraine, abbess of Pont-aux-Dames, and Henriette of Lorraine, abbess of Jouarre and later at Port-Royal. The third daughter, Charlotte-Marie of Lorraine, having failed to wed Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti, became the mistress of Cardinal de Retz and played a role in the Fronde, the duc de Chevreuse used all his influence to have her restored to court. Secret exchanges of correspondence with Spain carried out by Anne of Austria were unmasked in 1637, requiring the Duchesse de Chevreuse to flee to Spain, then to England and finally to Flanders. During the Fronde, she came closer to Mazarin for a time, but then she switched back to the party when the parliamentary Fronde. She died in retirement in the convent of Gagny in 1679, Victor Cousin published a more serious biography in 1856. The most recent biography in English is H. Noel Williams, A Fair Conspirator, Marie de Rohan, in 2002, she was portrayed by Wendy Albiston in the Doctor Who audio drama The Church and the Crown
Marie de Rohan-Montbazon, duchesse de Chevreuse
–
Marie with her son Louis Charles; she poses as
Diana and her son as
Hercules
Marie de Rohan-Montbazon, duchesse de Chevreuse
–
Duchess of Chevreuse
Marie de Rohan-Montbazon, duchesse de Chevreuse
–
Velázquez 's
The Lady with a Fan is purported to be a likeness of the duchess, although the features of the sitter differ remarkably from other extant portraits of Marie Aimée.
31.
Rouen
–
Rouen is a city on the River Seine in the north of France. It is the capital of the region of Normandy, formerly one of the largest and most prosperous cities of medieval Europe, Rouen was the seat of the Exchequer of Normandy during the Middle Ages. It was one of the capitals of the Anglo-Norman dynasties, which ruled both England and large parts of modern France from the 11th to the 15th centuries. The population of the area at the 2007 census was 532,559. People from Rouen are known as Rouennais, Rouen and its metropolitan area of 70 suburban communes form the Agglomeration community of Rouen-Elbeuf-Austreberthe, with 494,382 inhabitants at the 2010 census. Rouen was founded by the Gaulish tribe of Veliocasses, who controlled an area in the lower Seine valley. The Gauls named the settlement Ratumacos and the Romans called it Rotomagus, Roman Rotomagus was the second city of Gallia Lugdunensis, after Lugdunum. In the 5th century, it became the seat of a bishopric, in the 10th century Rouen became the capital of the Duchy of Normandy and the residence of the dukes, until William the Conqueror established his castle at Caen. During the early 12th century the population reached 30,000. In 1150, Rouen received its charter, which permitted self-government. During the 12th century, Rouen was probably the site of a Jewish yeshiva, at that time, about 6,000 Jews lived in the town, comprising about 20% of the total population. The well-preserved remains of a medieval Jewish building, that could be a yeshiva, were discovered in the 1970s under the Rouen Law Courts. In 1200, a destroyed part of Rouens Romanesque cathedral, leaving just St Romains tower, the side porches of its front. New work on the present Gothic cathedral of Rouen began, in the nave, transept, choir, on 24 June 1204, Philip Augustus entered Rouen and annexed Normandy to the French Kingdom. The fall of Rouen meant the end of Normandys sovereign status and he demolished the Norman castle and replaced it with his own, the Château Bouvreuil, built on the site of the Gallo-Roman amphitheatre. A textile industry developed based on wool imported from England, competing with the northern County of Flanders, the city found its market niche in the Champagne fairs. Rouen also depended on the traffic of the Seine for its prosperity. Wine and wheat were exported to England, with tin and wool received in return, in the late 13th century urban strife threatened the city, in 1291, the mayor was assassinated and noble residences in the city were pillaged
Rouen
–
Top: View of Downtown Rouen and Seine River from Bois Bagneres Hill. Middle left: Twilightview of Archives department of Seine Maritime building. Center: Night view of
Gros-Horloge. Middle right:
Pont Gustave-Flaubert (Gustave-Flaubert Bridge). Bottom: Night view of Rouen Notre-Dame Cathedral and Seine River.
Rouen
–
City Hall and
Church of St. Ouen, Rouen
Rouen
–
Primitive 14th century
timber framing, rue du Petit Mouton
Rouen
–
For the
royal entry of
Henry II in Rouen, 1 October 1550.
32.
Port-Royal-des-Champs
–
Port-Royal-des-Champs was an abbey of Cistercian nuns in Magny-les-Hameaux, in the Vallée de Chevreuse southwest of Paris that launched a number of culturally important institutions. The abbey was established in 1204, but became famous when its discipline was reformed in 1609 by its abbess, the Arnauld family became its patrons and the abbeys subsequent history was directed by a number of the members of that family. In 1625 most of the moved to a new Port-Royal in Paris. At the original site, several schools were founded, which known as the Little Schools of Port-Royal. These schools became famous for the quality of the education they gave. Playwright Jean Racine was a product of Port-Royal education, in 1634 Jean du Vergier de Hauranne, Abbé de Saint-Cyran, became spiritual director of the abbey, he was a companion of Jansenius and the implementer of Jansenism in France. From that point forward, the abbeys and schools of Port-Royal became intimately associated with school of theology. The atmosphere of serious study and Jansenist piety attracted a number of prominent cultural figures to the movement, Pascal defended the schools publicly against the Jesuits in the Jansenist controversies which agitated the French Roman Catholic Church, in his Provincial Letters in 1657. Perhaps even more striking, several important persons of the court were close to Jansenism, members of the Arnauld family have managed to have important jobs such as Simon Arnauld de Pomponne, Minister of Louis XIV. The Jesuits, on the hand, enjoyed predominance in political and theological power in France and Europe, providing a personal confessor to the King. As a result of the Jesuit attacks on Jansenism, the schools of Port-Royal were regarded as tainted with heresy, Louis XIV wanting peace in the church, the elementary schools were forcibly closed by papal bull in 1660, following the formulary controversy. In 1661, the monastery was forbidden to accept novices, heralding its eventual dissolution, the abbey itself was abolished by a bull from Pope Clement XI in 1708, the remaining nuns forcibly removed in 1709, most of the buildings themselves razed in 1711. The chapel, containing Mère Angéliques tomb, as well as buildings, still exist in the vast grounds of what eventually became Paris leading maternity hospital. A celebrated history of Port-Royal and its influence was written by Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve in 1837-1859, the remains of the monastery of Port-Royal-des-Champs may still be seen at Magny-les-Hameaux, in the Chevreuse valley. Operated as Musée de Port-Royal, the 30-hectare estate includes the ruins of the abbey, a 17th-century building houses the Musée national de Port-Royal des Champs, which exhibits 17th- and 18th-century paintings and engravings
Port-Royal-des-Champs
–
Plan of Port-Royal-des-Champs, engraving by
Louise-Magdeleine Horthemels, c. 1710
Port-Royal-des-Champs
–
Nuns being forcibly removed from the abbey in 1709.
Port-Royal-des-Champs
–
Caring for the Sick
Port-Royal-des-Champs
–
Distributing Alms to the Poor
33.
Antoine Arnauld
–
Not to be confused with his father Antoine Arnauld or his nephew Antoine Arnauld. Antoine Arnauld — le Grand, as contemporaries called him, to him from his father — was a French Roman Catholic theologian, philosopher. He was one of the intellectuals of the Jansenist group of Port-Royal and had a very thorough knowledge of patristics. Antoine Arnauld was born in Paris to the Arnauld family, the twentieth and youngest child of the original Antoine Arnauld, he was originally intended for the bar, but decided instead to study theology at the Sorbonne. His book, De la fréquente Communion, was an important step in making the aims and it attracted controversy by being against frequent communion. Pascal was assisted in this task by Arnaulds nephew Antoine Le Maistre, during the formulary controversy which opposed Jesuits to Jansenists concerning the orthodoxy of Jansenius propositions, Arnauld was forced to go into hiding. In 1655 two very outspoken Lettres à un duc et pair on Jesuit methods in the confessional brought a motion of censorship voted against him in the Sorbonne and this motion prompted Pascal to anonymously write the Provincial Letters. For more than twenty years Arnauld dared not appear publicly in Paris, Pascal, however, failed to save his friend, and in February 1656 Arnauld was ceremonially degraded. Twelve years later the so-called peace of Pope Clement IX put an end to his troubles, he was received by Louis XIV. He now set to work with Pierre Nicole on a work against the Calvinist Protestants. Ten years later, however, persecution resumed, Arnauld was compelled to leave France for the Netherlands, finally settling down at Brussels. Here the last sixteen years of his life were spent in incessant controversy with Jesuits, Calvinists and his inexhaustible energy is best expressed by his famous reply to Nicole, who complained of feeling tired. Echoed Arnauld, when you have all eternity to rest in and his energy was not exhausted by purely theological questions. On the whole, public opinion leant to Arnaulds side, when Malebranche complained that his adversary had misunderstood him, Boileau silenced him with the question, My dear sir, whom do you expect to understand you, if M. Arnauld does not. Next Arnauld was engaged in a correspondence with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Arnauld died, aged 82, in Brussels, Arnauld came to be regarded as important among the mathematicians of his time, one critic described him as the Euclid of the 17th century. After his death, his reputation began to wane, contemporaries admired him as a master of intricate reasoning, on this, Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, the greatest theologian of the age, agreed with Henri François dAguesseau, the greatest lawyer. However, his eagerness to win every argument endeared him to no one, in spite of myself, Arnauld once said regretfully, my books are seldom very short
Antoine Arnauld
–
Antoine Arnauld.
34.
Louis-Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy
–
Louis-Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy, a priest of Port-Royal, was a theologian and French humanist. He is best known for his translation of the Bible the most widespread French Bible in the 18th century, also known as the Bible de Port-Royal. Louis-Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy was born in Paris, one of five sons of Huguenot Isaac Le Maistre, and of Catherine Arnauld, who was one of the sisters of Marie Angélique Arnauld. In 1638, when his older brothers Antoine and Simon gave up their careers to retire to Port-Royal, in 1650, he published a collection of prayers, the Heures de Port-Royal, in which he translated the highly successful liturgical hymns. De Sacy was imprisoned in the Bastille on 13 May 1666, after his release, Louis-Isaac devoted much of his time to revising his translation, and drafting the Commentaires that he wanted to accompany each of the books of the Bible. From 1672 to 1684, the date of his death, de Sacy published 10 additional books of the Bible, using the manuscripts left by de Sacy, his friend, Pierre Thomas pursued this task, and undertook the publication, from 1685 to 1693. In 1696, La Sainte Bible contenant lAncien et le Nouveau Testament was published in 32 volumes, in the 12th century, the first French version of the Bible was created by Pierre de Vaux, chief of Vaudois, it would still a single copy. De Sacys is better known than previous translations and has been much reproduced and it was really the first translation of the Bible accessible to the non-Latin speaking general public. The initiative of translation of the Vulgate came from the lawyer Antoine Le Maistre, who was the brother of Louis-Isaac, but that translation was not a good fit. At his brothers death, Louis-Isaac then began with his friends at Port-Royal a revision of his Biblical translation, complete with additional books, Greek texts, and this new translation was to be published by Mons in 1667, taking the name Nouveau Testament de Mons. It was presented in 2 volumes in octavo, some theologians criticized the translation of de Sacy as sometimes deviating from the letter of the original for no apparent reason. Others saw it as sober and elegant, Sacys annotations were criticised for favouring the theories of Cornelius Jansen. The Bible de Port-Royal was founded on work carried out in logic at the Port-Royal Abbey in Paris, Port-Royal Logic The Bible de Sacy was reissued in 1990 in Bouquins. Voir tome III, Les principales versions françaises de la Bible et du Nouveau Testament, de Sacys Bible in the French Wikisource Bible Lemaîstre de Saci – downloadable in Online Bible format, digitized by Yves Petrakian
Louis-Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy
–
Portrait of Louis-Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy, lord of Port-Royal, or of Antoine Le Maître, his elder brother, by the workshop of
Philippe de Champaigne
Louis-Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy
–
Page de garde du Nouveau Testament published by de Sacy in 1667.
35.
Bastille
–
The Bastille was a fortress in Paris, known formally as the Bastille Saint-Antoine. It played an important role in the conflicts of France. The Bastille was built to defend the approach to the city of Paris from the English threat in the Hundred Years War. The innovative design proved influential in both France and England and was widely copied, the fortress was declared a state prison in 1417, this role was expanded first under the English occupiers of the 1420s and 1430s, and then under Louis XI in the 1460s. The defences of the Bastille were fortified in response to the English and Imperial threat during the 1550s, the Bastille played a key role in the rebellion of the Fronde and the battle of the faubourg Saint-Antoine, which was fought beneath its walls in 1652. Louis XIV used the Bastille as a prison for members of French society who had opposed or angered him including, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. From 1659 onwards, the Bastille functioned primarily as a state penitentiary, although inmates were kept in relatively good conditions, criticism of the Bastille grew during the 18th century, fueled by autobiographies written by former prisoners. Reforms were implemented and prisoner numbers were considerably reduced, in 1789 the royal governments financial crisis and the formation of the National Assembly gave rise to a swelling of republican sentiments among city-dwellers. On 14 July the Bastille was stormed by a revolutionary crowd, seven remaining prisoners were found and released and the Bastilles governor, Bernard-René de Launay, was killed by the crowd. The Bastille was demolished by order of the Committee of the Hôtel de Ville, souvenirs of the fortress were transported around France and displayed as icons of the overthrow of despotism. Almost nothing is left of the Bastille except some remains of its foundation that were relocated to the side of the Boulevard Henri IV. The Bastille was built in response to a threat to Paris during the Hundred Years War between England and France, in 1357, Marcel expanded the city walls and protected the Porte Saint-Antoine with two high stone towers and a 78-foot-wide ditch. A fortified gateway of this sort was called a bastille, and was one of two created in Paris, the other being built outside the Porte Saint-Denis, Marcel was subsequently removed from his post and executed in 1358. In 1369, Charles V became concerned about the weakness of the side of the city to English attacks. Charles instructed Hugh Aubriot, the new provost, to build a larger fortification on the same site as Marcels bastille. Work began in 1370 with another pair of towers being built behind the first bastille, the fortress was probably not finished by the time Charles died in 1380, and was completed by his son, Charles VI. Built to the height, the roofs of the towers. Each of the six towers had underground cachots, or dungeons, at its base
Bastille
–
East view of the Bastille
Bastille
–
Historical reconstruction showing the moat below the walls of Paris (left), the Bastille and the
Porte Saint-Antoine (right) in 1420
Bastille
–
The eight medieval towers of the Bastille, showing the "calottes" and infamous "cachots" in the roofs and foundations, recorded in 1750
Bastille
–
A depiction of the Bastille and neighbouring Paris in 1575, showing the new
bastions, the new Porte Saint-Antoine, the Arsenal complex and the open countryside beyond the city defences
36.
Simon Arnauld, marquis de Pomponne
–
Simon Arnauld de Pomponne, Seigneur and then Marquis of Pomponne was a French diplomat and minister. Simon Arnauld was born in Paris in 1618 and he was son of Robert Arnauld dAndilly, governor of Monsieur and intendant darmée under Richelieu, and of Catherine Le Fevre de la Boderie. After having been taught by Martin Barcos, he entered the world of the précieuses, attending the salon of Mme de Rambouillet and he began his career as an intendant of the French garrison in Casale, where he staid from 1642 to 1647. Then, supported by Mazarin and Michel Le Tellier, he was appointed intendant darmée in Italy, in Paris during the Fronde, and in Catalonia. He first acted as a diplomat in 1655, having to negotiate and sign a treaty with the Duke of Mantua, but, as Jansenism began to widespread, his uncle Antoine Arnauld became one of its leaders, while his own father decided to retire in Port-Royal. It explains why, in 1658, Mazarin refused to let him become chancellor of Monsieur, worst of it, Pomponne turned to be both a client and a friend of Nicolas Fouquet, and married one of his cousins. Hence his exiles in Verdun in the East of France, then in his estate of Pomponne. Though he was allowed back in Paris by the King only in 1665, his friendships with Michel Le Tellier, Le Pelletier and his part was to prevent this State from entering the Triple Alliance. Even if Sweden strengthened its links with the United Provinces, Pomponne gave the King complete satisfaction, and was entrusted a new mission. In 1671, however, he was recalled to Sweden for the mission of forging a new alliance between Sweden and France. Therefore, the United Provinces were isolated on the diplomatic scale, after Hugues de Lionne, Secretary of State for Foreign affairs, died in September 1671, Simon Arnauld de Pomponne was brought to this board, of which he remained in charge until 1679. His style is one of a diplomat, trying to find agreements with other countries, during war times, while Louvois, Secretary of State for War, was more aggressive. While Pomponne managed to obtain the peace treaty of Nijmegen, he was dismissed at a time when the King wanted to conduct a more brutal Foreign policy. However, the King remained favourable to him, his estate of Pomponne became a marquisate in 1682, and his sons were offered a regiment and an important abbey. Louis XIV called him back in 1691, right after Louvois death, and fostered the marriage of the son of the Secretary of State for Foreign affairs, Pomponne still played an important role in French policy in the 1690s. He died in Fontainebleau in 1699, Simon Arnauld de Pomponne, Mémoires, Paris,1860,2 vol. Simon Arnauld de Pomponne, Relation de mon ambassade en Hollande, ed. Herbert H. Rowen, Herbert H. Rowen, The Ambassador prepares for war, The Hague,1957. Rémi Mathis, De la négociation à la relation dambassade, la seconde ambassade de Suède de Simon Arnauld de Pomponne in Revue dHistoire diplomatique, n°3,2005
Simon Arnauld, marquis de Pomponne
–
Simon Arnauld, marquis de Pomponne
37.
Port-Royal des Champs
–
Port-Royal-des-Champs was an abbey of Cistercian nuns in Magny-les-Hameaux, in the Vallée de Chevreuse southwest of Paris that launched a number of culturally important institutions. The abbey was established in 1204, but became famous when its discipline was reformed in 1609 by its abbess, the Arnauld family became its patrons and the abbeys subsequent history was directed by a number of the members of that family. In 1625 most of the moved to a new Port-Royal in Paris. At the original site, several schools were founded, which known as the Little Schools of Port-Royal. These schools became famous for the quality of the education they gave. Playwright Jean Racine was a product of Port-Royal education, in 1634 Jean du Vergier de Hauranne, Abbé de Saint-Cyran, became spiritual director of the abbey, he was a companion of Jansenius and the implementer of Jansenism in France. From that point forward, the abbeys and schools of Port-Royal became intimately associated with school of theology. The atmosphere of serious study and Jansenist piety attracted a number of prominent cultural figures to the movement, Pascal defended the schools publicly against the Jesuits in the Jansenist controversies which agitated the French Roman Catholic Church, in his Provincial Letters in 1657. Perhaps even more striking, several important persons of the court were close to Jansenism, members of the Arnauld family have managed to have important jobs such as Simon Arnauld de Pomponne, Minister of Louis XIV. The Jesuits, on the hand, enjoyed predominance in political and theological power in France and Europe, providing a personal confessor to the King. As a result of the Jesuit attacks on Jansenism, the schools of Port-Royal were regarded as tainted with heresy, Louis XIV wanting peace in the church, the elementary schools were forcibly closed by papal bull in 1660, following the formulary controversy. In 1661, the monastery was forbidden to accept novices, heralding its eventual dissolution, the abbey itself was abolished by a bull from Pope Clement XI in 1708, the remaining nuns forcibly removed in 1709, most of the buildings themselves razed in 1711. The chapel, containing Mère Angéliques tomb, as well as buildings, still exist in the vast grounds of what eventually became Paris leading maternity hospital. A celebrated history of Port-Royal and its influence was written by Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve in 1837-1859, the remains of the monastery of Port-Royal-des-Champs may still be seen at Magny-les-Hameaux, in the Chevreuse valley. Operated as Musée de Port-Royal, the 30-hectare estate includes the ruins of the abbey, a 17th-century building houses the Musée national de Port-Royal des Champs, which exhibits 17th- and 18th-century paintings and engravings
Port-Royal des Champs
–
Plan of Port-Royal-des-Champs, engraving by
Louise-Magdeleine Horthemels, c. 1710
Port-Royal des Champs
–
Nuns being forcibly removed from the abbey in 1709.
Port-Royal des Champs
–
Caring for the Sick
Port-Royal des Champs
–
Distributing Alms to the Poor
38.
Jesuit
–
The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
Jesuit
–
Ignatius of Loyola
Jesuit
–
Society of Jesus
Jesuit
–
Church of
Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, Paris.
Jesuit
–
Fresco of Approving of bylaw of Society of Jesus depicting
Ignatius of Loyola receiving papal bull
Regimini militantis Ecclesiae from
Pope Paul III. The fresco was created by
Johann Christoph Handke in the Church of Our Lady Of the Snow in
Olomouc after 1743.
39.
Victor Cousin
–
Victor Cousin was a French philosopher. He was the founder of eclecticism, an influential school of French philosophy that combined elements of German idealism. As the administrator of public instruction for over a decade, Cousin also had an important influence on French educational policy, the son of a watchmaker, he was born in Paris, in the Quartier Saint-Antoine. At the age of ten he was sent to the grammar school, the Lycée Charlemagne. The classical training of the lycée strongly disposed him to literature and he was already known among his fellow students for his knowledge of Greek. From the lycée he graduated to the most prestigious of higher schools, École Normale Supérieure. That day decided my whole life and that school has remained ever since the living heart of French philosophy — Henri Bergson, Jean-Paul Sartre and Jacques Derrida are among its past students. Cousin wanted to lecture on philosophy and quickly obtained the position of master of conferences in the school, the second great philosophical impulse of his life was the teaching of Pierre Paul Royer-Collard. The Scottish Philosophy being the Common Sense Philosophy of Thomas Reid, in 1815–1816 Cousin attained the position of suppliant to Royer-Collard in the history of modern philosophy chair of the faculty of letters. Another thinker who influenced him at this period was Maine de Biran. These men strongly influenced Cousins philosophical thought, to Laromiguière he attributes the lesson of decomposing thought, even though the reduction of it to sensation was inadequate. Royer-Collard taught him that even sensation is subject to certain laws and principles which it does not itself explain, which are superior to analysis. De Biran made a study of the phenomena of the will. He taught him to distinguish in all cognitions, and especially in the simplest facts of consciousness, the influence of Schelling may be observed very markedly in the earlier form of his philosophy. He sympathized with the principle of faith of Jacobi, but regarded it as arbitrary so long as it was not recognized as grounded in reason, in 1817 he went to Germany, and met Hegel at Heidelberg. Hegels Encyclopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften appeared the year, and Cousin had one of the earliest copies. He thought Hegel not particularly amiable, but the two became friends, the following year Cousin went to Munich, where he met Schelling for the first time, and spent a month with him and Jacobi, obtaining a deeper insight into the Philosophy of Nature. Frances political troubles interfered for a time with his career, in the events of 1814–1815 he took the royalist side
Victor Cousin
–
Le Gray's 1850s
Albumen print of Victor Cousin
Victor Cousin
40.
Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve
–
Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve was a literary critic of French literature. He was born in Boulogne, educated there, and studied medicine at the Collège Charlemagne in Paris, in 1828, he served in the St Louis Hospital. Sainte-Beuve became friendly with Hugo after publishing a review of the authors work but later had an affair with Hugos wife. His articles and essays were collected the volumes Port-Royal and Portraits littéraires, during the rebellions of 1848 in Europe, he lectured at Liège on Chateaubriand and his literary circle. He returned to Paris in 1849 and began his series of columns, Causeries du lundi in the newspaper. When Louis Napoleon became Emperor, he made Sainte-Beuve professor of Latin poetry at the Collège de France, but anti-Imperialist students hissed him, and he resigned. After several books of poetry and a couple of failed novels, Sainte-Beuve began to do literary research and he continued to contribute to La Revue contemporaine. Port-Royal, probably Sainte-Beuves masterpiece, is an history of the Jansenist abbey of Port-Royal-des-Champs. It not only influenced the historiography of religious belief, i. e. the method of research, but also the philosophy of history. He was made Senator in 1865, in which capacity he distinguished himself by his pleas for freedom of speech, according to Jules Amédée Barbey dAurevilly, Sainte-Beuve was a clever man with the temper of a turkey. In his last years, he was a sufferer and lived much in retirement. One of Sainte-Beuves critical contentions was that, in order to understand an artist and his work, marcel Proust took issue with this notion and refuted it in a set of essays, Contre Sainte-Beuve. Proust developed the ideas first voiced in those essays in À la recherche du temps perdu, friedrich Nietzsche, actually an avowed opponent of Sainte-Beuve, prompted in 1880 the wife of his friend Franz Overbeck, Ida Overbeck, to translate the Causeries du lundi into German. Until then, Sainte-Beuve was never published in German despite his great importance in France, since it was considered representative of a French way of thinking detested in Germany, Ida Overbecks translation appeared in 1880 under the title Die Menschen des XVIII. Nietzsche wrote to Ida Overbeck on August 18,1880, An hour ago I received the Die Menschen des XVIII, jahrhunderts, It is just a marvellous book. Ida Overbecks translation is an important document of the transfer between Germany and France in a period of strong tension, but it was largely ignored. It was not until 2014 that a critical and annotated edition of this appeared in print. Non-fiction Tableau Historique et Critique de la Poésie Française et du Théâtre Français au XVIe Siècle, poetry Vie, Poésies et Pensées de Joseph Delorme
Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve
–
Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve
Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve
–
Commemorative plaque, 11 Rue du Montparnasse, Paris.
41.
Anne de Montmorency
–
Anne, Duke of Montmorency, Honorary Knight of the Garter was a French soldier, statesman and diplomat. He became Marshal of France and Constable of France, Montmorency was born at Chantilly to the ancient Montmorency family. His father, Guillaume, had a status in the household of Francis. He was raised beside Francis and they close, fighting together in 1512 at the Battle of Ravenna. In 1514 his sister Louise de Montmorency married Gaspard I de Coligny and their children included Gaspard II de Coligny who was Admiral of France, Odet, cardinal de Châtillon and François. Gaspard II had a daughter Louise who married William the Silent, when Francis acceded to the throne in January 1515, Montmorency became an influential member of his court. When the king reasserted the French claim to Milan the same year, Montmorency followed his king into Italy, Montmorency was named captain of the Bastille in 1516 and became governor of Novara. In 1518 he was one of the hostages in England for Francis Is debt to Henry VIII for the city of Tournai and he returned to France to attend a short and unsuccessful peace conference between the French and the Holy Roman Empire in May 1519. The following year he was present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, in August 1521, Montmorency helped to command the defence of Mézières against the Imperial German army. In the same year he commanded the Swiss in Italy and his troops were defeated in the Battle of La Bicocca on 27 April 1522, but he was made Marshal of France in recognition of his courage. Montmorency spent the three years defending northern France against the English invasion of 1523. By that time England had allied with the Holy Roman Empire, in 1524 he again joined Francis I in a campaign to retake Milan. On 24 February 1525, an army of Italians, Spanish and Germans defeated the French at the Battle of Pavia, both were sent to Spain but Montmorency was released soon afterwards. He was one of the negotiators of the Treaty of Madrid in 1526, in 1530 he returned the kings sons to France. On 23 March 1526, Anne de Montmorency was named Grand Master of France charged with supervision of the royal household, in 1527 he married Madeleine, the daughter of René of Savoy. He supported the efforts to form an alliance against Charles V. He worked with Cardinal Wolsey to form an alliance between Francis I and Henry VIII in 1527 and this led to a new war against the Holy Roman Empire that ended with the Peace of Cambrai. In 1536, Francis I invaded the Duchy of Savoy, against the advice of Montmorency, staking claim to the lands of the duchy, Charles V invaded Provence from Northern Italy in retaliation
Anne de Montmorency
–
Anne de Montmorency, by
Jean Clouet, 1530
Anne de Montmorency
–
Dish with a scene of the
Trojan War, from a large armorial service of
maiolica commissioned by Montmorency from Guido Durantino of Urbino, 1535
Anne de Montmorency
–
Equestrian monument to Anne de Montmorency in the courtyard of his
Château de Chantilly
Anne de Montmorency
–
Montmorency's
gisant, now on display at the
Louvre.
42.
Henri I de Montmorency
–
Henri I de Montmorency, Marshal of France, and Constable of France, seigneur of Damville, served as Governor of Languedoc from 1563 to 1614. They accused him of being betraying the city and being in league with Protestants like his cousin Admiral Coligny, Damville responded by arresting four bourgeois and sending them to Paris with charges of slander. Damville also placed a procureur-général on the Parlement of Toulouse who was suspected of Protestantism, when Damville went into revolt in October 1574 he was deprived of his office by the Parlement of Toulouse, and arrests were made of his associates charged with conspiracy against the king. He became Duke of Montmorency on his brothers death in 1579, as a leader of the party called the Politiques he took a prominent part in the French Wars of Religion. In 1593 he was constable of France, but Henry IV showed some anxiety to keep him away from Languedoc. With his second wife, he had two children, Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency, Henri II de Montmorency and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
Henri I de Montmorency
–
Henri-Damville.jpg
Henri I de Montmorency
–
Engraved portrait of Henri I de Montmorency
43.
Public domain
–
The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
Public domain
–
Newton's own copy of his
Principia, with hand-written corrections for the second edition
Public domain
–
L.H.O.O.Q. (1919). Derivative work by the
Dadaist Marcel Duchamp based on the
Mona Lisa.
44.
Catherine de Bourbon
–
Catherine de Bourbon, was a Princess of Navarre and Duchess consort of Lorraine. She was the daughter of Queen Jeanne III dAlbret and Antoine of Bourbon and she served as regent of Béarn for more than two decades. Catherine was born on 7 February 1559 to Antoine de Bourbon and his wife, Jeanne dAlbret and she was named after her godmother, Catherine de Medici. Catherines mother, Jeanne dAlbret, converted to Calvinism a year after Catherines birth, Antoine de Bourbon remained a Catholic and turned against Jeanne and threatened to divorce her. He died fighting for the Catholic cause on 17 November 1562, Catherine was with her mother and elder brother, the future Henry III and IV, as they fought for the Protestant cause. Jeanne died on 9 June 1572, and Catherines custody was assigned to Catherine de Medici, during the St. Bartholomews Day Massacre, Catherine and her elder brother were forced to convert to Catholicism. After the death of Charles IX in 1574, the new king, Henry III and she almost married James VI of Scotland. Her brother, who became ruler of the principality of Béarn in 1572, Henry IV of France, after his escape from captivity in 1576, he entrusted Catherine with the government of Béarn. She served almost continuously as regent until 1596, where among her other responsibilities, she, a staunch Protestant, hosted Antonio Perez, a famous Spanish Catholic refugee from King Philip II. After the accession of her brother, Henry of Navarre, to the French throne, in 1589, she was created Duchess of Albret and Countess of Armagnac. Appointed by her brother to sit on his Council as a representative of French Protestant interests in 1598, as part of the treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye between Henry IV and Charles III, Duke of Lorraine, it was agreed that Catherine should marry Charles elder son, Henry. The marriage agreement was signed on 13 July 1598, however, Catherine was a confirmed Calvinist, who refused to convert to Roman Catholicism, whilst her husband was a devout Catholic, and a former member of the Holy League. Thus, the Pope was required to make a dispensation to allow the two to marry, on 29 December 1598 Pope Clement VIII declared himself opposed to the marriage. Dissatisfied, Henry IV intimidated the Archbishop of Reims into granting an authorisation of marriage and this was made at Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 31 January 1599. Until the birth of her nephew on 27 September 1601, she was heir presumptive to the Navarrese crown, however, Catherine was not married long before she died, childless. Her husband remarried to Margerita Gonzaga, a niece of Marie de Medici, Catherine de Bourbon was also a writer. Her works consist principally of sonnets and correspondence, Catherine de Bourbon, Influence politique, religieuse et culturelle d’une princesse calviniste
Catherine de Bourbon
–
Catherine de Bourbon
45.
Marie de Bourbon, Countess of Soissons
–
Marie de Bourbon was the wife of Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano and thus a Savoyard princess by marriage. At the death of her brother in 1641, she became Countess of Soissons in her own right, Marie de Bourbon was born at the Hôtel de Soissons in Paris, was the second daughter and youngest child of Charles, Count of Soissons and his wife Anne de Montafié. At the court of Louis XIII, Marie enjoyed the rank of princesse du sang and she was a sister of the Duchess of Longueville. Originally placed in the Abbey of Fontevraud in Anjou, she took the habit on 10 April 1610 aged just four, on 6 January 1625 Marie was married to Thomas Francis, ninth child of Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy and his wife Catherine Michelle of Austria. He was appointed Grand Master of France of the household, briefly replacing the traitorous Louis II de Bourbon. He engaged the services of the grammarian and courtier Claude Favre de Vaugelas as tutor for his children. After Thomas, the branch of his descendants repatriated to Savoy, alternately marrying French. At the death of her older brother Louis de Bourbon, Marie was named his heir and she lived in her native France with her husband and resided at the Hôtel de Soissons where she was born. It was Marie who built the small Château de Bagnolet in Paris, in 1719 it became the property of Françoise Marie de Bourbon. Marie and her daughter helped to raise the famous Prince Eugene of Savoy, Princess Cristine Charlotte of Savoy Princess Louise of Savoy in 1654 to Ferdinand Maximilian, Hereditary Prince of Baden-Baden. Emmanuel Philibert, Prince of Carignano married Maria Angela Caterina dEste, Prince Ferdinand of Savoy Eugene Maurice, Count of Soissons married Olympia Mancini
Marie de Bourbon, Countess of Soissons
–
Marie de Bourbon
46.
Anne Marie de Bourbon
–
Anne Marie de Bourbon was the daughter of the Prince of Condé and of a Bavarian princess. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, she was a Princesse du Sang and she never married and died of lung disease. Anne Marie Victoire was the child born to the Duke. Her father was the surviving son of le Grand Condé while her mother was a daughter of the political hostess Anna Gonzaga. She was born at the Hôtel de Condé in Paris, the city residence of the Prince of Condé when not at court at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye outside the capital. The two previous months prior to Anne Maries birth saw the death of two siblings, Anne de Bourbon, known as Mademoiselle d’Enghien till death and Henri de Bourbon, Anne Marie was reputedly so small that she was prevented from going to dances at court. She was also more attractive then her younger sisters Mademoiselle de Charolais and she was known as Mademoiselle dEnghien till 1688 when her oldest sister Mademoiselle de Bourbon married the Prince of Conti, the first cousin of their father. From then on, Anne Marie was known as Mademoiselle de Condé and it was the latter who organised the marriage between Mademoiselle de Bourbon and Conti. Mademoiselle de Condé would never marry, instead she would die at the Château dAsnières outside Paris apparently of Lung disease and she was buried at the convent of Carmel du faubourg Saint-Jacques, Paris. The Château itself was later the home of Philippe dOrléans mistress and her brothers in laws included the Prince of Conti, the duc du Maine and the famous general the Duke of Vendôme. Her sister in law was Louise Françoise de Bourbon, sister of Maine and she was once a possible bride for the duc du Maine but it is said that Maine preferred Anne Louise Bénédicte de Bourbon, Mademoiselle de Charolais much to her annoyance. Her not marrying the duc du Maine is what caused her health to deteriorate till her early death aged 25. Another possible candidate was Georg Wilhelm of Ansbach, son of Johann Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and brother of the future Caroline of Ansbach, Queen consort of Great Britain. So was she really regretted by all who knew her,11 August 1675 –22 January 1688 Her Serene Highness Mademoiselle dEnghien 22 January 1688 –23 October 1700 Her Serene Highness Mademoiselle de Condé
Anne Marie de Bourbon
–
Anne Marie, top right, and her sisters as the seasons,
Pierre Gobert, c.1690
47.
Louise Anne de Bourbon
–
Louise Anne de Bourbon, Countess of Charolais was a French noblewoman, the daughter of Louis de Bourbon, Prince of Condé. Born at the Palace of Versailles, Louise Anne was the fourth child and her eldest sisters were Marie Anne Gabrielle Éléonore de Bourbon and Louise Élisabeth de Bourbon. She was baptised in the chapel of Versailles on 24 November 1698 with her brother Louis Henri, during the Régence of her cousin, Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, she became romantically involved with the Duke of Richelieu, a grandnephew of Cardinal Richelieu. At the same time, the Duke of Richelieu also began an affair with Louise Annes first cousin, Charlotte Aglaé dOrléans, at one time, she was considered as a possible bride for her cousin, Louis Auguste, Prince of Dombes, but she refused. Another proposed husband was the Duke of Chartres, the son of the Regent and his mother, however, wanted a more prestigious marriage for her son with a young German princess. Voltaire, a friend of Richelieu, wrote the following verse concerning Louise-Anne, as the years passed, Louise Anne constantly intrigued for political prominence. She would later help her cousin Louis XV in his search for new mistresses, Louise Annes father died in 1710, eleven months after having inherited the title of Prince de Condé at the death of his own father. Her mother, who had built the Palais Bourbon in Paris, in 1735, she became the owner of the Hôtel de Rothelin-Charolais in Paris, which became her townhouse. She would later sell the lands at Vallery, in the Bourgogne province of France and she also owned various châteaux such as the one at Athis outside Paris. She later sold the estate of Charolais to the Crown and in return got land in Palaiseau, Louise Anne died in Paris, at the Hôtel de Rothelin-Charolais, at the age of sixty-two. She was buried in the Carmelite Convent of the Faubourg Saint-Jacques and her brother, Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon, and her two sisters, Marie Anne de Bourbon and Élisabeth Alexandrine de Bourbon, were also buried there
Louise Anne de Bourbon
–
painting by
Alexandre-François Caminade
Louise Anne de Bourbon
–
The Hôtel de Rothelin-Charolais
48.
Virtual International Authority File
–
The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
Virtual International Authority File
–
Screenshot 2012
49.
Integrated Authority File
–
The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Integrated Authority File
–
GND screenshot
_de_Bourbon_at_the_marriage_of_her_nephew_the_Duke_of_Enghien_in_1641.png){kind=small}
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Longueville, Anne Genevieve, Duchesse de". Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 986.
