1.
Pea
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The pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seed-pod of the pod fruit Pisum sativum. Pea pods are botanically fruit, since they contain seeds and developed from the ovary of a flower, the name is also used to describe other edible seeds from the Fabaceae such as the pigeon pea, the cowpea, and the seeds from several species of Lathyrus. P. sativum is a plant, with a life cycle of one year. It is a crop grown in many parts of the world. The average pea weighs between 0.1 and 0.36 grams. The immature peas are used as a vegetable, fresh, frozen or canned and these are the basis of pease porridge and pea soup, staples of medieval cuisine, in Europe, consuming fresh immature green peas was an innovation of Early Modern cuisine. The wild pea is restricted to the Mediterranean basin and the Near East, the earliest archaeological finds of peas date from the late neolithic era of current Greece, Syria, Turkey and Jordan. In Egypt, early date from ca. 4800–4400 BC in the Nile delta area, and from ca, the pea was also present in Georgia in the 5th millennium BC. Farther east, the finds are younger, peas were present in Afghanistan ca.2000 BC, in Harappa, Pakistan, and in northwest India in 2250–1750 BC. In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC, this pulse crop appears in the Ganges Basin, a pea is a most commonly green, occasionally golden yellow, or infrequently purple pod-shaped vegetable, widely grown as a cool season vegetable crop. The seeds may be planted as soon as the temperature reaches 10 °C. They do not thrive in the heat of warmer temperate and lowland tropical climates. Many cultivars reach maturity about 60 days after planting, peas have both low-growing and vining cultivars. The vining cultivars grow thin tendrils from leaves that coil around any available support, a traditional approach to supporting climbing peas is to thrust branches pruned from trees or other woody plants upright into the soil, providing a lattice for the peas to climb. Branches used in fashion are sometimes called pea brush. Metal fences, twine, or netting supported by a frame are used for the same purpose, in dense plantings, peas give each other some measure of mutual support. In early times, peas were grown mostly for their dry seeds, from plants growing wild in the Mediterranean basin, constant selection since the Neolithic dawn of agriculture improved their yield
2.
Biological life cycle
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In biology, a biological life cycle is a series of changes in form that an organism undergoes, returning to the starting state. The concept is related to those of the life history, development and ontogeny. Transitions of form may involve growth, asexual reproduction, and/or sexual reproduction, in some organisms, different generations of the species succeed each other during the life cycle. For plants and many algae, there are two stages, and the life cycle is referred to as alternation of generations. The term life history is used, particularly for organisms such as the red algae which have three multicellular stages, rather than two. Life cycles that include sexual reproduction involve alternating haploid and diploid stages, to return from a diploid stage to a haploid stage, meiosis must occur. In regard to changes of ploidy, there are 3 types of cycles, haplontic life cycle — the haploid stage is multicellular, diplontic life cycle — the diploid stage is multicellular and haploid gametes are formed, meiosis is gametic. Haplodiplontic life cycle — multicellular diploid and haploid stages occur, meiosis is sporic, the cycles differ in when mitosis occurs. Zygotic meiosis and gametic meiosis have one stage, mitosis occurs during the n phase in zygotic meiosis. Therefore, zygotic and gametic meiosis are collectively termed haplobiontic, sporic meiosis, on the other hand, has mitosis in two stages, both the diploid and haploid stages, termed diplobiontic. The study of reproduction and development in organisms was carried out by botanists and zoologists. Wilhelm Hofmeister demonstrated that alternation of generations is a feature that unites plants, some terms used for the description of life cycles were proposed initially for algae by Nils Svedelius, and then became used for other organisms. Other terms used in protist life cycles were introduced by Karl Gottlieb Grell, the description of the complex life cycles of various organisms contributed to the disproof of the ideas of spontaneous generation in the 1840s and 1850s. A zygotic meiosis is a meiosis of a zygote immediately after karyogamy and this way, the organism ends its diploid phase and produces several haploid cells. These cells divide mitotically to form larger, multicellular individuals. Two opposite types of gametes from these individuals or cells fuse to become a zygote, in the whole cycle, zygotes are the only diploid cell, mitosis occurs only in the haploid phase. The individuals or cells as a result of mitosis are haplonts, haplonts are, In archaeplastidans, some green algae In stramenopiles, some golden algae In alveolates, many dinoflagellates eg. Cells from the individuals then undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells or gametes
3.
Germination
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Germination is the process by which a plant grows from a seed. The most common example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm, in addition, the growth of a sporeling from a spore, such as the spores of hyphae from fungal spores, is also germination. Thus, in a sense, germination can be thought of as anything expanding into greater being from a small existence or germ. The seed of a plant is a small package produced in a fruit or cone after the union of male and female reproductive cells. All fully developed seeds contain an embryo and, in most plant species some store of food reserves, some plants produce varying numbers of seeds that lack embryos, these are called empty seeds and never germinate. Dormant seeds are seeds that do not germinate because they are subject to external environmental conditions that prevent the initiation of metabolic processes. Under proper conditions, the seed begins to germinate and the embryonic tissues resume growth, Seed germination depends on both internal and external conditions. The most important external factors include right temperature, water, oxygen or air, various plants require different variables for successful seed germination. Often this depends on the seed variety and is closely linked to the ecological conditions of a plants natural habitat. For some seeds, their future germination response is affected by environmental conditions during seed formation, mature seeds are often extremely dry and need to take in significant amounts of water, relative to the dry weight of the seed, before cellular metabolism and growth can resume. Most seeds need enough water to moisten the seeds but not enough to soak them, the uptake of water by seeds is called imbibition, which leads to the swelling and the breaking of the seed coat. When seeds are formed, most plants store a reserve with the seed, such as starch, proteins. This food reserve provides nourishment to the growing embryo, when the seed imbibes water, hydrolytic enzymes are activated which break down these stored food resources into metabolically useful chemicals. Oxygen is required by the seed for metabolism. Oxygen is used in respiration, the main source of the seedlings energy until it grows leaves. Oxygen is a gas that is found in soil pore spaces, if a seed is buried too deeply within the soil or the soil is waterlogged. Temperature affects cellular metabolic and growth rates, Seeds from different species and even seeds from the same plant germinate over a wide range of temperatures. Seeds often have a range within which they will germinate
4.
Seed
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A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering. The formation of the seed is part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, Seeds are the product of the ripened ovule, after fertilization by pollen and some growth within the mother plant. The embryo is developed from the zygote and the coat from the integuments of the ovule. Seed plants now dominate biological niches on land, from forests to both in hot and cold climates. The term seed also has a meaning that antedates the above—anything that can be sown, e. g. seed potatoes. In the case of sunflower and corn seeds, what is sown is the seed enclosed in a shell or husk, many structures commonly referred to as seeds are actually dry fruits. Plants producing berries are called baccate, sunflower seeds are sometimes sold commercially while still enclosed within the hard wall of the fruit, which must be split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants have other modifications, the stone fruits have a hardened fruit layer fused to. Nuts are the one-seeded, hard-shelled fruit of plants with an indehiscent seed. Seeds are produced in several related groups of plants, and their manner of production distinguishes the angiosperms from the gymnosperms, angiosperm seeds are produced in a hard or fleshy structure called a fruit that encloses the seeds, hence the name. Some fruits have layers of hard and fleshy material. In gymnosperms, no special structure develops to enclose the seeds, however, the seeds do become covered by the cone scales as they develop in some species of conifer. Seed production in natural plant populations varies widely from year-to-year in response to weather variables, insects and diseases, over a 20-year period, for example, forests composed of loblolly pine and shortleaf pine produced from 0 to nearly 5 million sound pine seeds per hectare. Over this period, there were six bumper, five poor, and nine good seed crops, right after fertilization, the zygote is mostly inactive, but the primary endosperm divides rapidly to form the endosperm tissue. This tissue becomes the food the young plant will consume until the roots have developed after germination, after fertilization the ovules develop into the seeds. The ovule consists of a number of components, The funicle or seed stalk which attaches the ovule to the placenta and hence ovary or fruit wall, the nucellus, the remnant of the megasporangium and main region of the ovule where the megagametophyte develops. The micropyle, a pore or opening in the apex of the integument of the ovule where the pollen tube usually enters during the process of fertilization. The chalaza, the base of the ovule opposite the micropyle, the shape of the ovules as they develop often affects the final shape of the seeds
5.
Brassica rapa
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Brassica rapa L. is a plant consisting of various widely cultivated subspecies including the turnip, napa cabbage, bomdong, bok choy, and cime di rapa, and. The oil made from the seed is also called canola, which is one reason why it is sometimes confused with rapeseed oil. The oilseeds known as canola are sometimes particular varieties of Brassica rapa but usually the related species Brassica napus, in the 18th century the turnip and the oilseed-producing variants were seen as being different species by Carl Linnaeus who named them B. rapa and B. campestris. 20th-century taxonomists found that the plants were cross fertile and thus belonged to the same species, since the turnip had been named first by Linnaeus, the name Brassica rapa was adopted. Many butterflies, including the small white pollinate the B. rapa flowers, media related to Brassica rapa at Wikimedia Commons Multilingual taxonomic information. PROTA database record on Brassica rapa L. Brassica rapa, Brassica rapa L. Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture
6.
Fluorescent lamp
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A fluorescent lamp or a fluorescent tube is a low pressure mercury-vapor gas-discharge lamp that uses fluorescence to produce visible light. An electric current in the gas excites mercury vapor which produces ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor coating on the inside of the lamp to glow. A fluorescent lamp converts electrical energy into useful light much more efficiently than incandescent lamps, the typical luminous efficacy of fluorescent lighting systems is 50–100 lumens per watt, several times the efficacy of incandescent bulbs with comparable light output. Compact fluorescent lamps are now available in the same sizes as incandescents and are used as an energy-saving alternative in homes. Because they contain mercury, many fluorescent lamps are classified as hazardous waste, the United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends that fluorescent lamps be segregated from general waste for recycling or safe disposal, and some jurisdictions require recycling of them. Fluorescence of certain rocks and other substances had been observed for hundreds of years before its nature was understood, by the middle of the 19th century, experimenters had observed a radiant glow emanating from partially evacuated glass vessels through which an electric current passed. The explanation relied on the nature of electricity and light phenomena as developed by the British scientists Michael Faraday in the 1840s and James Clerk Maxwell in the 1860s. Little more was done with this phenomenon until 1856 when German glassblower Heinrich Geissler created a vacuum pump that evacuated a glass tube to an extent not previously possible. Geissler invented the first gas-discharge lamp, the Geissler tube, consisting of an evacuated glass tube with a metal electrode at either end. When a high voltage was applied between the electrodes, the inside of the lit up with a glow discharge. By putting different chemicals inside, the tubes could be made to produce a variety of colors, more important, however, was its contribution to scientific research. One of the first scientists to experiment with a Geissler tube was Julius Plücker who systematically described in 1858 the luminescent effects that occurred in a Geissler tube and he also made the important observation that the glow in the tube shifted position when in proximity to an electromagnetic field. Alexandre Edmond Becquerel observed in 1859 that certain substances gave off light when they were placed in a Geissler tube and he went on to apply thin coatings of luminescent materials to the surfaces of these tubes. Fluorescence occurred, but the tubes were very inefficient and had an operating life. Inquiries that began with the Geissler tube continued as even better vacuums were produced, the most famous was the evacuated tube used for scientific research by William Crookes. That tube was evacuated by the highly effective mercury vacuum pump created by Hermann Sprengel, Research conducted by Crookes and others ultimately led to the discovery of the electron in 1897 by J. J. Thomson and X-rays in 1895 by Wilhelm Roentgen. While Becquerel was interested primarily in conducting research into fluorescence. Although Edison lost interest in fluorescent lighting, one of his employees was able to create a gas-based lamp that achieved a measure of commercial success
7.
Cereal
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A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grains are grown in quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and are therefore staple crops. Edible grains from plant families, such as buckwheat, quinoa. In their natural form, cereals are a source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils. When refined by the removal of the bran and germ, the endosperm is mostly carbohydrate. In some developing nations, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet, in developed nations, cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial. The word cereal is derived from Ceres, the Roman goddess of harvest, agriculture allowed for the support of an increased population, leading to larger societies and eventually the development of cities. It also created the need for organization of political power, as decisions had to be made regarding labor and harvest allocation and access rights to water. Agriculture bred immobility, as populations settled down for long periods of time, early Neolithic villages show evidence of the development of processing grain. The Levant is the ancient home of the ancestors of wheat, barley and peas, there is evidence of the cultivation of figs in the Jordan Valley as long as 11,300 years ago, and cereal production in Syria approximately 9,000 years ago. During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using man-made floods, fiber crops were domesticated as early as food crops, with China domesticating hemp, cotton being developed independently in Africa and South America, and Western Asia domesticating flax. The first cereal grains were domesticated by early primitive humans, about 8,000 years ago, they were domesticated by ancient farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region. Emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley were three of the so-called Neolithic founder crops in the development of agriculture, around the same time, millets and rices were starting to become domesticated in East Asia. Sorghum and millets were also being domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa, while each individual species has its own peculiarities, the cultivation of all cereal crops is similar. Most are annual plants, consequently one planting yields one harvest, wheat, rye, triticale, oats, barley, and spelt are the cool-season cereals. These are hardy plants grow well in moderate weather and cease to grow in hot weather. The warm-season cereals are tender and prefer hot weather, barley and rye are the hardiest cereals, able to overwinter in the subarctic and Siberia. Many cool-season cereals are grown in the tropics, however, some are only grown in cooler highlands, where it may be possible to grow multiple crops per year
8.
Perennial plant
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A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives for more than two years. The term is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is widely used to distinguish plants with little or no woody growth from trees and shrubs. Tomato vines, for example, live several years in their natural habitat but are grown as annuals in temperate regions because they dont survive the winter. There is also a class of evergreen, or non-herbaceous, perennials, an intermediate class of plants is known as subshrubs, which retain a vestigial woody structure in winter, e. g. Penstemon. The local climate may dictate whether plants are treated as shrubs or perennials, for instance, many varieties of Fuchsia are shrubs in warm regions, but in colder temperate climates may be cut to the ground every year as a result of winter frosts. The symbol for a plant, based on Species Plantarum by Linnaeus, is. Perennial plants can be short-lived or they can be long-lived, as are some plants like trees. They include an assortment of plant groups from ferns and liverworts to the highly diverse flowering plants like orchids. Plants that flower and fruit only once and then die are termed monocarpic or semelparous, however, most perennials are polycarpic, flowering over many seasons in their lifetime. Perennials typically grow structures that allow them to adapt to living one year to the next through a form of vegetative reproduction rather than seeding. These structures include bulbs, tubers, woody crowns, rhizomes plus others and they might have specialized stems or crowns that allow them to survive periods of dormancy over cold or dry seasons during the year. Many perennials have developed specialized features that allow them to extreme climatic. Some have adapted to hot and dry conditions or cold temperatures. Those plants tend to invest a lot of resource into their adaptations and often do not flower, Many perennials produce relatively large seeds, which can have an advantage, with larger seedlings produced after germination that can better compete with other plants. Some annuals produce many seeds per plant in one season, while some perennials are not under the same pressure to produce large numbers of seeds. In warmer and more favorable climates, perennials grow continuously, in seasonal climates, their growth is limited to the growing season. In some species, perennials retain their foliage all year round, other plants are deciduous perennials, for example, in temperate regions a perennial plant may grow and bloom during the warm part of the year, with the foliage dying back in the winter
9.
Biennial plant
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A biennial plant is a flowering plant that takes two years to complete its biological lifecycle. In the first year, the plant grows leaves, stems, usually the stem remains very short and the leaves are low to the ground, forming a rosette. Many biennials require a treatment, or vernalization, before they will flower. During the next spring or summer, the stem of the biennial plant elongates greatly and this typically makes biennial vegetables such as spinach, fennel and lettuce unusable as food. The plant then flowers, producing fruits and seeds before it finally dies, there are far fewer biennials than either perennial plants or annual plants. Under extreme climatic conditions, a plant may complete its life cycle rapidly. This is quite common in vegetable or flower seedlings that were vernalized before they were planted in the ground and this behavior leads to many normally biennial plants being treated as annuals in some areas. From a gardeners perspective, a status as annual, biennial. Biennials grown for flowers, fruits, or seeds need to be grown for two years, biennials that are grown for edible leaves or roots are grown for just one year. Plant breeders have produced annual cultivars of several biennials that will flower the first year from seed, for example, foxglove and stock
10.
Hardiness (plants)
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Hardiness of plants describes their ability to survive adverse growing conditions. It is usually limited to discussions of climatic adversity, thus a plants ability to tolerate cold, heat, drought, flooding, or wind are typically considered measurements of hardiness. Hardiness of plants is defined by their native extents geographic location, longitude, latitude and these attributes are often simplified to a hardiness zone. In temperate latitudes, the term most often describes resistance to cold, or cold-hardiness, Hardiness of a plant is usually divided into two categories, tender, and hardy. Some sources also use the erroneous terms Half-hardy or Fully hardy, tender plants are those killed by freezing temperatures, while hardy plants survive freezing—at least down to certain temperatures, depending on the plant. Half-hardy is a term used sometimes in horticulture to describe bedding plants which are sown in heat in winter or early spring, Fully hardy usually refers to plants being classified under the Royal Horticultural Society classifications, and can often cause confusion to those not using this method. Plants vary a lot in their tolerance of growing conditions, the selective breeding of varieties capable of withstanding particular climates forms an important part of agriculture and horticulture. Plants adapt to changes in climate on their own to some extent, part of the work of nursery growers of plants consists of cold hardening, or hardening off their plants, to prepare them for likely conditions in later life. Winter-hardy plants grow during the winter, or at least remain healthy, apart from hardy evergreens, these include many cultivated plants, including varieties of cabbage and broccoli, and all kinds of carrot. Some bulbs – such as tulips – need cold winters to bloom, many domestic plants are assigned a hardiness zone that specifies the climates in which they can survive. Winter gardens are dependent upon the cultivation of winter-hardy plants, woody plants survive freezing temperatures by suppressing the formation of ice in living cells or by allowing water to freeze in plant parts that are not affected by ice formation. The common mechanism for plants to survive up to –40 °C is supercooling. Woody plants that survive lower temperatures are dehydrating their cells, allowing water to freeze between cell walls and the cells to survive, plants normally considered hardy may not survive freezing if they are not readily acclimated, which renders them unable to use these mechanisms. The most widely used is the USDA system of Hardiness zone based on average yearly temperatures. This system was developed specifically for the diverse range of conditions in the United States. Another commonly used system is the Sunset Climate Zone system and this system is much more specific to climates and less dependent on the yearly minimum. In contrast the United Kingdom and Western Europe have an oceanic climate and this results in areas like western Scotland experiencing conditions conducive to growing subtropical plants, despite the relatively northerly latitude. The Royal Horticultural Society has published a set of hardiness ratings applicable to the UK, the ratings range from H1a to H7
11.
Carrot
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The carrot is a root vegetable, usually orange in colour, though purple, black, red, white, and yellow cultivars exist. Carrots are a form of the wild carrot, Daucus carota, native to Europe. The plant probably originated in Persia and originally cultivated for its leaves, the most commonly eaten part of the plant is the taproot, although the greens are sometimes eaten as well. The domestic carrot has been bred for its greatly enlarged, more palatable. The carrot is a plant in the umbellifer family Apiaceae. At first, it grows a rosette of leaves while building up the enlarged taproot, fast-growing cultivars mature within three months of sowing the seed, while slower-maturing cultivars are harvested four months later. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization reports that production of carrots and turnips for the calendar year 2013 was 37.2 million tonnes. Carrots are widely used in many cuisines, especially in the preparation of salads, in Old English, carrots were not clearly distinguished from parsnips, the two were collectively called moru or more. Various languages still use the word for carrot as they do for root. Molecular and genetic studies, along with history, support the idea that the cultivated/domesticated carrot has a single origin in Central Asia. The wild ancestors of the carrot are likely to have originated in Persia, which remains the centre of diversity for Daucus carota, when they were first cultivated, carrots were grown for their aromatic leaves and seeds rather than their roots. Carrot seeds have been found in Switzerland and Southern Germany dating back to 2000–3000 BC, some close relatives of the carrot are still grown for their leaves and seeds, for example, parsley, cilantro/coriander, fennel, dill and cumin. Three different types of carrots are depicted, and the states of them that the root can be cooked. The plant appears to have been introduced into Spain by the Moors in the 8th century, in the 10th century, in worldwide locations like West Asia, India and Europe, the roots were purple. The modern carrot originated in Afghanistan at about this time, the Jewish scholar Simeon Seth describes both red and yellow carrots in the 11th century. The 12th-century Arab-Andalusian agriculturist, Ibn al-Awwam, also mentions roots of these colours, cultivated carrots appeared in China in the 14th century, and in Japan in the 18th century. Orange-coloured carrots appeared in the Netherlands in the 17th century, which has been related to the fact that the Dutch flag at the time, the Princes Flag, included orange. These, the carrots, were intended by the English antiquary John Aubrey when he noted in his memoranda
12.
Celery
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Celery is a marshland plant in the family Apiaceae that has been cultivated as a vegetable since antiquity. Celery has a long fibrous stalk tapering into leaves, depending on location and cultivar, either its stalks, leaves, or hypocotyl are eaten and used in cooking. Celery seed is used as a spice, its extracts are used in medicines. Celery leaves are pinnate to bipinnate with rhombic leaflets 3–6 cm long, the flowers are creamy-white, 2–3 mm in diameter, and are produced in dense compound umbels. The seeds are ovoid to globose,1. 5–2 mm long. Modern cultivars have been selected for solid petioles, leaf stalks, a celery stalk readily separates into strings which are bundles of angular collenchyma cells exterior to the vascular bundles. The earliest attested form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek se-ri-no, celery was described by Carl Linnaeus in Volume One of his Species Plantarum in 1753. Wild celery, Apium graveolens var. graveolens, grows to 1 m tall, by the 19th century, the season for celery had been extended, to last from the beginning of September to late in April. In North America, commercial production of celery is dominated by the cultivar called Pascal celery, Gardeners can grow a range of cultivars, many of which differ from the wild species, mainly in having stouter leaf stems. They are ranged under two classes, white and red, the stalks grow in tight, straight, parallel bunches, and are typically marketed fresh that way, without roots and just a little green leaf remaining. The stalks are eaten raw, or as an ingredient in salads, or as a flavoring in soups, stews, in Europe, another popular variety is celeriac, Apium graveolens var. rapaceum, grown because its hypocotyl forms a large bulb, white on the inside. The bulb could be kept for months in winter and mostly serves as an ingredient in soup. It can also be ground up and used in salads, the leaves are used as seasoning, the small, fibrous stalks find only marginal use. Leaf celery or Chinese celery, Apium graveolens var. secalinum, is a cultivar from East Asia, the wild form of celery is known as smallage. It has a stalk with wedge-shaped leaves, the whole plant having a coarse, earthy taste. The stalks are not usually eaten, but the leaves may be used in salads, with cultivation and blanching, the stalks lose their acidic qualities and assume the mild, sweetish, aromatic taste particular to celery as a salad plant. Harvesting occurs when the size of celery in a field is marketable, due to extremely uniform crop growth. The petioles and leaves are removed and harvested, celery is packed by size, under optimal conditions, celery can be stored for up to seven weeks between 0 to 2 °C
13.
Parsley
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Where it grows as a biennial, in the first year, it forms a rosette of tripinnate leaves 10–25 cm long with numerous 1–3 cm leaflets, and a taproot used as a food store over the winter. Parsley is widely used in European, Middle Eastern, and American cooking, curly leaf parsley is often used as a garnish. In central Europe, eastern Europe and southern Europe, as well as in western Asia, root parsley is very common in central, eastern and southern European cuisines, where it is used as a snack or a vegetable in many soups, stews, and casseroles. Mycenaean Greek se-ri-no, in Linear B, is the earliest attested form of the word selinon, garden parsley is a bright green, biennial, plant in temperate climates, or an annual herb in subtropical and tropical areas. Where it grows as a biennial, in the first year, it forms a rosette of tripinnate leaves 10–25 cm long with numerous 1–3 cm leaflets, and a taproot used as a food store over the winter. In the second year, it grows a stem to 75 cm tall with sparser leaves. The seeds are ovoid, 2–3 mm long, with prominent style remnants at the apex, one of the compounds of the essential oil is apiol. The plant normally dies after seed maturation, Parsley grows best in moist, well-drained soil, with full sun. It grows best between 22–30 °C, and usually is grown from seed, germination is slow, taking four to six weeks, and it often is difficult because of furanocoumarins in its seed coat. Typically, plants grown for the crop are spaced 10 cm apart. Parsley attracts several species of wildlife, bees and other nectar-feeding insects also visit the flowers. Birds such as the goldfinch feed on the seeds, in cultivation, parsley is subdivided into several cultivar groups, depending on the form of the plant, which is related to its end use. Often these are treated as varieties, but they are cultivated selections. The two main groups of parsley used as herbs are curly leaf and Italian, or flat leaf, of these, a third type, sometimes grown in southern Italy, has thick leaf stems resembling celery. Another type of parsley is grown as a vegetable, the Hamburg root parsley. This type of parsley produces much thicker roots than types cultivated for their leaves. Although seldom used in Britain and the United States, root parsley is common in central and eastern European cuisine, although root parsley looks similar to the parsnip, which is among its closest relatives in the family Apiaceae, its taste is quite different. Parsley is widely used in Middle Eastern, European, Brazilian and American cooking, curly leaf parsley is used often as a garnish
14.
Tomato
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The tomato is the edible fruit of Solanum lycopersicum, commonly known as a tomato plant, which belongs to the nightshade family, Solanaceae. The species originated in Central and South America, the Nahuatl word tomatl gave rise to the Spanish word tomate, from which the English word tomato originates. Numerous varieties of tomato are widely grown in temperate climates across the world, with greenhouses allowing its production throughout the year, the plants typically grow to 1–3 meters in height and have a weak stem that often sprawls over the ground and vines over other plants. It is a perennial in its habitat, and grown as an annual in temperate climates. An average common tomato weighs approximately 100 grams and its use as a food originated in Mexico, and spread throughout the world following the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Tomato is consumed in diverse ways, including raw, as an ingredient in dishes, sauces, salads. While tomatoes are botanically fruits, they are considered culinary vegetables. The word tomato comes from the Spanish tomate, which in turn comes from the Nahuatl word tomatl and it first appeared in print in 1595. The native Mexican tomatillo is tomate, meaning fat water or fat thing), when Aztecs started to cultivate the Andean fruit, bigger and red, they called the new species xitomatl. It first appeared in print in 1595, the scientific species epithet lycopersicum means wolf peach, and comes from German werewolf myths. The Italian word, pomodoro was borrowed into Polish, and via Russian, the usual pronunciations of tomato are /təˈmeɪtoʊ/ and /təˈmɑːtoʊ/. The words dual pronunciations were immortalized in Ira and George Gershwins 1937 song Lets Call the Whole Thing Off and have become a symbol for nitpicking pronunciation disputes. In this capacity, it has become an American and British slang term. Or Its all the same to me, botanically, a tomato is a fruit, a berry, consisting of the ovary, together with its seeds, of a flowering plant. However, the tomato has a lower sugar content than other edible fruits. Typically served as part of a salad or main course of a meal, rather than at dessert, it is, in the US, considered a culinary vegetable. One exception is that tomatoes are treated as a fruit in home canning practices, they are acidic enough to process in a water bath rather than a pressure cooker as vegetables require. Tomatoes are not the food source with this ambiguity, bell peppers, cucumbers, green beans, eggplants, avocados
15.
Sweet potato
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The sweet potato is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the morning glory family Convolvulaceae. Its large, starchy, sweet-tasting, tuberous roots are a root vegetable, in some parts of the English-speaking world, sweet potatoes are locally known by other names such as kumara, but people usually confused it with yam due to their similar appearances. The young leaves and shoots are eaten as greens. The sweet potato is only related to the potato and does not belong to the nightshade family Solanaceae. The plant is a perennial vine, bearing alternate heart-shaped or palmately lobed leaves. The edible tuberous root is long and tapered, with a smooth skin whose color ranges between yellow, orange, red, brown, purple, and beige and its flesh ranges from beige through white, red, pink, violet, yellow, orange, and purple. Sweet potato cultivars with white or pale yellow flesh are less sweet and moist than those with red, Ipomoea batatas is native to the tropical regions in the Americas. Of the approximately 50 genera and more than 1,000 species of Convolvulaceae, I. batatas is the crop plant of major importance—some others are used locally. The genus Ipomoea that contains the sweet potato also includes several garden flowers called morning glories, some cultivars of Ipomoea batatas are grown as ornamental plants under the name tuberous morning glory, used in a horticultural context. To add to the confusion, a different crop plant, the oca, is called a yam in many parts of Polynesia, the United States Department of Agriculture requires that the label yam always be accompanied by sweet potato in U. S. retail sales of sweet potato. Although the sweet potato is not closely related botanically to the common potato, the first Europeans to taste sweet potatoes were members of Christopher Columbuss expedition in 1492. Later explorers found many cultivars under an assortment of local names, the Spanish combined this with the Quechua word for potato, papa, to create the word patata for the common potato. The first record of the sweet potato is found in the Oxford English Dictionary of 1775. In Argentina, Venezuela, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic the sweet potato is called batata, in Mexico, Peru, Chile, Central America, and the Philippines, the sweet potato is known as camote, derived from the Nahuatl word camotli. In New Zealand, the most common cultivar is the red cultivar called kumara, a derived from the Māori name kūmara. Kumara is particularly popular as a food, or in contemporary cuisine as kumara chips, often served with sour cream. Occasionally, shops in Australia will label purple cultivars as purple sweet potato to denote the difference to the other cultivars, about 95% of Australias production is of the orange cultivar named Beauregard, originally from North America, known simply as sweet potato. A reddish-purple cultivar, Northern Star, is 4% of production and is sold as kumara, the origin and domestication of sweet potato is thought to be in either Central America or South America
16.
Bell pepper
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The bell pepper is a cultivar group of the species Capsicum annuum. Cultivars of the plant produce fruits in different colors, including red, yellow, orange, green, chocolate/brown, vanilla/white, bell peppers are sometimes grouped with less pungent pepper varieties as sweet peppers. The whitish ribs and seeds inside bell peppers may be consumed, peppers are native to Mexico, Central America, and northern South America. Pepper seeds were imported to Spain in 1493, and from there spread to other European, African, today, China is the worlds largest pepper producer, followed by Mexico and Indonesia. Ideal growing conditions for peppers include warm soil, ideally 21 to 29 °C. Bell peppers are sensitive to an abundance of moisture and extreme temperatures, the misleading name pepper was given by Europeans when Christopher Columbus brought the plant back to Europe. The most commonly used name of the plant family, chile, is of Mexican origin. Botanically speaking, bell peppers are fruit, although they are considered vegetables in culinary contexts. The lack of capsaicin in bell peppers is due to a form of a gene that eliminates capsaicin and, consequently. This recessive gene is overwritten in the Mexibelle pepper, a variety of bell pepper that produces small amounts of capsaicin. Sweet pepper cultivars produce non pungent capsaicinoids, with many physiological effects similar to the more pungent sister compound capsaican, the terms bell pepper, pepper, and capsicum are often used for any of the large bell shaped fruits, regardless of their color. In British and Canadian English, the fruit is referred to as a pepper, or additionally by color, whereas in the United States and Malaysia. In parts of the U. S. Midwest, bell peppers are called mangoes, Canadian English uses both bell pepper and pepper interchangeably. In some languages, the term paprika, which has its roots in the word for pepper, is used for both the spice and the fruit – sometimes referred to by their color, the bell pepper is called パプリカ or ピーマン in Japan. In Switzerland, the fruit is called peperone, which is the Italian name of the fruit. In France, it is called poivron, with the root as poivre or piment. In South Korea, the word 피망 refers to bell peppers. In Sri Lanka, the used as a vegetable is called maalu miris
17.
Impatiens
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Impatiens /ɪmˈpeɪʃəns/ is a genus of about 850 to 1,000 species of flowering plants, widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere and the tropics. Together with the genus Hydrocera, Impatiens make up the family Balsaminaceae, common names include impatiens, jewelweed, touch-me-not, snapweed, patience, and, for I. walleriana in Great Britain, busy lizzie, as well as, ambiguously, balsam. As a rule-of-thumb, jewelweed is used exclusively for Nearctic species, balsam is usually applied to tropical species, some species are annual plants and produce flowers from early summer until the first frost, while perennial species, found in milder climates, can flower all year. Regardless of their lifespan, the largest impatiens grow up to about 2 meters tall, the leaves are entire and shiny, their upperside has a thick, water-repellent cuticula that gives them a greasy feel. Particularly on the underside of the leaves, tiny air bubbles are trapped over and under the leaf surface, others, like the busy lizzie, have flattened flowers with large petals and just a tiny spur that appear somewhat similar to those of violets, an unrelated genus. A few Impatiens species have flowers intermediate between the two basic types, the scientific name Impatiens and the common name touch-me-not refer to the explosive dehiscence of the seed capsules. The mature capsules burst, sending seeds up to several meters away, Impatiens foliage is used for food by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, such as the dot moth, as well as other insects, such as the Japanese beetle. Some bees also use jewelweed as a source for nectar and pollen, one such species is Bombus terricola, which consistently forages on jewelweed as well as milkweed and fireweed. The leaves are toxic to other animals, including the budgerigar. The flowers are visited by bumblebees and certain Lepidoptera, such as the common spotted flat. Parasitic plants that use impatiens as hosts include the European dodder, a number of plant diseases affect this genus. In the 19th and 20th centuries, humans transported the orange jewelweed to England, France, the Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, Finland, and potentially other areas of Northern and Central Europe. For example, it was not recorded from Germany as recently as 1996, small balsam, originally native to southern Central Asia, is even more extensively naturalized in Europe. More problematic is the Himalayan balsam, a densely growing species which displaces smaller plants by denying them sunlight and it is an invasive weed in many places, and tends to dominate riparian vegetation along polluted rivers and nitrogen-rich spots. Thus, it exacerbates ecosystem degradation by forming stands where few plants can grow. Also, Impatiens is rather closely related to the plant families Roridulaceae and Sarraceniaceae. Peculiar stalked glands found on balsam sepals secrete mucus and might be related to the structures from which the prey-catching and -digesting glands of these carnivorous plants evolved, balsams are not known to be protocarnivorous plants, however. In 2011-2013, the United States experienced a significant outbreak of the fungal disease downy mildew that affects impatiens, the disease was also reported in Canada as well
18.
Begonia
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Begonia is a genus of perennial flowering plants in the family Begoniaceae. The genus contains 1,795 different plant species, the Begonias are native to moist subtropical and tropical climates. Some species are commonly grown indoors as houseplants in cooler climates. In cooler climates some species are cultivated outside in summertime for their colourful flowers. With 1,795 species, Begonia is the fifth-largest angiosperm genus, the species are terrestrial herbs or undershrubs, and occur in subtropical and tropical moist climates, in South and Central America, Africa, and southern Asia. Terrestrial species in the wild are commonly upright-stemmed, rhizomatous, or tuberous, in most species, the fruit is a winged capsule containing numerous minute seeds, although baccate fruits are also known. The leaves, which are large and variously marked or variegated, are usually asymmetric. The genus name Begonia, coined by Charles Plumier, a French patron of botany, and adopted by Linnaeus in 1753, honors Michel Bégon, a former governor of the French colony of Saint-Domingue. Selected species, The different groups of begonias have different cultural requirements, most are forest understory plants and require bright shade, few will tolerate full sun, especially in warmer climates. In general, begonias require a well-drained growing medium that is constantly wet nor allowed to dry out completely. Many begonias will grow and flower year-round except for tuberous begonias, during this dormant period, the tubers can be stored in a cool, dry place. Begonias of the group are frequently grown as bedding plants outdoors. A recent group of derived from this group is marketed as Dragonwing begonias. Tuberous begonias are frequently used as container plants, although most Begonia species are tropical or subtropical in origin, the Chinese species B. grandis is hardy to USDA hardiness zone 6 and is commonly known as the hardy begonia. Most begonias can be grown outdoors year-round in subtropical or tropical climates, most begonias are easily propagated by division or from stem cuttings. In addition, many can be propagated from cuttings or even sections of leaves, particularly the members of the rhizomatous. The following begonia hybrids have gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit, - The nomenclature of begonias can be very complex, the term picotee refers to an edging on the petals that is in contrast to the colour of the main petal, if the colours blend. If they do not, then the term marginata is used, non-Stop refers to a camellia tuberous hybrid that under certain conditions will bloom non-stop all year round
19.
Antirrhinum
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They are native to rocky areas of Europe, the United States, and North Africa. The genus is morphologically diverse, particularly the New World group, the genus is characterized by personate flowers with an inferior gibbous corolla. Antirrhinum used to be treated within the family Scrophulariaceae, but studies of DNA sequences have led to its inclusion in a vastly enlarged family Plantaginaceae within the tribe Antirrhineae, the taxonomy of this genus is complex and not yet fully resolved at present. In particular the exact circumscription of the genus, especially the inclusion of the New World species is contentious, the situation is further complicated by the variety of terms in use for infrageneric ranks, especially of the Old World species, that is Antirrhinum, sensu stricto. The USDA Plants Database recognises only two species, a. majus, the only species naturalised in North America, and Antirrhinum bellidifolium, now considered to be Anarrhinum bellidifolium Willd. As of 2014 The Plant List accepts 21 species, a widely accepted scheme, placed 36 species in the genus in three sections. New species also continue to be discovered, the species list given here follows these conclusions. This is the broad circumscription that includes the Old World Misopates, following the phylogenetic analysis of Vargas et al. suggesting they are a distimct group. Both Misopates and Sairocarpus are accepted names in The Plant List and it has been proposed that many of the New World Antirrhinum be now considered under Sairocarpus, in the forthcoming Flora of North America. Section Orontium, two species, also from the Mediterranean, the species in this section, including the section type species Antirrhinum orontium are often treated in the genus Misopates. Section Saerorhinum,15 small flowered New World species, mostly annual plants and mostly native to California, though species are found from Oregon to Baja California Sur and as far east as Utah. Vargas et al. strongly recommending segregation of the New World species suggest that the 14 species originally recognised by Sutton more properly belong to Sairocarpus, Howelliella, and Neogarrhinum. Other authors would also include Galvezia glabrata, Galvezia juncea, Galvezia rupicola, for a map of the distribution of Old World species, see Figure 2 of Wilson and Hudson. Snapdragons are often considered as cold-season annual plants and do best in full or partial sun and they are classified commercially as a range of heights, midget, medium and tall. They are ecologically diverse, particularly the New World species, the snapdragon is an important garden plant, widely cultivated from tropical to temperate zones as a bedding, rockery, herbaceous border or container plant. Cultivars have showy white, crimson, or yellow bilabiate flowers and it is also important as a model organism in botanical research, and its genome has been studied in detail. Antirrhinum is a genus that has been used from the earliest genetic studies of Gregor Mendel, together with closely related genera, it has become a model organism for the investigation of the genetic basis of plant development, particularly floral development. The genus is an example of incomplete dominance by the red allele with the anthocyanin pigment
20.
Pelargonium
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Pelargonium /ˌpɛlɑːrˈɡoʊniəm/ is a genus of flowering plants which includes about 200 species of perennials, succulents, and shrubs, commonly known as geraniums. Confusingly, Geranium is the name of a separate genus of related plants often called cranesbills. Both genera belong to the family Geraniaceae, linnaeus originally included all the species in one genus, Geranium, and they were later separated into two genera by Charles L’Héritier in 1789. Pelargonium species are evergreen perennials indigenous to temperate and tropical regions of the world and they are drought and heat tolerant, but can tolerate only minor frosts. Some species are popular garden plants, grown as bedding plants in temperate regions. Pelargonium occurs in a number of growth forms, including herbaceous annuals, shrubs, subshrubs, stem succulents. The erect stems bear five-petaled flowers in clusters, which are occasionally branched. Because not all flowers appear simultaneously but open from the centre outwards, the flower has a single symmetry plane, which distinguishes it from the Geranium flower, which has radial symmetry. Thus the lower three petals are differentiated from the two petals. The posterior sepal is fused with the pedicel to form a hypanthium, the nectary tube varies from only a few millimeters, up to several centimeters, and is an important floral characteristic in morphological classification. Stamens vary from 2 to 7, and their number, position relative to staminodes, there are five stigmata in the style. For the considerable diversity in morphology, see figure 1 of Röschenbleck et al. Leaves are usually alternate, and palmately lobed or pinnate, often on long stalks, the leaves of Pelargonium peltatum, have a thick cuticle better adapting them for drought tolerance. The Geraniaceae have a number of features unique amongst angiosperms, including highly rearranged plastid genomes differing in gene content, order. The first species of Pelargonium known to be cultivated was P. triste and it was probably brought to the Botanical Garden in Leiden before 1600 on ships which had stopped at the Cape of Good Hope. In 1631, the English gardener John Tradescant the elder bought seeds from Rene Morin in Paris, by 1724 P. odoratissimum, P. vitifolium, P. inquinans, P. zonale and P. peltatum had been introduced to Europe. The name Pelargonium was first proposed by Dillenius in 1732, who described and illustrated seven species of geraniums from South Africa that are now classified as Pelargonium, the name was then formally introduced by Johannes Burman in 1738. Linnaeus reputation prevented further differentiation for forty years, the eventual distinction between them was made by Charles Louis LHéritier de Brutelle based on the number of stamens or anthers, seven in the case of Pelargonium
21.
Petunia
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The popular flower of the same name derived its epithet from the French, which took the word petun, meaning tobacco, from a Tupi–Guarani language. An annual, most of the varieties seen in gardens are hybrids, the plants are herbaceous, generally hairy, and the flowers are funnel-shaped, with petals joined together. The fruit is a dry capsule with two compartments and many tiny seeds, Petunia is a genus in the family Solanaceae, subfamily Petunioideae. Well known members of Solanaceae in other subfamilies include tobacco, some botanists place the plants of the genus Calibrachoa in the genus Petunia, but this is not accepted by others. Petchoa is a hybrid derived from crossing Calibrachoa and Petunia. Petunias are generally insect pollinated, with the exception of P. exserta, most petunias are diploid with 14 chromosomes and are interfertile with other petunia species. The tubular flowers are favoured by some Lepidoptera species, including the Hummingbird hawk moth, the flowers are eaten by the larvae of the corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea and the cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni. Petunias can tolerate relatively harsh conditions and hot climates and they need at least five hours of sunlight every day. They grow well in low humidity, moist soil, young plants can be grown from seeds. In drier regions, the plants should be watered daily, maximum growth occurs in late spring. Applying fertilizer monthly or weekly, depending on the variety, will help the plant grow quickly, petunias can be cultivated in hanging baskets. In horticulture many terms are used to different types of cultivated petunias. These include Grandiflora, Multiflora, Wave, Supertunia, Cascadia, many species other than P. × atkinsiana are also gaining popularity in the home garden
22.
Maize
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Maize, also known as corn, is a large grain plant first domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, the leafy stalk of the plant produces separate pollen and ovuliferous inflorescences or ears, which are fruits, yielding kernels or seeds. Maize kernels are used in cooking as a starch. Most historians believe maize was domesticated in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico, recent research modified this view somewhat, scholars now indicate the adjacent Balsas River Valley of south-central Mexico as the center of domestication. The Olmec and Mayans cultivated maize in numerous varieties throughout Mesoamerica, cooked and its believed that beginning about 2500 BC, the crop spread through much of the Americas. The region developed a network based on surplus and varieties of maize crops. Nevertheless, recent data indicates that the spread of maize took place even earlier, according to Piperno, A large corpus of data indicates that it was dispersed into lower Central America by 7600 BP and had moved into the inter-Andean valleys of Colombia between 7000 and 6000 BP. Since then, even earlier dates have been published, the study also demonstrated that the oldest surviving maize types are those of the Mexican highlands. Later, maize spread from this region over the Americas along two major paths and this is consistent with a model based on the archaeological record suggesting that maize diversified in the highlands of Mexico before spreading to the lowlands. Before they were domesticated, maize plants only grew small,25 millimetres long corn cobs, Maize is the most widely grown grain crop throughout the Americas, with 361 million metric tons grown in the United States in 2014. Approximately 40% of the crop—130 million tons—is used for corn ethanol, genetically modified maize made up 85% of the maize planted in the United States in 2009. After the arrival of Europeans in 1492, Spanish settlers consumed maize and explorers and traders carried it back to Europe, Spanish settlers far preferred wheat bread to maize, cassava, or potatoes. Maize flour could not be substituted for wheat for bread, since in Christian belief only wheat could undergo transubstantiation. At another level, Spaniards worried that by eating indigenous foods, which they did not consider nutritious, that not only would they weaken, despite these worries, Spaniards did consume maize and archeological evidence from Florida sites indicate they cultivated it as well. Maize spread to the rest of the world because of its ability to grow in diverse climates and it was cultivated in Spain just a few decades after Columbuss voyages and then spread to Italy, West Africa and elsewhere. The word maize derives from the Spanish form of the indigenous Taíno word for the plant and it is known by other names around the world. The word corn outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand refers to any cereal crop, in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, corn primarily means maize, this usage started as a shortening of Indian corn. Indian corn primarily means maize, but can more specifically to multicolored flint corn used for decoration
23.
Wheat
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Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region but now cultivated worldwide. In 2016, world production of wheat was 749 million tonnes, making it the second most-produced cereal after maize, since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st Century. This grain is grown on land area than any other commercial food. World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined, globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetal protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals and staple foods. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE. In a small part of the population, gluten – the major part of wheat protein – can trigger coeliac disease, non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia. Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, in domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter, as the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plants natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild. Cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent after about 8000 BCE, jared Diamond traces the spread of cultivated emmer wheat starting in the Fertile Crescent sometime before 8800 BCE. Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern Levant with finds dating back as far as 9600 BCE, Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria. With the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BCE. Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 and 8400 BCE, that is, in the Neolithic period and these remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BCE. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, the cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and India by 6500 BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000 BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BCE. The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven, by 3000 BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. A millennium later it reached China, the oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400-6200 BCE, recovered from Çatalhöyük. The first identifiable bread wheat with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using DNA analysis in samples from a dating to approximately 1350 BCE at Assiros in Macedonia. From Asia, wheat continued to spread throughout Europe, in the British Isles, wheat straw was used for roofing in the Bronze Age, and was in common use until the late 19th century
24.
Rice
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Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima. As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a part of the worlds human population. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize, wild rice, from which the crop was developed, may have its native range in Australia. Chinese legends attribute the domestication of rice to Shennong, the emperor of China. Genetic evidence has shown that rice originates from a single domestication 8, previously, archaeological evidence had suggested that rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River valley region in China. From East Asia, rice was spread to Southeast and South Asia, Rice was introduced to Europe through Western Asia, and to the Americas through European colonization. There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to vary regionally, in some areas such as the Far East or Spain, there is a preference for softer and stickier varieties. Rice, a monocot, is grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial. The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and it has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm long, the edible seed is a grain 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick. Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are native to Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade, the traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. The name wild rice is used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia. The Greek word is the source of all European words, the origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is sometimes held to be from the Tamil word அரிசி, however, Krishnamurti disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the source of the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowed from descendants of Proto-Dravidian *wariñci instead. The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, the grains of long-grain rice tend to remain intact after cooking, medium-grain rice becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for dishes, for risotto in Italy
25.
Lettuce
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Lettuce is an annual plant of the daisy family, Asteraceae. It is most often grown as a vegetable, but sometimes for its stem. Lettuce is most often used for salads, although it is seen in other kinds of food, such as soups, sandwiches and wraps. One variety, the woju, or asparagus lettuce, is grown for its stems, in addition to its main use as a leafy green, it has also gathered religious and medicinal significance over centuries of human consumption. Europe and North America originally dominated the market for lettuce, world production of lettuce and chicory for calendar year 2013 was 24.9 million tonnes, over half of which came from China. Lettuce was first cultivated by the ancient Egyptians who turned it from a weed whose seeds were used to oil, into a food plant grown for its succulent leaves. Lettuce spread to the Greeks and Romans, the latter of whom gave it the name lactuca, by 50 AD, many types were described, and lettuce appeared often in medieval writings, including several herbals. The 16th through 18th centuries saw the development of varieties in Europe. Generally grown as an annual, lettuce is easily cultivated. It can be plagued by numerous nutrient deficiencies, as well as insect and mammal pests, L. sativa crosses easily within the species and with some other species within the Lactuca genus. Although this trait can be a problem to home gardeners who attempt to save seeds, lettuce is a rich source of vitamin K and vitamin A, and a moderate source of folate and iron. Contaminated lettuce is often a source of bacterial, viral and parasitic outbreaks in humans, including E. coli, Lactuca sativa is a member of the Lactuca genus and the Asteraceae family. The species was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in the volume of his Species Plantarum. Synonyms for L. sativa include Lactuca scariola var. sativa, L. scariola var. integrata, L. scariola is itself a synonym for L. serriola, the common wild or prickly lettuce. L. sativa also has many identified taxonomic groups, subspecies and varieties, the Romans referred to lettuce as lactuca, an allusion to the white substance, now called latex, exuded by cut stems. This word has become the name, while sativa was added to create the species name. The current word lettuce, originally from Middle English, came from the Old French letues or laitues, lettuces native range spreads from the Mediterranean to Siberia, although it has been transported to almost all areas of the world. Plants generally have a height and spread of 15 to 30 cm, the leaves are colorful, mainly in the green and red color spectrums, with some variegated varieties
26.
Watermelon
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Watermelon is a scrambling and trailing vine originally from southern Africa. It is a large, sprawling annual plant with coarse, hairy pinnately-lobed leaves and it is grown for its large edible fruit, also known as a watermelon, which is a special kind of berry with a hard rind and no internal division, botanically called a pepo. Considerable breeding effort has been put into disease-resistant varieties and into developing a strain with only digestible white seeds. Many cultivars are available that produce fruit within 100 days of planting the crop. The fruit can be eaten raw or pickled and the rind can be cooked, the watermelon is a flowering plant thought to have originated in southern Africa, where it is found growing wild. It reaches maximum genetic diversity there, with sweet, bland, in the 19th century, Alphonse de Candolle considered the watermelon to be indigenous to tropical Africa. Citrullus colocynthis is often considered to be an ancestor of the watermelon and is now found native in north. Evidence of its cultivation in the Nile Valley has been found from the second millennium BC onward, watermelon seeds have been found at Twelfth Dynasty sites and in the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. In the 7th century watermelons were being cultivated in India, and by the 10th century had reached China, moorish invaders introduced the fruit into Europe and there is evidence of it being cultivated in Córdoba in 961 and also in Seville in 1158. It spread northwards through southern Europe, perhaps limited in its advance by summer temperatures being insufficient for good yields, the fruit had begun appearing in European herbals by 1600, and was widely planted in Europe in the 17th century as a minor garden crop. European colonists and slaves from Africa introduced the watermelon to the New World, around the same time, Native Americans were cultivating the crop in the Mississippi valley and Florida. Watermelons were rapidly accepted in Hawaii and other Pacific islands when they were introduced there by such as Captain James Cook. The watermelon is a plant with long, weak, trailing or climbing stems which are five-angled. Young growth is densely woolly with hairs which disappear as the plant ages. The leaves are stemmed and alternate, large and pinnately-lobed, they get stiff, the flowers grow singly in the leaf axils and the corolla is white or yellow inside and greenish-yellow on the outside. The flowers are unisexual, with male and female flowers occurring on the same plant, the male flowers predominate at the beginning of the season, the female flowers, which develop later, have inferior ovaries. The styles are united into a single column, the large fruit is a kind of modified berry called a pepo with a thick rind and fleshy center. Wild plants have fruits up to 20 cm in diameter, while cultivated varieties may exceed 60 cm
27.
Bean
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Bean is a common name for large seeds of several genera of the flowering plant family Fabaceae which are used for human or animal food. The word bean and its Germanic cognates have existed in common use in West Germanic languages since before the 12th century, referring to broad beans and this was long before the New World genus Phaseolus was known in Europe. After Columbian-era contact between Europe and the Americas, use of the word was extended to pod-borne seeds of Phaseolus, such as the bean and the runner bean. Thus the term bean in general usage can mean a host of different species, seeds called beans are often included among the crops called pulses, although a narrower prescribed sense of pulses reserves the word for leguminous crops harvested for their dry grain. The term bean usually excludes legumes with tiny seeds and which are used exclusively for forage, hay, one is that in the past, several species, including Vigna angularis, mungo, radiata, and aconitifolia, were classified as Phaseolus and later reclassified. Unlike the closely related pea, beans are a crop that need warm temperatures to grow. Maturity is typically 55–60 days from planting to harvest, as the bean pods mature, they turn yellow and dry up, and the beans inside change from green to their mature colour. As a vine, bean plants need external support, which may be provided in the form of special bean cages or poles, native Americans customarily grew them along with corn and squash, with the tall cornstalks acting as support for the beans. In more recent times, the bush bean has been developed which does not require support and has all its pods develop simultaneously. This makes the bean more practical for commercial production. Beans are one of the longest-cultivated plants, broad beans, also called fava beans, in their wild state the size of a small fingernail, were gathered in Afghanistan and the Himalayan foothills. In a form improved from naturally occurring types, they were grown in Thailand since the seventh millennium BCE. They were deposited with the dead in ancient Egypt, not until the second millennium BCE did cultivated, large-seeded broad beans appear in the Aegean, Iberia and transalpine Europe. In the Iliad is a mention of beans and chickpeas cast on the threshing floor. Beans were an important source of protein throughout Old and New World history, the oldest-known domesticated beans in the Americas were found in Guitarrero Cave, an archaeological site in Peru, and dated to around the second millennium BCE. The corn would not be planted in rows as is done by European agriculture, Beans would be planted around the base of the developing stalks, and would vine their way up as the stalks grew. All American beans at that time were vine plants, bush beans having been bred only more recently, the cornstalks would work as a trellis for the beans, and the beans would provide much-needed nitrogen for the corn. Squash would be planted in the spaces between the patches of corn in the field, dry beans come from both Old World varieties of broad beans and New World varieties
28.
Zinnia
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Zinnia is a genus of plants of the sunflower tribe within the daisy family. They are native to scrub and dry grassland in an area stretching from the Southwestern United States to South America, members of the genus are notable for their solitary long-stemmed flowers that come in a variety of bright colors. The genus name honors German master botanist Johann Gottfried Zinn, zinnias are annuals, shrubs, and sub-shrubs native primarily to North America, with a few species in South America. Most species have upright stems but some have a lax habit with spreading stems that mound over the surface of the ground and they typically range in height from 10 to 100 cm tall. The leaves are opposite and usually stalkless, with a shape ranging from linear to ovate, the flowers have a range of appearances, from a single row of petals to a dome shape. Zinnias may be white, chartreuse, yellow, orange, red, purple, Zinnia peruviana – widespread from Chihuahua to Paraguay including Galápagos and West Indies, naturalized in parts of China, South Africa, United States Zinnia pumila A. Its leaves are lance-shaped and sandpapery in texture, and height ranges from 15 cm to 1 meter, Zinnia angustifolia is another Mexican species. It has a low bushy plant habit, linear foliage, and more flowers than Z. elegans – usually single. It is also resistant to powdery mildew than Z. elegans. The Profusion series, with single and double-flowered components, is bred by Sakata of Japan, and is among the most well-known of this hybrid group. Zinnias seem to be a favorite of butterflies, and many gardeners add zinnias specifically to attract them. Zinnias are popular garden flowers because they come in a range of flower colors and shapes, and they can withstand hot summer temperatures. They are grown in fertile, humus-rich, and well-drained soil and they will reseed themselves each year. Over 100 cultivars have been produced since selective breeding started in the 19th century, Zinnia peruviana was introduced to Europe in the early 1700s. Around 1790 Z. elegans was introduced and those plants had a row of ray florets which were violet. In 1829, scarlet flowering plants were available under the name Coccinea, double flowering types were available in 1858, coming from India, and they were in a range of colors including shades of reds, rose, purple, orange, buff, and rose stripped. In time, they came to represent thinking of absent friends in the language of flowers, a number of species of zinnia are popular flowering plants, and interspecific hybrids are becoming more common. Their varied habits allow for uses in several parts of a garden, commercially available seeds and plants are derived from open pollinated or F1 crosses, and the first commercial F1 hybrid dates from 1960
29.
Tagetes
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Tagetes is a genus of annual or perennial, mostly herbaceous plants in the sunflower family. It was described as a genus by Linnaeus in 1753, the genus is native to North and South America, but some species have become naturalized around the world. One species, T. minuta, is considered an invasive plant in some areas. Tagetes species vary in size from 0.1 to 2.2 m tall, most species have pinnate green leaves. Blooms naturally occur in golden, orange, yellow, and white colors, floral heads are typically to 4–6 cm diameter, generally with both ray florets and disc florets. In horticulture, they tend to be planted as annuals, although the species are gaining popularity. Depending on the species, Tagetes species grow well in almost any sort of soil, most horticultural selections grow best in soil with good drainage, even though some cultivars are known to have good tolerance to drought. The name Tagetes is from the name of the Etruscan Tages and it likely refers to the ease with which plants of this genus come out each year either by the seeds produced in the previous year, or by the stems which regrowth from the stump already in place. The common name in English, marigold, is derived from Marys gold, in Nepal, it is called शयपत्री that means hundred-leafed flower, referring to its many florets per head. The most commonly cultivated varieties of Tagetes are known variously as African marigolds, the so-called signet marigolds are hybrids derived mostly from Tagetes tenuifolia. Tagetes minuta is the source of commercial tagetes oil used in industry and it is now a naturalized species in Africa, Hawaii, and Australia, and is considered an invasive species in some regions. Depending on the species, marigold foliage has a musky, pungent scent and it is said to deter some common insect pests, as well as nematodes. Tagetes species are often used in companion planting for tomato, eggplant, chili pepper, tobacco. Due to antibacterial thiophenes exuded by the roots, Tagetes should not be planted near any legume crop, some of the perennial species are deer-, rabbit-, rodent- and javalina or peccary-resistant. It is commonly cultivated in South Africa, where the species is also a pioneer plant in the reclamation of disturbed land. In the United States, however, the powders and extracts are only approved as colorants in poultry feed, Marigolds are recorded as a food plant for some Lepidoptera caterpillars including the dot moth, and a nectar source for other butterflies. They are often part of butterfly gardening plantings, in the wild, many species are pollinated by beetles. The species Tagetes lucida, known as pericón, is used to prepare a sweetish and it is also used as a culinary herb in many warm climates, as a substitute for tarragon, and offered in the nursery as Texas tarragon or Mexican mint marigold
30.
Digitaria
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Digitaria is a genus of plants in the grass family native to tropical and warm temperate regions. Common names include crabgrass, finger-grass, and fonio and they are slender monocotyledonous annual and perennial lawn, pasture, and forage plants, some are often considered lawn pests. Digitus is the Latin word for finger, and they are distinguished by the long, Digitaria species occur in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions of both hemispheres. Though some Digitaria species are weeds, others have uses, especially as food, the seeds, most notably those of fonio, can be toasted and ground into a flour, which can be used to make porridge or fermented to make beer. Fonio has been used as a staple crop in parts of Africa. It also has decent nutrient qualities as a forage for cattle, the prevalent species of Digitaria in North America are large crabgrass, sometimes known as hairy crabgrass, and smooth crabgrass. These species often become problem weeds in lawns and gardens, growing well in thin lawns that are watered lightly, underfertilized. They are annual plants, and one plant is capable of producing 150,000 seeds per season, the seeds germinate in the late spring and early summer and outcompete the domesticated lawn grasses, expanding outward in a circle up to 30 cm in diameter. In the autumn when the die, they leave large voids in the lawn. The voids then become prime areas for the seeds to germinate the following season. Crabgrass is quickly outcompeted by healthy lawn grass because, as a plant, crabgrass dies off in autumn
31.
Lamium amplexicaule
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Lamium amplexicaule, commonly known as henbit dead-nettle, common henbit, or greater henbit, is a species of Lamium native to Europe, Asia and northern Africa. It is an annual plant growing to 10–25 cm tall, with soft. The leaves are opposite, rounded, 2–3 cm diameter, with a lobed margin, the flowers are pink to purple,1. 5–2 cm long. The specific name refers to the amplexicaul leaves, henbit dead-nettle is an annual herb with a sprawling habit and short erect squarish, lightly hairy stems. It grows to a height of about 10 to 30 cm, the leaves are in opposite pairs, often with long internodes. The lower leaves are stalked and the upper ones stalkless, often fused, the blades are hairy and kidney-shaped, with rounded teeth. The flowers are large and form a few-flowered terminal spike with axillary whorls. The calyx is regular with five lobes and closes up after flowering, the corolla is purplish-red, fused into a tube 15 to 20 mm long. The upper lip is convex,3 to 5 mm long, there are four stamens, two long and two short. The gynoecium has two fused carpels and the fruit is a four-chambered schizocarp and this plant flowers very early in the spring even in northern areas, and for most of the winter and the early spring in warmer locations such as the Mediterranean region. At times of year there are not many pollinating insects. Henbit dead-nettle is probably native to the Mediterranean region but has spread around the world as an arable weed and it is found growing in bare places, gardens, fields and waste places. It propagates freely by seed and is regarded as a minor weed, sometimes entire fields will be reddish-purple with its flowers before spring ploughing. Where common, it is an important nectar and pollen plant for bees, especially honeybees and it is widely naturalised in eastern North America and elsewhere, where it is often considered to be an invasive species. However, its appearance, edibility and readiness to grow in many climates often mean it is permitted to grow when other weeds are not. The leaves, stem, and flowers of the plant are edible and have a sweet and peppery flavor. Henbit can be eaten raw or cooked, jepson Manual Treatment USDA Plants Profile Photo gallery
32.
Lamium
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Lamium is a genus of about 40–50 species of flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae, of which it is the type genus. The genus includes annual and perennial species, they spread by both seeds and stems rooting as they grow along the ground. They have square stems and coarsely textured pairs of leaves, often with striking patterns or variegation and they produce double-lipped flowers in a wide range of colours. Several closely related genera were included in Lamium by some botanists, including Galeopsis. Lamium species are cultivated as groundcover, and numerous cultivars have been selected for garden use. They are frost hardy and grow well in most soils, flower colour determines planting season and light requirement, white- and purple-coloured flowered species are planted in spring and prefer full sun. The yellow-flowered ones are planted in fall and prefer shade and they often have invasive habits and need plenty of room. – Spain, France, Italy, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia Lamium galactophyllum Boiss, & A. Pujadas – Spain, Portugal, Corsica Lamium glaberrimum Taliev – Crimea Lamium × holsaticum Prahl – central Europe Lamium macrodon Boiss. – Turkey, Caucasus, Iran, Iraq Lamium vreemanii A. P. Khokhr
33.
Stellaria media
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Stellaria media, chickweed, is a cool-season annual plant native to Europe, but naturalized in many parts of North America. It is used as a herbal remedy, and grown as a vegetable crop. It is sometimes called common chickweed to distinguish it from other plants called chickweed, other common names include chickenwort, craches, maruns, winterweed. The plant germinates in autumn or late winter, then forms large mats of foliage, the plants are annual and with weak slender stems, they reach a length up to 40 cm. Sparsely hairy, with hairs in a line along the stem, the leaves are oval and opposite, the lower ones with stalks. Flowers are white and small with 5 very deeply lobed petals, the stamens are usually 3 and the styles 3. The flowers are followed quickly by the seed pods and this plant flowers and sets seed at the same time. Stellaria media is widespread in North America, Europe and Asia, there are several closely related plants referred to as chickweed, but which lack the culinary properties of plants in the genus Stellaria. Plants in the genus Cerastium are very similar in appearance to Stellaria and are in the same family, Stellaria media can be easily distinguished from all other members of this family by examining the stems. Stellaria has fine hairs on one side of the stem in a single band. Other members of the family Caryophyllaceae which resemble Stellaria have hairs uniformly covering the entire stem and it usually has 3 stamens other references indicate 5 stamens and 3 -8 in other references. Very common as a weed in waste places, the larvae of the European moth yellow shell, of North American moths pale-banded dart or dusky cutworm or North American butterfly dainty sulphur all feed on chickweed. In both Europe and North America this plant is common in gardens, fields, and disturbed grounds, control is difficult due to the heavy seed sets. Common chickweed is very competitive with small grains, and can produce up to 80% yield losses among barley, Stellaria media is edible and nutritious, and is used as a leaf vegetable, often raw in salads. It is one of the ingredients of the symbolic dish consumed in the Japanese spring-time festival, S. media contains plant chemicals known as saponins, which can be toxic when consumed in large quantities. Chickweed has been known to cause poisoning in cattle. However, as the animal must consume several kilos of chickweed in order to reach a toxic level, the plant has medicinal purposes and is used in folk medicine. It has been used as a remedy to treat skin conditions
34.
Arabidopsis thaliana
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Arabidopsis thaliana is a small flowering plant native to Eurasia. A. thaliana is considered a weed, it is found by roadsides, a winter annual with a relatively short life cycle, A. thaliana is a popular model organism in plant biology and genetics. For a complex multicellular eukaryote, A. thaliana has a small genome of approximately 135 megabase pairs. It was the first plant to have its genome sequenced, and is a tool for understanding the molecular biology of many plant traits, including flower development. Arabidopsis thaliana is a plant, usually growing to 20–25 cm tall. The leaves form a rosette at the base of the plant, leaves are covered with small, unicellular hairs. The flowers are 3 mm in diameter, arranged in a corymb, the fruit is a siliqua 5–20 mm long, containing 20–30 seeds. Roots are simple in structure, with a primary root that grows vertically downward. These roots form interactions with rhizosphere bacteria such as Bacillus megaterium, a. thaliana can complete its entire lifecycle in six weeks. The central stem produces flowers grows after about three weeks, and the flowers naturally self-pollinate. In the lab, A. thaliana may be grown in Petri plates, pots, or hydroponics, the plant was first described in 1577 in the Harz Mountains by Johannes Thal, a physician from Nordhausen, Thüringen, Germany, who called it Pilosella siliquosa. In 1753, Carl Linnaeus renamed the plant Arabis thaliana in honor of Thal, in 1842, the German botanist Gustav Heynhold erected the new genus Arabidopsis and placed the plant in that genus. The genus name, Arabidopsis, comes from Greek, meaning resembling Arabis, thousands of natural inbred accessions of A. thaliana have been collected from throughout its natural and introduced range. These accessions exhibit considerable genetic and phenotypic variation which can be used to study the adaptation of species to different environments. A. thaliana is native to Europe, Asia, and northwestern Africa and it also appears to be native in tropical afroalpine ecosystems. It has been introduced and naturalized worldwide, a. thaliana readily grows and often pioneers rocky, sandy and calcareous soils. It is generally considered a weed, due to its distribution in agricultural fields, roadside, railway lines, waste ground. Like most Brassicaceae species, A. thaliana is edible by humans as a salad or cooked, the first mutant in A. thaliana was documented in 1873 by Alexander Braun, describing a double flower phenotype
35.
Phenotype
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A phenotype is the composite of an organisms observable characteristics or traits, such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, behavior, and products of behavior. A phenotype results from the expression of a genetic code, its genotype, as well as the influence of environmental factors. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the population of a species, the species is called polymorphic. A well-documented polymorphism is Labrador Retriever coloring, while the color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black. This genotype-phenotype distinction was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organisms heredity and what that heredity produces, the distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann, who distinguished between germ plasm and somatic cells. The term phenotype has sometimes incorrectly used as a shorthand for phenotypic difference from wild type. Despite its seemingly straightforward definition, the concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties and it may seem that anything dependent on the genotype is a phenotype, including molecules such as RNA and proteins. It may seem that this goes beyond the intentions of the concept with its focus on the organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes traits or characteristics that can be visible by some technical procedure. A notable extension to this idea is the presence of molecules or metabolites that are generated by organisms from chemical reactions of enzymes. Another extension adds behavior to the phenotype, since behaviors are also observable characteristics, behavioral phenotypes include cognitive, personality, and behavioral patterns. Some behavioral phenotypes may characterize psychiatric disorders or syndromes, phenotypic variation is a fundamental prerequisite for evolution by natural selection. It is the organism as a whole that contributes to the next generation. Without phenotypic variation, there would be no evolution by natural selection, the plant Hieracium umbellatum is found growing in two different habitats in Sweden. These habitats alternate along the coast of Sweden and the habitat that the seeds of Hieracium umbellatum land in, the concept of phenotype can be extended to variations below the level of the gene that affect an organisms fitness. For example, silent mutations that do not change the amino acid sequence of a gene may change the frequency of guanine-cytosine base pairs. The term extended phenotype refers to the idea that a phenotype is not restricted to biological processes, the concept generalized by Richard Dawkins explains that phenotype includes all the influence a gene has on the environment and other organisms. ”There are three types of extended phenotypes. The first describes an organism using architectural constructions to modify their environment for living, the most common example given by Dawkins is the beaver
36.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
37.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
38.
National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences
