1.
Melbourne
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Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania. The name Melbourne refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9,900 km2, the metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges, Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley. It has a population of 4,641,636 as of 2016, and its inhabitants are called Melburnians. Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemens Land on 30 August 1835, in what was then the colony of New South Wales, it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837. It was named Melbourne by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria, to whom Lord Melbourne was close, in 1847, during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the worlds largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it served as the interim seat of government until 1927. It is a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a centre for street art, music. It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport, the second busiest in Australia. The Port of Melbourne is Australias busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo, Melbourne has an extensive transport network. The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station, and the regional train. Melbourne is also home to Australias most extensive network and has the worlds largest urban tram network. Before the arrival of settlers, humans had occupied the area for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years. At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 2000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous tribes, the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin nation alliance and it would be 30 years before another settlement was attempted. Batman selected a site on the bank of the Yarra River. Batman then returned to Launceston in Tasmania, in early August 1835 a different group of settlers, including John Pascoe Fawkner, left Launceston on the ship Enterprize
2.
Trafalgar Square
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Trafalgar Square is a public square in the City of Westminster, Central London, built around the area formerly known as Charing Cross. Its name commemorates the Battle of Trafalgar, a British naval victory in the Napoleonic Wars with France and Spain that took place on 21 October 1805 off the coast of Cape Trafalgar, Spain. The site of Trafalgar Square had been a significant landmark since the 13th century, after George IV moved the mews to Buckingham Palace, the area was redeveloped by John Nash, but progress was slow after his death, and the square did not open until 1844. The 169-foot Nelsons Column at its centre is guarded by four lion statues, a number of commemorative statues and sculptures occupy the square, but the Fourth Plinth, left empty since 1840, has been host to contemporary art since 1999. The square has been used for community gatherings and political demonstrations, including Bloody Sunday, the first Aldermaston March, anti-war protests, a Christmas tree has been donated to the square by Norway since 1947 and is erected for twelve days before and after Christmas Day. The square is a centre of celebrations on New Years Eve. It was well known for its feral pigeons until their removal in the early 21st century, the square contains a large central area with roadways on three sides and a terrace to the north, in front of the National Gallery. The roads around the square part of the A4, a major road running west of the City of London. The square was surrounded by a one-way traffic system, but works completed in 2003 reduced the width of the roads. At the top of the column is a statue of Horatio Nelson who commanded the British Navy at the Battle of Trafalgar, surrounding the square are the National Gallery on the north side and St Martin-in-the-Fields Church to the east. To the south west is The Mall leading towards Buckingham Palace via Admiralty Arch, while Whitehall is to the south, Charing Cross Road passes between the National Gallery and the church. London Undergrounds Charing Cross tube station on the Northern and Bakerloo lines has an exit in the square, other nearby tube stations are Embankment connecting the District, Circle, Northern and Bakerloo lines, and Leicester Square on the Northern and Piccadilly lines. London bus routes 3,6,9,11,12,13,15,23,24,29,53,87,88,91,139,159,176,453 pass through Trafalgar Square. Building work on the side of the square in the late 1950s revealed deposits from the last interglacial. Among the findings were the remains of cave lion, rhinoceros, straight-tusked elephant, the site of Trafalgar Square has been a significant location since the 13th century. During Edward Is reign, the area was the site of the Kings Mews, running north from the original Charing Cross, from the reign of Richard II to that of Henry VII, the mews was at the western end of the Strand. The name Royal Mews comes from the practice of keeping hawks here for moulting, after a fire in 1534, the mews were rebuilt as stables, and remained here until George IV moved them to Buckingham Palace. After 1732, the Kings Mews were divided into the Great Mews and the smaller Green Mews to the north by the Crown Stables and its site is occupied by the National Gallery
3.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
4.
Zionism
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Zionism is the national movement of the Jewish people that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel. Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe as a revival movement, in reaction to anti-Semitic. Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the state in Palestine. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism continues primarily to advocate on behalf of Israel and to threats to its continued existence. A variety of Zionism, called cultural Zionism, founded and represented most prominently by Ahad Haam, unlike Herzl, the founder of political Zionism, Ahad Haam strived for Israel to be a Jewish state and not merely a state of Jews. Advocates of Zionism view it as a liberation movement for the repatriation of a persecuted people residing as minorities in a variety of nations to their ancestral homeland. The term Zionism is derived from the word Zion, referring to Jerusalem and these groups were collectively called the Lovers of Zion and were seen to encounter a growing Jewish movement toward assimilation. The first use of the term is attributed to the Austrian Nathan Birnbaum, founder of a nationalist Jewish students movement Kadimah, the common denominator among all Zionists is the claim to Eretz Israel as the national homeland of the Jews and as the legitimate focus for Jewish national self-determination. It is based on ties and religious traditions linking the Jewish people to the Land of Israel. Zionism does not have an ideology, but has evolved in a dialogue among a plethora of ideologies, General Zionism, Religious Zionism, Labor Zionism, Revisionist Zionism, Green Zionism. The political movement was established by the Austro-Hungarian journalist Theodor Herzl in 1897 following the publication of his book Der Judenstaat. At that time, the movement sought to encourage Jewish migration to Ottoman Palestine, although initially one of several Jewish political movements offering alternative responses to assimilation and antisemitism, Zionism expanded rapidly. In its early stages, supporters considered setting up a Jewish state in the territory of Palestine. After World War II and the destruction of Jewish life in Central and Eastern Europe where these alternative movements were rooted, the alliance with Britain was strained as the latter realized the implications of the Jewish movement for Arabs in Palestine but the Zionists persisted. The movement was successful in establishing Israel on May 14,1948. The proportion of the worlds Jews living in Israel has steadily grown since the movement emerged, by the early 21st century, more than 40% of the worlds Jews live in Israel, more than in any other country. These two outcomes represent the success of Zionism, and are unmatched by any other Jewish political movement in the past 2,000 years. In some academic studies, Zionism has been analyzed both within the context of diaspora politics and as an example of modern national liberation movements
5.
Ethnic nationalism
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Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethno-nationalism, is a form of nationalism wherein the nation is defined in terms of ethnicity. The central theme of ethnic nationalists is that nations are defined by a heritage, which usually includes a common language, a common faith. It also includes ideas of a culture shared between members of the group, and with their ancestors, herodotus is the first who stated the main characteristics of ethnicity, with his famous account of what defines Greek identity. He lists kinship, language, cults and customs, the central political tenet of ethnic nationalism is that ethnic groups can be identified unambiguously, and that each such group is entitled to self-determination. In international relations, it leads to policies and movements for irredentism to claim a common nation based upon ethnicity. In scholarly literature, ethnic nationalism is usually contrasted with civic nationalism, Ethnic nationalism bases membership of the nation on descent or heredity, often articulated in terms of common blood or kinship, rather than on political membership. Ethnic nationalism is, therefore, seen as exclusive, while civic nationalism tends to be inclusive, rather than allegiance to common civic ideals and cultural traditions, then, ethnic nationalism tends to emphasise narratives of common descent. The theorist Anthony D. Smith uses the term ethnic nationalism for non-Western concepts of nationalism as opposed to Western views of a nation defined by its geographical territory, Ethnic nationalism is also present in many states immigration policies in the form of repatriation laws. For example, Israels Law of Return, grants every Jew the right to settle in Israel, in German nationality law, citizenship is open to ethnic Germans. According to the Greek nationality law, Greeks born abroad may transmit citizenship to their children from generation to generation indefinitely, on the other hand, civic nationalism defines membership as an individuals duty to observe given laws and in turn receive legal privileges. Nations before Nationalism excerpt and text search Breuilly, John, Nationalism and the State excerpt and text search De Benoist, Alain. Telos page, online text De Benoist, Alain, vu de droite, Anthologie critique des idées contemporaines. Text search Esman, Milton J. and Itamar Rabinovich, eds, Ethnicity, Pluralism, and the State in the Middle East Gurr, Ted Robert, and Barbara Harff. Ethnic Conflict in World Politics online Jones, Larry Eugene & Retallack, James, studies in the History of German Conservatism from 1789 to 1945. Nationalism in Europe & America, Politics, Cultures, and Identities since 1775 online Mohler, die Konservative Revolution in Deutschland 1918–1932. Excerpt and text search Smith, Anthony D, the Ethnic Origins of Nations excerpt and text search Smith, Anthony D. The Nation in History, Historiographical Debates about Ethnicity and Nationalism excerpt and text search Smith, the Antiquity of Nations Sunic, Tomislav. Postmortem Report, Cultural Examinations from Postmodernity, shamley Green, UK, The Paligenesis Project,2010
6.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
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Jewish culture
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Jewish culture is the culture of the Jewish people from the formation of the Jewish nation in biblical times through life in the diaspora and the modern state of Israel. Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, so that it has been called not only a religion, not all individuals or all cultural phenomena can be classified as either secular or religious, a distinction native to Enlightenment thinking. Secular Judaism, is a phenomenon related to Jewish secularization - a historical process of divesting all of these elements of culture from their religious beliefs. Secular Judaism, derived from the philosophy of Moses Mendelssohn, arose out of the Haskalah, or Jewish Enlightenment, in recent years, the academic field of study has encompassed Jewish Studies, History, Literature, Sociology, and Linguistics. Historian David Biale has traced the roots of Jewish secularism back to the pre-modern era, additionally, many schools include the academic study of Judaism and Jewish culture in their curricula. This phenomenon has led to different variations of Jewish culture unique to their own communities. There has not been a political unity of Jewish society since the united monarchy, Medieval Jewish communities in Eastern Europe continued to display distinct cultural traits over the centuries. Constantin Măciucă writes of a differentiated but not isolated Jewish spirit permeating the culture of Yiddish-speaking Jews and this was only intensified as the rise of Romanticism amplified the sense of national identity across Europe generally. The Haskalah combined with the Jewish Emancipation movement under way in Central, at the same time, pogroms in Eastern Europe provoked a surge of migration, in large part to the United States, where some 2 million Jewish immigrants resettled between 1880 and 1920. By 1931, shortly before The Holocaust, 92% of the Worlds Jewish population was Ashkenazi in origin, secularism originated in Europe as series of movements that militated for a new, heretofore unheard-of concept called secular Judaism. During the 1940s, the Holocaust uprooted and destroyed most of the Jewish communities living in much of Europe and this, in combination with the creation of the State of Israel and the consequent Jewish exodus from Arab lands, resulted in a further geographic shift. Gary Tobin, head of the Institute for Jewish and Community Research, said of traditional Jewish culture, every religious attribute is filled with culture, every cultural act filled with religiosity. Synagogues themselves are great centers of Jewish culture, after all, what is life really about. Food, relationships, enrichment … So is Jewish life, so many of our traditions inherently contain aspects of culture. Look at the Passover Seder — its essentially great theater, Jewish education and religiosity bereft of culture is not as interesting. Jewish philosophy includes all philosophy carried out by Jews, or in relation to the religion of Judaism, the Jewish philosophy is extended over several main eras in Jewish history, including the ancient and biblical era, medieval era and modern era. The ancient Jewish philosophy is expressed in the bible, other writings related to philosophy can be found in the Deuterocanonical books such as Sirach and Book of Wisdom. During the Hellenistic era, Hellenistic Judaism aspired to combine Jewish religious tradition with elements of Greek culture, the philosopher Philo used philosophical allegory to attempt to fuse and harmonize Greek philosophy with Jewish philosophy
8.
Jewish state
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The Jewish state is a political term used to describe the nation state of Israel. Modern Israel came into existence on 14 May 1948 as the homeland for the Jewish people and it was also defined in its declaration of independence as a Jewish state, a term that appeared in the United Nations partition decision of 1947 as well. The related term Jewish and democratic state dates from 1992 legislation by the Israeli Knesset, since its establishment, Israel has passed many laws which reflect on the Jewish identity and values of the majority of its citizens. However, the secular versus religious debate in Israel in particular has focused debate on the Jewish nature of the state, another aspect of the debate is the status of minorities in Israel, most notably the Israeli Arab population. In pre-modern times, the laws of Judaism defined a number of prerogatives for a Halachic state. In order to avoid alienating the Ottoman Sultan, there was no reference to a Jewish state by the Zionist Organisation that he founded. The phrase national home was used instead of state. The 1942 Biltmore Program of the Zionist Organization explicitly proposed that Palestine be established as a Jewish Commonwealth, the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, which brought the British mandate to an end in 1948, referred to a Jewish state and an Arab state. The term Jewish state has been in usage in the media since the establishment of Israel. George W. Bush used the term in his speeches and in an exchange of letters with Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon in 2004, barack Obama has also used the phrase, for instance in a speech in September 2010 to the U. N. General Assembly. However, Palestinians regard a Jewish state as a trap, a new demand that did not come up during years of negotiations in the 1990s or in peace treaties reached with Egypt, the Palestine Liberation Organization recognized the State of Israel as part of the Oslo Accords in 1993. Palestinians regard acceptance of the demand as giving up the right of return, however, the definition of the state as Jewish creates a strong connection as well as a conflict between state law and religious law. Political interaction of different parties keeps the balance state and religion largely as it existed during the British Mandate. The 1917 Balfour Declaration, referred to the establishment in Palestine of a home for the Jewish people. The 1922 Churchill White Paper clarified that Phrases have been used such as that Palestine is to become as Jewish as England is English and his Majestys Government regard any such expectation as impracticable and have no such aim in view. The concept of a homeland for the Jewish people is enshrined in Israeli national policy and reflected in many of Israels public. The concept was adopted in the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel on 14 May 1948 as the objective of the establishment of modern Israel. The principle was given effect in the Law of Return, which was passed by the Knesset on 5 July 1950
9.
Homeland for the Jewish people
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A homeland for the Jewish people is an idea rooted in Jewish culture and religion. In the early 19th century, the Napoleonic Wars led to the idea of Jewish emancipation and this unleashed a number of religious and secular cultural streams and political philosophies among the Jews in Europe, covering everything from Marxism to Chassidism. Among these movements was Zionism as promoted by Theodore Herzl, in the late 19th century, Herzl set out his vision of a Jewish state and homeland for the Jewish people in his book Der Judenstaat. Herzl was later hailed by the Zionist political parties as the father of the State of Israel. In the Balfour Declaration of 1917, the United Kingdom became the first world power to endorse the establishment in Palestine of a home for the Jewish people. The British government confirmed this commitment by accepting the British Mandate for Palestine in 1922, the European powers mandated the creation of a Jewish homeland at the San Remo conference of 19–26 April 1920. In 1948, the State of Israel was established, the Jewish aspiration to return to Zion is part of Jewish religious thought that dates back to the destruction of the First Temple. However, the movement for the creation of a secular homeland within the confines of modern international law was perceived as a solution to the widespread persecution of Jews within Europe. This became the centerpiece of secular political Zionism, anti-Semitism was not limited to Europe. The Zionist movement was preceded by several Jewish groups that had popularized the move to Israel. For example, Israel ben Pereẓ of Polotsk and hundreds of other Jewish groups settled in Israel from Europe, developing communities in Jerusalem, Hebron and around much of the country. This was in addition to the existing communities of Sephardi and Ashkenazim in Tiberias, Tsfat. Zionists, however, worked within the international legal framework. They also armed and defended themselves, in 1896, Theodore Herzl set out his vision of a Jewish state and homeland for the Jewish people in his book Der Judenstaat. He then proceeded to found the Zionist Organisation, numerous delegates sought to insert the phrase by international law, which was opposed by others. A compromise formula was adopted, which came to be known as the Basel program, the Sykes–Picot Agreement of 16 May 1916 set aside the region of Palestine for international administration under British control. The phrase national home was used instead of state because of opposition to the Zionist program within the British Cabinet. The initial draft of the referred to the principle that Palestine should be reconstituted as the National Home of the Jewish people
10.
Land of Israel
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The Land of Israel is the traditional Jewish name for an area of indefinite geographical extension in the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine. The definitions of the limits of this territory vary between passages in the Hebrew Bible, with mentions in Genesis 15, Exodus 23, Numbers 34. Nine times elsewhere in the Bible, the land is referred as from Dan to Beersheba. According to the Book of Genesis, the land was first promised by God to the descendants of Abram, abrams name was later changed to Abraham, with the promise refined to pass through his son Isaac and to the Israelites, descendants of Jacob, Abrahams grandson. During the mandatory period the term Eretz Yisrael or the Land of Israel was part of the official Hebrew name of Mandatory Palestine, official Hebrew documents used the Hebrew transliteration of the word “Palestine” פלשתינה followed always by the two initial letters of Eretz Yisrael, א״י Aleph-Yod. The Land of Israel concept has been evoked by the founders of the State of Israel. It often surfaces in political debates on the status of the West Bank, Ezekiel, though generally preferring the phrase soil of Israel, employs eretz israel twice, respectively at Ezekiel 40,2 and Ezekiel 47,18. According to Anita Shapira, the term Eretz Yisrael was a term, vague as far as the exact boundaries of the territories are concerned. The Hebrew Bible provides three specific sets of borders for the Promised Land, each with a different purpose. And to their descendants after them, whilst Numbers 34, 1–15 describes the Land of Canaan which is allocated to nine, the expression Land of Israel is first used in a later book,1 Samuel 13,19. It is defined in detail in the exilic Book of Ezekiel as a land where both the tribes and the strangers in midst, can claim inheritance. The name Israel first appears in the Hebrew Bible as the name given by God to the patriarch Jacob, deriving from the name Israel, other designations that came to be associated with the Jewish people have included the Children of Israel or Israelite. The term Land of Israel occurs in one episode in the New Testament, the section in which it appears was written as a parallel to the earlier Book of Exodus. The passage describes the area as the land of the ten named ancient peoples living there. Genesis gives the border with Egypt as Nahar Mitzrayim – nahar in Hebrew denotes a river, never a wadi. Only the Red Sea and the Euphrates are mentioned to define the southern and eastern borders of the land promised to the Israelites. The Red Sea corresponding to Hebrew Yam Suf was understood in ancient times to be the Erythraean Sea, thus the entire Arabian peninsula lies within the borders described
11.
Palestine (region)
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Palestine is a geographic region in Western Asia between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. It is sometimes considered to include adjoining territories, the name was used by Ancient Greek writers, and was later used for the Roman province Syria Palaestina, the Byzantine Palaestina Prima, and the Islamic provincial district of Jund Filastin. The region comprises most of the claimed for the biblical regions known as the Land of Israel. Historically, it has known as the southern portion of wider regional designations such as Canaan, Syria, ash-Sham. The boundaries of the region have changed throughout history, today, the region comprises the State of Israel and the Palestinian territories in which the State of Palestine was declared. Modern archaeology has identified 12 ancient inscriptions from Egyptian and Assyrian records recording likely cognates of Hebrew Pelesheth, the term Peleset is found in five inscriptions referring to a neighboring people or land starting from c.1150 BCE during the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt. Neither the Egyptian nor the Assyrian sources provided clear regional boundaries for the term, approximately a century later, Aristotle used a similar definition for the region in Meteorology, in which he included the Dead Sea. The term is accepted to be a translation of the Biblical name Peleshet. The term is used in the Septuagint, who used a transliteration Land of Phylistieim different from the contemporary Greek place name Palaistínē. Following the Muslim conquest, place names that were in use by the Byzantine administration generally continued to be used in Arabic, Modern archaeologists and historians of the region refer to their field of study as Levantine archaeology. The region was among the earliest in the world to see human habitation, agricultural communities, during the Bronze Age, independent Canaanite city-states were established, and were influenced by the surrounding civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, and Syria. Between 1550–1400 BCE, the Canaanite cities became vassals to the Egyptian New Kingdom who held power until the 1178 BCE Battle of Djahy during the wider Bronze Age collapse. The region became part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from c.740 BCE, in 539 BCE, the Babylonian empire was replaced by the Achaemenid Empire. In the 330s BCE, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered the region and it ultimately fell to the Seleucid Empire between 219–200 BCE. In 116 BCE, a Seleucid civil war resulted in the independence of certain regions including the Hasmonean principality in the Judaean Mountains, from 110 BCE, the Hasmoneans extended their authority over much of Palestine, creating a Judaean–Samaritan–Idumaean–Ituraean–Galilean alliance. The Judaean control over the region resulted in it also becoming known as Judaea. Between 73–63 BCE, the Roman Republic extended its influence into the region in the Third Mithridatic War, conquering Judea in 63 BCE, and splitting the former Hasmonean Kingdom into five districts. The three-year Ministry of Jesus, culminating in his crucifixion, is estimated to have occurred from 28–30 CE, in 70 CE, Titus sacked Jerusalem, resulting in the dispersal of the citys Jews and Christians to Yavne and Pella
12.
Canaan
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Canaan was a Semitic-speaking region in the Ancient Near East during the late 2nd millennium BC. The name Canaan occurs commonly in the Hebrew Bible, in particular, the references in Genesis 10 and Numbers 34 define the Land of Canaan as extending from Lebanon southward to the Brook of Egypt and eastward to the Jordan River Valley. References to Canaan in the Bible are usually backward-looking, referring to a region that had something else. The term Canaanites serves as an ethnic catch-all term covering various indigenous populations—both settled, the Amarna Letters and other cuneiform documents use Kinaḫḫu, while other sources of the Egyptian New Kingdom mention numerous military campaigns conducted in Ka-na-na. Canaan had significant geopolitical importance in the Late Bronze Age Amarna period as the area where the spheres of interest of the Egyptian, Hittite, Mitanni and Assyrian Empires converged. Much of the knowledge about Canaan stems from archaeological excavation in this area at sites such as Tel Hazor, Tel Megiddo. The English term Canaan comes from the Hebrew כנען, via Greek Χαναάν Khanaan and it appears as KUR ki-na-ah-na in the Amarna letters, and knʿn is found on coins from Phoenicia in the last half of the 1st millennium. It first occurs in Greek in the writings of Hecataeus as Khna, scholars connect the name Canaan with knʿn, Kanaan, the general Northwest Semitic name for this region. An early explanation derives the term from the Semitic root knʿ to be low, humble, purple cloth became a renowned Canaanite export commodity which is mentioned in Exodus. The dyes may have named after their place of origin. The purple cloth of Tyre in Phoenicia was well known far, however, according to Robert Drews, Speisers proposal has generally been abandoned. The Late Bronze Age state of Ugarit is considered quintessentially Canaanite archaeologically, Jonathan Tubb states that the term ga-na-na may provide a third millennium reference to Canaanite while at the same time stating that the first certain reference is in the 18th century BC. See Ebla-Biblical controversy for further details, Mari letters A letter from Mutu-bisir to Shamshi-Adad I of the Old Assyrian Empire has been translated, It is in Rahisum that the brigands and the Canaanites are situated. It was found in 1973 in the ruins of Mari, an Assyrian outpost at that time in Syria, additional unpublished references to Kinahnum in the Mari letters refer to the same episode. Alalakh texts A reference to Ammiya being in the land of Canaan is found on the Statue of Idrimi from Alalakh in modern Syria. After a popular uprising against his rule, Idrimi was forced into exile with his mothers relatives to seek refuge in the land of Canaan, the other references in the Alalakh texts are, AT154 AT181, A list of Apiru people with their origins. All are towns, except for Canaan AT188, A list of Muskenu people with their origins, the letters are written in the official and diplomatic East Semitic Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia, though Canaanitish words and idioms are also in evidence. May the king ask Yanhamu about these matters, may the king ask his commissioner, who is familiar with Canaan EA151, Letter from Abimilku to the Pharaoh, The king, my lord wrote to me, write to me what you have heard from Canaan
13.
Holy Land
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The Holy Land is an area roughly located between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea that also includes the Eastern Bank of the Jordan River. Traditionally, it is synonymous with both the biblical Land of Israel and historical Palestine, the term usually refers to a territory roughly corresponding to the modern State of Israel, the Palestinian territories, western Jordan, and parts of southern Lebanon and southwestern Syria. It is considered holy by Jews, Christians, and Muslims, many sites in the Holy Land have long been pilgrimage destinations for adherents of the Abrahamic religions, including Jews, Christians, Muslims, and Baháís. Pilgrims visit the Holy Land to touch and see physical manifestations of their faith, confirm their beliefs in the context with collective excitation. Jews do not commonly refer to the Land of Israel as Holy Land, the Tanakh explicitly refers to it as holy land in only one passage, in Zechariah 2,16. The holiness of the Land of Israel is generally implied in the Tanakh by the Land being given to the Israelites by God, that is, it is the promised land, an integral part of Gods covenant. In the Torah many mitzvot commanded to the Israelites can only be performed in the Land of Israel, for example, in the Land of Israel, no land shall be sold permanently. Shmita is only observed with respect to the land of Israel, according to Eliezer Schweid, The uniqueness of the Land of Israel is. geo-theological and not merely climatic. This is the land which faces the entrance of the spiritual world, Jerusalem, as the site of the Temple, is considered especially significant. Sacred burials are still undertaken for diaspora Jews who wish to lie buried in the soil of Israel. According to Jewish tradition, Jerusalem is Mount Moriah, the location of the binding of Isaac, the Hebrew Bible mentions the name Jerusalem 669 times, often because many mitzvot can only be performed within its environs. The name Zion, which refers to Jerusalem, but sometimes the Land of Israel. The Talmud mentions the religious duty of colonising Israel, so significant in Judaism is the act of purchasing land in Israel, the Talmud allows for the lifting of certain religious restrictions of Sabbath observance to further its acquisition and settlement. Rabbi Johanan said that one who walks a distance of 4 cubits in Israel may be confident of a share in the future world, a story says that when R. Eleazar b. Due to the Jewish population being concentrated in Israel, emigration was generally prevented, many Jews wanted Israel to be the place where they died. R. Anan said, To be buried in Israel is like being buried under the altar, the saying His land will absolve His people implies that burial in Israel will cause one to be absolved of all ones sins. Christian books, including editions of the Bible, often had maps of the Holy Land, for instance, the Itinerarium Sacrae Scripturae of Heinrich Bünting, a German Protestant pastor, featured such a map. As a geographic term, the description Holy Land loosely encompasses modern-day Israel, in the Quran, the term الأرض المقدسة is mentioned at least seven times, once when Moses proclaims to the Children of Israel, O my people
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Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
15.
Antisemitism
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Antisemitism is hostility, prejudice, or discrimination directed against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite, Antisemitism is generally considered to be a form of racism. The root word Semite gives the impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people. However, the compound word antisemite was popularized in Germany in 1879 as a term for Judenhass Jew-hatred. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, the origin of antisemitic terminologies is found in the responses of Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein writes, The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, avner Falk similarly writes, The German word antisemitisch was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider in the phrase antisemitische Vorurteile. Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renans false ideas about how Semitic races were inferior to Aryan races and he coined the phrase the Jews are our misfortune which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was used by its authors to stress the radical difference between their own antisemitism and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism. In 1879 German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum, vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet in which he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to denote both Jewry and jewishness. The pamphlet became very popular, and in the year he founded the Antisemiten-Liga. The Jewish Encyclopedia reports, In February 1881, a correspondent of the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums speaks of Anti-Semitism as a designation which recently came into use, on 19 July 1882, the editor says, This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old. The related term philosemitism was coined around 1885, from the outset the term anti-Semitism bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term is confusing, for in modern usage Semitic designates a language group, though antisemitism has been used to describe bigotry against people who speak other Semitic languages, the validity of such usage has been questioned. The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen, for example, Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to the notion that there is an entity Semitism which anti-Semitism opposes. Objections to the usage of the term, such as the nature of the term Semitic as a racial term, have been raised since at least the 1930s. Because of this bad nature, Jews have to be not as individuals. Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies, Jews bring disaster on their host societies or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist, bernard Lewis defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest
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Criticism of the Israeli government
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Israels status as a representative democracy has been questioned as Israeli residents of the occupied territories are allowed to vote in Israel’s elections while Palestinian residents are not. Another source of criticism is the friction generated by the issue between Israels orthodox rabbinate and non-orthodox segments of the Jewish diaspora. At one end of the spectrum, these criticisms support attempts to delegitimize Israels right to exist and this has led to an ongoing debate regarding at what point criticism of Israel crosses the line to antisemitism. Media bias is often claimed by both sides of the debate, since 2003, the UN has issued 232 resolutions with respect to Israel, 40% of all resolutions issued by the UN over the period and more than six times that of the second placed country, Sudan. The causes and responsibilities of the exodus are a matter of controversy among historians, significant international pressure was placed on both sides during the 1949 Lausanne Conference to resolve the refugee crisis. This led to significant and sustained international criticism, however, Pappes work has been subject to significant criticism and allegations of fabrication by other historians. For example, Israeli historian Benny Morris called Pappe At best, One of the world’s sloppiest historians, at worst, one of the most dishonest. When asked about the 1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, There was no choice but to expel that population. It was necessary to cleanse the hinterland and cleanse the border areas and it was necessary to cleanse the villages from which our convoys and our settlements were fired on. He also added in 2008, that There was no Zionist plan or blanket policy of evicting the Arab population, plan Dalet, of 10 March 1948. was the master plan. To counter the expected assault on the emergent Jewish state. The Palestinians, who were the majority, fled in a campaign of fear. These days, this would be known as ethnic cleansing and they consist of the West Bank and much of the Golan Heights. From the Six Day War until 1982, the Sinai Peninsula was occupied by Israel, the Gaza Strip was also occupied by Israel until its unilateral disengagement. There are two interpretations of international law this matter, The Israeli position is that, The wars in 1956 and 1967 were waged by Israel to ensure the states survival. As most hostilities were initiated by the Arab side, Israel had to fight, Territories captured in the course of those wars are therefore legitimately under Israeli administration for both security reasons and to deter hostile states from belligerence. In the absence of peace treaties between all the parties at war, Israel has under all circumstances the right to control of the captured territories. Their ultimate disposition should be a result of treaties
17.
Steven M. Cohen
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Steven M. Cohen is an American sociologist whose work focuses on the American Jewish Community. He is currently a Research Professor of Jewish Social Policy at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, Cohen was born April 3,1950, in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Toby Cohen and Max Cohen, and the grandchild of four East European-born grandparents. Raised in a marked by strong Jewish ethnicity and nominally Orthodox affiliation. He attended Erasmus Hall High School and then Columbia College and he is married to Rabbi Marion Lev-Cohen. They live in both Jerusalem and New York City, cohens early intellectual influences include Leonard Fein, Calvin Goldscheider and Charles S. Liebman. Cohen received his BA from Columbia College in 1970 and his Ph. D. from Columbia Universitys Department of Sociology in 1974 and his doctoral dissertation was on Interethnic Marriage and Friendship. Past professorial and research positions include Queens College CUNY, Brandeis University, Hebrew University, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, and he has also served as Director of the Synagogue Studies Institute of Synagogue 3000 and Director of the Florence G. Heller-JCCA Research Center. Cohens research centers on the North American Jewish Community, with focus on the issues of Jewish continuity, intermarriage and he has been producing studies, articles, and books since he received his Ph. D. in 1974. In recent years, Cohen has worked on understanding how Jewish leaders in their 20s and 30s are changing Jewish life, practices, and values. Interview with Steven M. Cohen - Highly Engaged Young American Jews, Contrasts in Generational Ethos, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, September 15,2010 Cohen, Steven M. Kelman, uncoupled, How our Singles are Reshaping Jewish Engagement. Changes in American Jewish Identities, From Normative Constructions to Aesthetic Understandings - Interview with Steven M. Cohen,16 March 2008 Cohen, Steven M. Landres, J. Shawn, Kaunfer, Elie, & Shain, Michelle. Emergent Jewish communities and their participants, Preliminary findings from the 2007 National Spiritual Communities Study, New York, S3K Synagogue Studies Institute and Mechon Hadar. Cohen, Steven M. Kelman, Ari Y, the Continuity of Discontinuity, How Young Jews Are Connecting, Creating, and Organizing Their Own Jewish Lives. Peoplehood in the Next Gen. Shma, A Journal of Jewish Responsibility, Cohen, Steven M. Kelman, Ari Y. Cultural Events and Jewish Identities, Young Adult Jews in New York, changing Conceptions of Jewish Collectivity Among Young Adult Jews and Their Implications for Jewish Education, A Dual Research Project. 25 August 2002 Cohen, Steven M. Eisen, Arnold, the Sovereign Self, Jewish Identity in Post-Modern America. 1 May 2001 Cohen, Steven M. Kelman, Ari Y, beyond Distancing, Young Adult American Jews and Their Alienation from Israel. Israel Off Their Minds, The Diminished Place of Israel in the Political Thinking of Young Jews, what We Know About American Jewish Youth and Young Adults, Some Implications for Birthright Israel
18.
Brian Klug
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Brian Klug is Senior Research Fellow & Tutor in Philosophy at St. Benets Hall, Oxford and a member of the philosophy faculty at Oxford University. He is also a fellow of the Parkes Institute for the Study of Jewish/non-Jewish Relations, University of Southampton and fellow of the College, Saint Xavier University. Klug was one of a number of academics who submitted evidence to the British All-Party Parliamentary Inquiry into Antisemitism and he has criticized the concept of new antisemitism as being confused in his 2004 essay The Myth of the New Anti-Semitism published in The Nation, and in several other writings. He is a member of the advisory council of the Islamophobia Studies Yearbook. Being Jewish and Doing Justice, Bringing Argument to Life, London, offence, The Jewish Case, London, Seagull Books,2009. Co-editor, A Time to Speak Out, Independent Jewish Voices on Israel, Zionism and Jewish Identity, London, co-editor, Children as Equals, Exploring the Rights of the Child, Lanham, MD, University Press of America,2002. Co-editor, Ethics, Value and Reality, Selected Papers of Aurel Kolnai, London, editor, A Question of Degree, Assorted Papers on Assessment, London, Nuffield Foundation,1976. Ritual murmur, the undercurrent of protest against religious slaughter of animals in Britain in the 1980s, Patterns of Prejudice, the language of race, Patterns of Prejudice, vol. The collective Jew, Israel and the new antisemitism, Patterns of Prejudice,2,2003, used as a resource by the EUMC in their report Manifestations of Antisemitism in the EU 2002-2003, Vienna, March 2004. The myth of the new anti-semitism, the Nation, posted January 15,2004, February 2,2004 issue. Joffes flight of fantasy, Foreign Policy, March/April 2005, Israel, Antisemitism and the left, Red Pepper, November 24,2005. The other Balfour, recalling the 1905 Aliens Act in S. W. Massil, The Jewish Year Book, London, correspondence between Prof. Robert Wistrich and Brian Klug, When Is Opposition to Israel and Its Policies Anti-Semitic. International Center for the Study of Anti-Semitism, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, in search of clarity, Catalyst, March 17,2006. A contradiction in the new Europe in M. Bunzl, Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia, Hatreds Old and New in Europe, Chicago, the state of Zionism, The Nation, June 18,2007 issue. Die Sicht auf Israel als Jude der Welt in Bunzl and Senfft, Zwischen Antisemitismus und Islamophobie, Hamburg, tricks of memory, Auschwitz and the question of Palestinian terrorism in Stephen Law, Israel, Palestine and Terror, London, Continuum,2008. A plea for distinctions, disentangling anti-Americanism and anti-semitism, Think, Winter 2008
19.
Todd Gitlin
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Todd Gitlin is an American sociologist, political writer, novelist, and cultural commentator. He has written widely on the media, politics, intellectual life. Gitlin became a political activist in 1960, when he joined a Harvard group called Tocsin and he went on to become vice-chairman and then chairman of the group. He helped organize a demonstration in Washington, February 16–17,1962, against the arms race. In 1963 and 1964, Gitlin was president of Students for a Democratic Society and he helped organize the first national demonstration against the Vietnam War, held in Washington, D. C. In 1968–69, he was an editor at and a contributor to the San Francisco Express Times, an underground newspaper, in the mid-1980s, he was a leader of Berkeleys Faculty for Full Divestment and president of Harvard-Radcliffe Alumni/-ae Against Apartheid. In 2013, he involved in the alumni wing of the Divest Harvard movement. He has also active in a Columbia faculty group supporting such divestment. He actively opposes the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement targeted at Israel, Gitlin graduated as valedictorian of the Bronx High School of Science, one of New York Citys elite public high schools. Enrolling at Harvard College, he graduated with an A. B. cum laude in mathematics and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa, after his leadership in SDS, he earned graduate degrees from the University of Michigan and the University of California, Berkeley. He actively opposed both the Gulf War of 1991 and the Iraq war of 2003, during 1994–95, he held the chair in American Civilization at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris. During April–May 2011, Gitlin was the recipient of the Bosch Berlin Prize in Public Policy and Fellow at the American Academy in Berlin. He has been a columnist for The San Francisco Examiner and the New York Observer, in 2016 he is writing regularly on media and the political campaign for BillMoyers. com/ He is on the editorial board of Dissent. He has been co-chair of the San Francisco branch of PEN American Center, a member of the board of directors of Greenpeace, and he has given hundreds of lectures at public occasions and universities in many countries. He was the first sociologist to apply Erving Goffmans concept of frame to news analysis, in The Sixties, Years of Hope, Days of Rage, a memoir and analysis combined, he developed a sense of the tensions between expressive and strategic politics. In The Twilight of Common Dreams he asked why the groups that constitute the American left so often turn to infighting rather than solidarity. In Media Unlimited, he turned to the flow of the media torrent, the problems of attention and distraction. In Occupy Nation, The Roots, the Spirit, and the Promise of Occupy Wall Street and he has published three novels, The Murder of Albert Einstein, Sacrifice, and Undying
20.
Timeline of anti-Zionism
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This timeline of anti-Zionism chronicles the history of anti-Zionism, including events in the history of anti-Zionist thought. 1828 – In London Edward Swaine published a Biblical exposition, Objections to the Doctrines of Israels Future Restoration to Palestine, national pre-eminence, 1880s - Orthodox Jews regarded the emergence of Zionism as a threat, particularly for its secular character and redefinition of Jewishness. Through this decade, the Orthodox communities fought the Zionist idea of Jews as a people in search of a homeland, rather than being, for Judaism, the established Jewish community in Jerusalem denounced Zionist newcomers to the Ottoman authorities. We are Germans, Frenchmen, Magyars, Italians, and so forth, with every fiber of our being and we have long ceased to be true, thoroughbred Semites, and we have long ago lost sense of Hebrew nationality. 1902 – The American Israelite calls Zionism a pernicious agitation that would undermine the acceptance of Jews in the countries where they currently resided. 1905 – Jewish Territorialist Organization splits off from the World Zionist Organization and they explored the idea of settlement in Cyrenaica. Folksgrupe founded in Vilna in March. 1908–14 – growing Palestinian and Ottoman opposition to the project of anti-Zionism begins to take shape,1915 – Philosopher Hermann Cohen publishes Deutschtum und Judentum, opposed the Zionist programme arguing that Jews had no need for a homeland since they were an integral part of Europe. No wonder that all anti-Semites are enthusiastic Zionists,1917 – Edwin Samuel Montagu submits his Memorandum on the Anti-Semitism of the British Government, in response to ongoing discussions around the Balfour Declaration. Anti-Jewish prejudices could not be overcome by the creation of a Jewish state and he stated also that Zionism has always seemed to me to be a mischievous political creed, untenable by any patriotic citizen of the United Kingdom and outlines his four principles of anti-Zionism. 1918 - Rabbi Isaac Breuer declared, Zionism is the most terrible enemy that has arisen to the Jewish Nation. The anti-nationalistic Reform engages it at least in an open fight, whether the Jews be regarded as a race or as a religion, it is contrary to the democratic principles for which the world war was waged to found a nation on either or both of these bases. The petition included signatures from over 300 prominent American Jews, including Henry Morgenthau, Sr. –Reichsbund jüdischer Frontsoldaten English, Reich League of Jewish War Veterans was a non-Zionist organization founded in Germany in February. 1924 – Jacob Israël de Haan is assassinated by the Haganah for his anti-Zionist political activities,1925 Brit Shalom is founded, repudiating the Balfour Agreement and renouncing the Zionist concept of a nation with a Jewish majority for a binational state for two people. They viewed Zionism as a means to create in Palestine a Jewish spiritual centre, the plan was favourably received by Judah Magnes. It is wrong and inhuman to impose the Jews on the Arabs, the Palestine of the Biblical conception is not a geographical tract. Let the Jews who claim to be the chosen race prove their title by choosing the way of non-violence for vindicating their position on earth, every country is their home, including Palestine, not by aggression but by loving service. 1939 -The Jewish Dutch assimilationist Louis Fles publishes his pamphlet Weg met het zionisme, the British White Paper in limiting Jewish immigration to Palestine for 5 years, was seen as adopting an anti-Zionist policy. 1943 – Orthodox Hungarian Rabbi Yissachar Shlomo Teichtal, originally opposed to Secular Zionism, in this work he strongly urges Diaspora Jews to, on a religious basis, establish a Jewish state in Palestine as a prelude to The Final Redemption
21.
History of Zionism
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Zionism as an organized movement is generally considered to have been founded by Theodor Herzl in 1897. However, the history of Zionism began earlier and is related to Judaism, the Hovevei Zion, or the Lovers of Zion, were responsible for the creation of 20 new Jewish settlements in Palestine between 1870 and 1897. Before the Holocaust, the central aims were the creation of a Jewish national home. After the Holocaust, the movement focused on creation of a Jewish state, since the creation of Israel, the importance of the Zionist movement as an organization has declined, as the Israeli state has grown stronger. The Zionist movement continues to exist, working to support Israel, assist persecuted Jews, while most Israeli political parties continue to define themselves as Zionist, modern Israeli political thought is no longer formulated within the Zionist movement. The success of Zionism has meant that the percentage of the worlds Jewish population who live in Israel has steadily grown over the years, there is no other example in human history of a nation being reestablished after such a long period of existence as a diaspora. The precedence for Jews to return to their homeland, motivated by strong divine intervention, first appears in the Torah. After Jacob and his sons had gone down to Egypt to escape a drought, they were enslaved, later, as commanded by God, Moses went before Pharaoh, demanded, Let my people go. And foretold severe consequences, if this was not done, Torah describes the story of the plagues and the Exodus from Egypt, which is estimated at about 1400 BCE, and the beginning of the journey of the Jewish People toward the Land of Israel. These are celebrated annually during Passover, and the Passover meal traditionally ends with the words Next Year in Jerusalem, the theme of return to their traditional homeland came up again after the Babylonians conquered Judea in 641 BCE and the Judeans were exiled to Babylon. In the book of Psalms, Jews lamented their exile while Prophets like Ezekiel foresaw their return, the Bible recounts how, in 538 BCE Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon and issued a proclamation granting the people of Judah their freedom. 50,000 Judeans, led by Zerubbabel returned, a second group of 5000, led by Ezra and Nehemiah, returned to Judea in 456 BCE. In 1160 David Alroy led a Jewish uprising in Kurdistan that aimed to reconquer the promised land, in 1648 Sabbatai Zevi from modern Turkey claimed he would lead the Jews back to Palestine. In 1868 Judah ben Shalom led a movement of Yemenite Jews to Palestine. A dispatch from the British Consulate in Jerusalem in 1839 reported that the Jews of Algiers, there was also significant migration from Central Asia. In addition to Messianic movements, the population of the Holy Land was slowly bolstered by Jews fleeing Christian persecution especially after the Reconquista of Al-Andalus, Safed became an important center of Kabbalah. Jerusalem, Hebron and Tiberias also had significant Jewish populations, among Jews in the Diaspora Eretz Israel was revered in a religious sense. They thought of a return to it in a messianic age
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History of antisemitism
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The history of antisemitism – defined as hostile actions or discrimination against Jews as a religious or ethnic group – goes back many centuries, antisemitism has been called the longest hatred. The Islamic world has seen the Jews historically as outsiders. The formation of the state of Israel in 1948 has created new antisemitic tensions in the Middle East, in view of Manethos anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by the Greek retelling of Ancient Egyptian prejudices. As examples of writers who spoke positively of Jews, Feldman cites Aristotle, Theophrastus, Clearchus of Soli. Feldman concedes that, after Manetho, the picture usually painted is one of universal, the first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced back to Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE. Alexandria was home to the largest Jewish community in the world and the Septuagint, One of the earliest anti-Jewish edicts, promulgated by Antiochus Epiphanes in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the Maccabees in Judea. The ancient Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died, the violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as misanthropes. Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers. Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews refusal to accept Greek religious, hecataeus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life. Manetho, an Egyptian historian, wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian lepers who had been taught by Moses not to adore the gods, the same themes appeared in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in Apion and Tacitus. Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings. The terms religious antisemitism and anti-Judaism are sometimes used to refer to animosity towards Judaism as a rather than to Jews defined as an ethnic or racial group. Relations between the Jews in Palestine and the occupying Roman Empire were antagonistic from the very start, several ancient historians report that in 19 CE the Roman emperor Tiberius expelled Jews from Rome. According to the Roman historian Suetonius, Tiberius tried to suppress all foreign religions, in the case of Jews, he sent young Jewish men, under the pretence of military service, to provinces noted for their unhealthy climate. He dismissed all other Jews from the city, under threat of slavery for non-compliance. Josephus, in his Jewish Antiquities, confirms that Tiberius ordered all Jews to be banished from Rome, four thousand were sent to Sardinia but more, who were unwilling to become soldiers, were punished. Cassius Dio reports that Tiberius banished most of the Jews, who had been attempting to convert Romans to their religion, Philo of Alexandria reported that Sejanus, one of Tiberiuss lieutenants, may have been a prime mover in the persecution of the Jews. The Jerusalem Talmud relates that, following Bar Kokhbas revolt, the Romans destroyed very many Jews, however, some historians argue that Rome suppressed revolts in all its conquered territories and point out that Tiberius expelled all foreign religions from Rome, not just the Jews
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Religious Jews
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Religious Jews are Jews who practice or observe Jewish rituals. They may be affiliated with, Orthodox Judaism, including Haredi Judaism Modern Orthodox Judaism Conservative Judaism Reform Judaism Reconstructionist Judaism Jewish Renewal
24.
Jewish Autonomism
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Jewish Autonomism was a non-Zionist political movement that emerged in Eastern Europe in the late 19th and early 20th century. One of its proponents was the historian and activist Simon Dubnow. Autonomists often stressed the vitality of modern Yiddish culture, various concepts of the Autonomism were adopted in the platforms of the Folkspartei, the Sejmists and socialist Jewish parties such as the Bund. Some groups blended Autonomism with Zionism, they favored Jewish self-rule in the diaspora until diaspora Jews make Aliyah to their homeland in Zion. In 1941, Simon Dubnow was one of thousands of Jews murdered in the Rumbula massacre, after the Holocaust, the notion of Autonomism practically disappeared from Jewish philosophy. It is not connected to the political movement autonomism. Jewish political movements Chaim Zhitlovsky National personal autonomy Autonomism at JVL
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Reform Judaism
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It is characterized by a lesser stress on ritual and personal observance, regarding Jewish Law as of basically non-binding nature, and great openness to external influences and progressive values. The origins of Reform Judaism lay in 19th-century Germany, where its early principles were formulated by Rabbi Abraham Geiger and its greatest center today is in North America. They warrant and obligate further modification and reject any fixed, permanent set of beliefs, a clear description became particularly challenging since the turn toward a policy favouring inclusiveness over a coherent theology in the 1970s. This largely overlapped with what researchers termed as the transition from Classical to New Reform in America, the movement ceased stressing principles and core beliefs, focusing more on the personal spiritual experience. This shift was not accompanied by a new doctrine or by the abandonment of the former. The leadership allowed and encouraged a variety of positions, from selective adoption of halakhic observance to elements approaching religious humanism. The declining importance of the foundation, in favour of pluralism and equivocalness. It also diversified Reform to a degree which made it hard to formulate a definition of it. Early Reform thinkers in Germany clung to this precept, the 1885 Pittsburgh Platform described the One God, the God-Idea as taught in our sacred Scripture as consecrating the Jewish people to be its priests. It was grounded on a wholly theistic understanding, although the term God-idea was excoriated by outside critics, so was the 1937 Columbus Declaration of Principles, which spoke of a One, living God who rules the world. Even the 1976 San Francisco Centenary Perspective, drafted at a time of discord among Reform theologians. Challenges of modern culture have made steady belief difficult for some, nevertheless, we ground our lives, personally and communally, on Gods reality. The 1999 Pittsburgh Statement of Principles declared the reality and oneness of God, British Liberal Judaism affirms the Jewish conception of God, One and indivisible, transcendent and immanent, Creator and Sustainer. All the People Israel are a link in the chain of revelation, capable of reaching new insights. The chief promulgator of this concept was Abraham Geiger, generally considered founder of the movement, while also subject to change and new understanding, the basic premise of progressive revelation endures in Reform thought. This highly rationalistic view virtually identified human reason and intellect with divine action, in the decades around World War II, this rationalistic and optimistic theology was challenged and questioned. The senior representative of postwar Reform theology, Eugene Borowitz, regarded theophany in postmodern terms and closely linked it with human experience. He rejected the notion of revelation in the meaning of comparing human betterment with divine inspiration, stressing that past experiences were unique
26.
Orthodox Judaism
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Orthodox Judaism includes movements such as Modern Orthodox Judaism and Ultra-Orthodox or Haredi Judaism. As of 2001, Orthodox Jews and Jews affiliated with an Orthodox synagogue accounted for approximately 50% of British Jews,26. 5% of Israeli Jews, among those affiliated to a synagogue body, Orthodox Jews represent 70% of British Jewry, and 27% of American Jewry. Orthodoxy is not one single movement or school of thought, there is no single rabbinical body to which all rabbis are expected to belong, or any one organization representing member congregations. In the 20th century, a segment of the Orthodox population disagreed with Modern Orthodoxy, such rabbis viewed innovations and modifications within Jewish law and customs with extreme care and caution. This form of Judaism may be referred to as Haredi Judaism or Ultra-Orthodox Judaism, several local Jewish papers, including New Yorks Jewish Week and Philadelphias Jewish Exponent have also dropped use of the term. According to Rabbi David Bar-Hayim, the term Orthodox Judaism was coined as a response to the rise of Reform Judaism in early 19th century Germany, some researchers attempted to argue that the importance of daily practice and punctilious adherence to Jewish Law relegated theoretical issues to an ancillary status. Others dismissed this view entirely, citing the many debates in ancient rabbinic sources which castigated various heresies without any reference to observance, however, while lacking a uniform doctrine, Orthodox Judaism is basically united in affirming several core beliefs, disavowal of which is considered major blasphemy. As in other aspects, Orthodox positions reflect the mainstream of traditional Rabbinic Judaism through the ages, attempts to codify these were undertaken by several medieval authorities, including Saadia Gaon and Joseph Albo. Yet the 13 Fundamentals expounded by Maimonides in his Commentary on the Mishnah, but in recent centuries the 13 Principles became standard, and are considered binding and cardinal by Orthodox authorities in a virtually universal manner. More specific doctrines refer to the times of Godly salvation and afterlife – in Judaism, Olam haBa and these include belief in divine reward for those who observe the Lords commandments and likewise, punishment meted unto the transgressors. Maimonides reserved one article for this tenet, oft mentioned in sources, stating merely that God rewards. This issue has been subject to debate and interpretation. Nahmanides offered a comprehensive system, with divine remuneration for better or worse both in this world, via natural means, and in a celestial heaven and hell. One of the most important teachings concerning afterlife in Judaism is the Resurrection of the Dead, the Talmud listed deniers of this faith as heretics who shall have no part in the World to Come. Maimoindes specified it apart as a separate article and this particular notion is closely linked with Reward and Punishment. They will live ordinary, corporeal life but will not die, then all mankind shall be resuscitated and be given each his just due. The eternal reward shall be preserved for their soul, as beforehand, preceding the miraculous events linked with afterlife is the Advent of the Messiah, also independently listed among Maimonides Thirteen as a tenet of faith. Orthodox Judaism maintains the historical understanding of Jewish identity, a Jew is someone who was born to a Jewish mother, or who converts to Judaism in accordance with Jewish law and tradition
27.
Kibbutz Galuyot
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The Gathering of Israel is the biblical promise of Deuteronomy 30, 1-5 given by Moses, to the people of Israel prior to their entrance into the Land of Israel. He foresaw that the people of Israel would sin in their new land, however, he also foresaw the peoples return to their homeland. During the days of the Babylonian exile, writings of the prophets Isaiah, the continual hope for a return of the Israelite exiles to the land has been in the hearts of Jews ever since the destruction of the Second Temple. Maimonides connected its materialization with the coming of the Messiah, the immigration of Jews to the land and the State of Israel, the mass wave of Aliyot, has been likened unto the Exodus from Egypt. In the latter parts of the Book of Deuteronomy, when Moses death was near, the exiles at the end of the heavens will also return. The situation will be improved after the ingathering of the exiles of Israel in the land of Israel, and He will do good to you, and He will make you more numerous than your forefathers. The Prophets prophesying after the destruction of the First Temple, Solomons Temple, had encouraged the Babylonian exiles by reiterating the words of Moses, in chapter 11 the Prophet Isaiah says, In chapter 29 the Prophet Jeremiah says,14. In Law of Kings, Maimonides writes, then, the Lord, your God, will bring back your exiles and he will once again gather you from all the nations. Even if your exiles are at the end of the heavens, the Lord, your God, will gather you from there, and the Lord, your God, will bring you. These words, explicitly stated in the Torah, include all the statements made by all the prophets, the messiah is the ingatherer of the exiles of Israel. Other Jewish Scholars may view this differently from Maimonides and they argue that the Torah attested to a period, not a person, the period in which the People of Israel return to their homeland, the land of Israel. Until then, the Jewish community living in Israel is defined as a Diaspora of Israel, though they give their consent to the Jewish rule of Israel, and see the advantages of it. The intensive involvement of the Zionist Movement ever since in transporting Jewish legal and nonlegal immigrants to the land of Israel, Aliyah Bet, is the illegal entrance to the land of Israel under the British Mandates laws, including during World War II and the Holocaust. Aliyah Bet was organized by the Yishuv from 1934 until the State of Israel began in 1948, Aliyah Bet was carried out by the Mossad Lealiyah Bet, a branch of the Jewish Defense Association, the para-military organization that was to become the Israeli Defense Force. During Aliyah Bet s 14 years of activity,115,000 Jews made Aliyah to the land of Israel. The term Aliyah Bet is composed of the Hebrew word Aliyah, meaning Jewish Immigration to the land of Israel, and the Hebrew Letter Bet and its use was analogous to the English term Plan B. Vis-a-vis, the transportation of immigrants was being carried out simultaneously with the legal Jewish immigration to the land of Israel permitted by the British Mandate. The Mandate attempted to limit the number of certificates in a way which contradicted the national goals of the Jewish community living there
28.
Aliyah
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Aliyah is the immigration of Jews from the diaspora to the Land of Israel. Also defined as the act of going up—that is, towards Jerusalem—making Aliyah by moving to the Land of Israel is one of the most basic tenets of Zionism, the opposite action, emigration from the Land of Israel, is referred to in Hebrew as yerida. The State of Israels Law of Return gives Jews and their descendants automatic rights regarding residency, the large-scale immigration of Jews to Palestine began in 1882. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, more than 3 million Jews have moved to Israel, as of 2014, Israel and the Palestinian territories together contain 42. 9% of the worlds Jewish population. Successive waves of Jewish settlement are an important aspect of the history of Jewish life in Israel, Eretz Yisrael is the Hebrew name for the region known in English as Israel. This traditional Hebrew toponym, in turn, has lent its name to the modern State of Israel, pre-Zionist Aliyah refers to small-scale return migration of Diaspora Jews to the Land of Israel. Since the birth of Zionism, its advocates have striven to facilitate the settlement of Jewish refugees in Ottoman Palestine, Mandatory Palestine, Aliyah in Hebrew means ascent or going up. Jewish tradition views traveling to the land of Israel as an ascent, anyone traveling to Eretz Israel from Egypt, Babylonia or the Mediterranean basin, where many Jews lived in early rabbinic times, climbed to a higher altitude. Visiting Jerusalem, situated 2,700 feet above sea level, Aliyah is an important Jewish cultural concept and a fundamental component of Zionism. It is enshrined in Israels Law of Return, which accords any Jew and eligible non-Jews, someone who makes aliyah is called an oleh or olah. Many religious Jews espouse aliyah as a return to the Promised land, and regard it as the fulfillment of Gods biblical promise to the descendants of the Hebrew patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, nachmanides includes making aliyah in his enumeration of the 613 commandments. In the Talmud, at the end of tractate Ketubot, the Mishnah says, A man may compel his entire household to go up with him to the land of Israel, but may not compel one to leave. Sifre says that the mitzvah of living in Eretz Yisrael is as important as all the other mitzvot put together, there are many mitzvot such as shmita, the sabbatical year for farming, which can only be performed in Israel. In Zionist discourse, the term includes both voluntary immigration for ideological, emotional, or practical reasons and, on the other hand. The vast majority of Israeli Jews today trace their familys recent roots to outside the country, while many have actively chosen to settle in Israel rather than some other country, many had little or no choice about leaving their previous home countries. While Israel is commonly recognized as a country of immigrants, it is also, in large measure, a country of refugees. 2 Chronicles 36,23 Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia, All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD God of heaven given me, and he hath charged me to him an house in Jerusalem. Who among you of all his people, the LORD his God with him, and let him go up
29.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
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Nachmanides
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Rabbi Moses ben Nahman, commonly known as Nachmanides /nækˈmænᵻ. He was raised, studied, and lived for most of his life in Girona and he is also considered to be an important figure in the re-establishment of the Jewish community in Jerusalem following its decimation at the hands of the Crusaders in 1099. Nachmanides is a Greek-influenced formation meaning son of Nahman and he is also commonly known by the Hebrew acronym רמב״ן. His Catalan name was Bonastruc ça Porta, literally Mazel Tov near the Gate, Ramban was born in Girona in 1194, where he grew up and studied, and died in the Land of Israel about 1270. He was a descendant of Isaac ben Reuben of Barcelona and cousin of Jonah Gerondi, according to the responsa of Solomon b. During his teens he began to get a reputation as a learned Jewish scholar, at age 16 he began his writings on Jewish law. In his Milhamot Hashem he defended Alfasis decisions against the criticisms of Zerachiah ha-Levi of Girona and these writings reveal a conservative tendency that distinguished his later works — an unbounded respect for the earlier authorities. In the view of Nachmanides, the wisdom of the rabbis of the Mishnah and Talmud and their words were to be neither doubted nor criticized. We bow, he says, before them, and even when the reason for their words is not quite evident to us, Nachmanides adherence to the words of the earlier authorities may be due to piety, or the influence of the northern French Jewish school of thought. This work gave rise to a tendency to allegorize Biblical narratives, against this tendency Nachmanides strove, and went to the other extreme, not even allowing the utterances of the immediate disciples of the Geonim to be questioned. If, he says, you were of the opinion that it was duty to denounce the Guide as heretical. Is it right in important matters to act capriciously, to applaud the one to-day. This compromise, which might have ended the struggle, was rejected by both parties in spite of Nachmanides authority, Nachmanides allegedly wrote a book on marriage, holiness, and sexual relations for his son as a wedding gift, the Iggeret ha-Kodesh. In it Nachmanides criticizes Maimonides for stigmatizing mans sexual nature as a disgrace to man. In the view of the author, the body with all its functions being the work of God, is holy, in Nachmanidess Torat ha-Adam, which deals with mourning rites, burial customs, etc. Nachmanides sharply criticizes writers who strove to render man indifferent to both pleasure and pain and this, he declares, is against the Law, which commands man to rejoice on the day of joy and weep on the day of mourning. The last chapter, entitled Shaar ha-Gemul, discusses reward and punishment, resurrection and it derides the presumption of the philosophers who pretend to a knowledge of the essence of God and the angels, while even the composition of their own bodies is a mystery to them. For Nachmanides, divine revelation is the best guide in all these questions and he holds that as God is eminently just, there must be reward and punishment
31.
Isaac Luria
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Isaac Luria Ashkenazi, commonly known as HaARI, HaARI Hakadosh or ARIZaL, was a foremost rabbi and Jewish mystic in the community of Safed in the Galilee region of Ottoman Syria. He is considered the father of contemporary Kabbalah, his teachings being referred to as Lurianic Kabbalah, while his direct literary contribution to the Kabbalistic school of Safed was extremely minute, his spiritual fame led to their veneration and the acceptance of his authority. The works of his disciples compiled his oral teachings into writing, every custom of the Ari was scrutinized, and many were accepted, even against previous practice. Luria died at Safed on July 25,1572, and is buried at the Old Jewish Cemetery, the Ari Ashkenazi Synagogue, located in Safed, Israel, was built in memory of Luria during the late 16th century. Luria was born in 1534 in Jerusalem in what is now the Old Yishuv Court Museum to an Ashkenazi father, Solomon, and he shall begin to deliver Israel from the Klipot. Through him, numerous souls will receive their tikkun and he is also destined to reveal many hidden mysteries in the Torah and to expound on the Zohar. His fame will spread throughout the world, take care therefore that you not circumcise him before I come to be the Sandak. While still a child, Luria lost his father, and was brought up by his maternal uncle Mordechai Frances. His uncle placed him under the best Jewish teachers, including the leading rabbinic scholar David ibn Zimra, Luria showed himself a diligent student of rabbinical literature and under the guidance of another uncle, Rabbi Bezalel Ashkenazi, he became proficient in that branch of Jewish learning. At the age of fifteen, he married a cousin and, being provided for financially. Though he initially may have pursued a career in business, he turned to asceticism and mysticism. Around the age of twenty-two he became engrossed in the study of the Zohar, retreating to the banks of the Nile for seven years, he secluded himself in an isolated cottage, giving himself up entirely to meditation. He visited his family only on Shabbat, but even at home, he would not utter a word, even to his wife. When it was necessary for him to say something, he would say it in the fewest number of words possible. In 1569, Luria moved back to Eretz Israel, and after a sojourn in Jerusalem. Safed over the previous decades had become a center for cabalistic studies, there is evidence that Luria also regarded Cordovero as his teacher. Joseph Sambari, an important Egyptian chronicler, testified that Cordovero was the Aris teacher for a short time. Luria probably arrived in early 1570, and Cordovero died on June 27 that year, bereft of their most prominent authority and teacher, the community looked for new guidance, and Luria helped fill Cordoveros former role
32.
Joseph Karo
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To this end he is often referred to as HaMechaber and as Maran. Karo was born in Toledo, Spain in 1488, in 1492, aged four years old, he was forced to flee Spain with his family and the rest of Spanish Jewry as a result of the Alhambra Decree and subsequently settled in Portugal. After the expulsion of the Jews from Portugal in 1497, the Ottomans invited the Jews to settle within the Ottoman Empire, Karo went with his parents to Nikopolis, then a city in the Ottoman Empire, and spent the rest of his life in the Ottoman Empire. In Nikopol, he received his first instruction from his father and he married, first, Isaac Sabas daughter, and, after her death, the daughter of Hayyim Albalag, both of these men being well-known Talmudists. Between 1520 and 1522 Karo settled at Edirne and he later settled in the city of Safed, Land of Israel, where he arrived about 1535, having en route spent several years at Salonica and Istanbul. After his first wife died at an age, he married the daughter of Rabbi Issac Sabba. For a short while he lived in Nikopol, but decided to make his way to the Land of Israel so that he could immerse himself in its sanctity, passing through Salonica, he met the great kabbalist Joseph Taitazak. He continued his journey to the Holy Land via Egypt and eventually settled in Safed, at Safed he met Jacob Berab and was soon appointed a member of his rabbinical court. Berab exerted great influence upon him, and Karo became a supporter of Berabs plans for the restitution of semicha which had been in abeyance for over 11 centuries. Karo also established a yeshiva where he taught Torah to over 200 students, in fact, by this time, the Rabbinical Court of Safed had become the central rabbinical court in all of Ottoman Syria, and indeed of the diaspora as well. Thus there was not a matter of national or global importance that did not come to the attention. Its rulings were accepted as final and conclusive, and Karos halachic decisions and clarifications were sought by sages from every corner of the diaspora. Rabbi Joseph Karo was also visited in Safed by the great Egyptian scholars of his day, Rabbi David ibn Abi Zimra and he came to be regarded as the leader of the entire generation. The maggid exhorted Karo to sanctify and purify himself, and he revealed to him events that would place in the future. In Shaarei Kedusha, Rabbi Chaim Vital explains that visitation by a maggid is a form of Divine Inspiration. However, in places in Maggid Meisharim it is stated that, I am the Mishna that speaks in your mouth. The Maggid promised him that he would have the merit of settling in the Land of Israel, another promise, that he would merit to die a martyrs death sanctifying Gods Name like Rabbi Shlomo Molcho had merited, did not transpire for an unspecified reason. His reputation during the last thirty years of his life was greater than that of almost any other rabbi since Maimonides, in the East, Karos authority was, if possible, even greater
33.
Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk
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Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk, also known as Menachem Mendel of Horodok, was an early leader of Hasidic Judaism. Part of the generation of Hassidic leaders, he was the primary disciple of the Maggid of Mezeritch. From his base in Minsk Menachem Mendel was instrumental in spreading Hasidism throughout Belarus. In the winter of 1772, he - along with Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi - went to the Vilna Gaon with the aim of convincing him to rescind his ban on Hasidism, but the Vilna Gaon would not receive them. After the Maggids death, Rabbi Menachem Mendel, along with fellow disciple Rabbi Abraham Kalisker settled in Horodok, in 1777 the two, along with 300 followers, emigrated to Eretz Israel, settling in Safed, Ottoman Syria. In 1783 they were forced out of Safed, and moved to Tiberias, the synagogue they built there in 1786 still stands among the Ancient synagogues of Tiberias. The Tanya is partially based on the works of Rabbi Menachem Mendel, Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk is the subject of 15 of the stories in Martin Bubers Tales of the Hasidim. Pri HaAretz Pri HaEitz Likkutei Amarim Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk, The Pioneering Rebbe by Rabbi Eliezer Melamed KALISKER, ABRAHAM BEN ALEXANDER HA-KOHEN, the Jewish Encyclopedia
34.
Jewish diaspora
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The Jewish diaspora or exile is the dispersion of Israelites, Judahites and later Jews out of their ancestral homeland and their subsequent settlement in other parts of the globe. While in exile, the Judahites became known as Jews —Mordecai the Jew from the Book of Esther being the first biblical mention of the term and it continued with the exile of a portion of the population of the Kingdom of Judah in 597 BCE with the Babylonian exile. The differences in content and tone of the two decrees, one in Hebrew and one in Aramaic, have caused scholars to question their authenticity. He also stated that archaeology suggests that the return was a trickle taking place over decades, following the Siege of Jerusalem in 63 BCE, the Hasmonean kingdom became a protectorate of Rome, and in 6 CE was organized as the Roman province of Judea. The Jews revolted against the Roman Empire in 66 CE during the known as the First Jewish–Roman War which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. During the siege, the Romans destroyed the Second Temple and most of Jerusalem and this event marked the beginning of the Roman exile, also called Edom exile. Jewish leaders and elite were exiled from the land, killed, in 132 CE, the remaining Jews, under Bar Kokhba, rebelled against Hadrian. In 135 CE, Hadrians army defeated the Jewish armies and Jewish independence was lost. As punishment, Hadrian exiled more Jews, sold them into slavery, changed the name of Jerusalem to Aelia Capitolina, turned it into a Roman pagan city and forbade the Jews from living there. Judea and Samaria were renamed by Hadrian to Syria Palaestina, after the Assyrians and Philistines respectively, the Greek word διασπορά first appears in Ancient Greek in Thucydides History of the Peloponnesian War. It was later used in the translation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint, in Talmudic and post-Talmudic Rabbinic literature, this phenomenon was referred to as galut, a term with strongly negative connotations, often contrasted with geula. In 722 BCE, the Assyrians, under Sargon II, successor to Shalmaneser V, conquered the Kingdom of Israel, the poorest but most fervent of the exiles returned to Judah / the Land of Israel during the reign of the Achaemenids. Under the Hasmonean princes, who were at first high priests and then kings, pompey invaded Jerusalem, the Jewish people lost their political sovereignty and independence, and Gabinius subjected the Jewish people to tribute. As early as the middle of the 2nd century BCE the Jewish author of the book of the Oracula Sibyllina addressed the chosen people, saying, Every land is full of thee. The most diverse witnesses, such as Strabo, Philo, Seneca, Luke, Cicero, see also History of the Jews in India and History of the Jews in China for pre-Roman diasporic populations. King Agrippa I, in a letter to Caligula, enumerated among the provinces of the Jewish diaspora almost all the Hellenized and non-Hellenized countries of the Orient and this enumeration was far from complete as Italy and Cyrene were not included. The epigraphic discoveries from year to year augment the number of known Jewish communities, the ancient Jewish philosopher Philo gives the number of Jewish inhabitants in Egypt as one million, one-eighth of the population. Alexandria was by far the most important of the Egyptian Jewish communities, the Jews in the Egyptian diaspora were on a par with their Ptolemaic counterparts and close ties existed for them with Jerusalem
35.
Passover
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Passover or Pesach, is an important, biblically derived Jewish holiday. The Jewish people celebrate Passover as a commemoration of their liberation by God from slavery in Egypt and it commemorates the story of the Exodus as described in the Hebrew Bible especially in the Book of Exodus, in which the Israelites were freed from slavery in Egypt. According to standard biblical chronology, this event would have place at about 1300 BCE. Passover commences on the 15th of the Hebrew month of Nisan and lasts for seven days or eight days for Orthodox, Hasidic. The rituals unique to the Passover celebrations commence with the Passover Seder when the 15th of Nisan has begun, in the Northern Hemisphere Passover takes place in spring as the Torah prescribes it, in the month of spring. It is one of the most widely observed Jewish holidays, when the Pharaoh freed the Israelites, it is said that they left in such a hurry that they could not wait for bread dough to rise. In commemoration, for the duration of Passover no leavened bread is eaten, thus matzo is eaten during Passover and it is a tradition of the holiday. Samaritans still make this pilgrimage to Mount Gerizim, but only men participate in public worship, the Passover begins on the 15th day of the month of Nisan, which typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar. Passover is a festival, so the 15th day of Nisan typically begins on the night of a full moon after the northern vernal equinox. However, due to months or leap months falling after the vernal equinox, Passover sometimes starts on the second full moon after vernal equinox. If the barley was not ripe, or various other phenomena indicated that spring was not yet imminent, however, since at least the 4th century, the date has been fixed mathematically. Diaspora Jews historically observed the festival for eight days, and most still do, reform and Reconstructionist Jews and Israeli Jews, wherever they are, usually observe the holiday over seven days. The reason for this day is due to enactment of the ancient Jewish sages. It is thought by scholars that Jews outside of Israel could not be certain if their local calendars fully conformed to practice of the Temple at Jerusalem. Karaites and Samaritans use different versions of the Jewish calendar, which are out of sync with the modern Jewish calendar by one or two days. In 2009, for example, Nisan 15 on the Jewish calendar used by Rabbinic Judaism corresponds to April 9, on the calendars used by Karaites and Samaritans, Abib or Aviv 15 corresponds to April 11 in 2009. The Karaite and Samaritan Passovers are each one day long, followed by the six-day Festival of Unleavened Bread – for a total of seven days, scholarly consensus dates the origin of the festival to a period earlier than the Exodus. Hyssop was employed to daub the blood of a sheep on the lintels
36.
Yom Kippur
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Yom Kippur, also known as the Day of Atonement, is the holiest day of the year in Judaism. Its central themes are atonement and repentance, Jewish people traditionally observe this holy day with an approximate 25-hour period of fasting and intensive prayer, often spending most of the day in synagogue services. Yom means day in Hebrew and Kippur comes from a root that means to atone, Yom Kippur is usually expressed in English as Day of Atonement. Yom Kippur is the day of seventh month and is regarded as the Sabbath of Sabbaths. Rosh Hashanah is the first day of that month according to the Hebrew calendar, on this day forgiveness of sins is also asked of God. Yom Kippur completes the period known in Judaism as the High Holy Days or Yamim Noraim that commences with Rosh Hashanah. According to Jewish tradition, God inscribes each persons fate for the year into a book, the Book of Life, on Rosh Hashanah. During the Days of Awe, a Jew tries to amend his or her behavior and seek forgiveness for wrongs done against God, the evening and day of Yom Kippur are set aside for public and private petitions and confessions of guilt. At the end of Yom Kippur, one hopes that they have been forgiven by God, the Yom Kippur prayer service includes several unique aspects. One is the number of prayer services. Unlike a regular day, which has three services, or a Shabbat or Yom Tov, which have four prayer services. The prayer services also include private and public confessions of sins, as one of the most culturally significant Jewish holidays, Yom Kippur is observed by many secular Jews who may not observe other holidays. Many secular Jews attend synagogue on Yom Kippur—for many secular Jews the High Holy Days are the times of the year during which they attend synagogue—causing synagogue attendance to soar. Erev Yom Kippur is the day preceding Yom Kippur, corresponding to the day of the Hebrew month of Tishrei. This day is commemorated with additional morning prayers, asking others for forgiveness, giving charity, performing the ritual, an extended afternoon prayer service. Leviticus 16,29 mandates establishment of this day on the 10th day of the 7th month as the day of atonement for sins. It calls it the Sabbath of Sabbaths and a day upon which one must afflict ones soul, Leviticus 23,27 decrees that Yom Kippur is a strict day of rest. Five additional prohibitions are traditionally observed, as detailed in the Jewish oral tradition, the number five is a set number, relating to, In the Yom Kippur section of the Torah, the word soul appears five times
37.
Haskalah
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The Haskalah, often termed Jewish Enlightenment was an intellectual movement among the Jews of Central and Eastern Europe, with certain influence on those in the West and Muslim lands. It arose as a defined ideological worldview during the 1770s, and its last stage ended around 1881, the Haskalah pursued two complementary aims. The Haskalah promoted rationalism, liberalism, freedom of thought and enquiry, the movement encompassed a wide spectrum ranging from moderates, who hoped for maximal compromise and conservatism, to radicals who sought sweeping changes. In its various changes, the Haskalah fulfilled an important, though limited, part in the modernization of Central and its activists, the maskilim, exhorted and implemented communal, educational and cultural reforms in both the public and the private spheres. The Haskalah was a multifaceted phenomenon, with many loci which rose and dwindled at different times. While Maskilic centres sometimes had loose institutions around which their members operated, in spite of this diversity, the Maskilim shared a sense of common identity and self-consciousness. These were anchored in the existence of a literary canon. Its members, like Moses Mendelssohn, Hartwig Wessely, Isaac Satanow and Isaac Euchel, authored tracts in various genres that were further disseminated, each generation, in turn, elaborated and added its own works to the growing body. The emergence of the Maskilic canon reflected the central and defining enterprise. The Maskilim researched and standardized grammar, minted countless neologisms and composed poetry, magazines, theatrical works, historians described the movement largely as a Republic of Letters, an intellectual community based on printing houses and reading societies. The Maskilims attitude toward Hebrew, as noted by Moses Pelli, was derived from Enlightenment perceptions of language as reflecting both individual and collective character, to them, a corrupt tongue mirrored the inadequate condition of the Jews which they sought to ameliorate. They turned to Hebrew as their creative medium. The Maskilim inherited the Medieval Grammarians – such as Jonah ibn Janah and Judah ben David Hayyuj – distaste of Mishnaic Hebrew and preference of the Biblical one as pristine, some activists, though, were not averse to using Mishnaic and Rabbinic forms. They also preferred the Sephardi pronunciation, considered more prestigious, to the Ashkenazi one, the movements literary canon is defined by a grandiloquent, archaic register copying the Biblical one and often combining lengthy allusions or direct quotes from verses in the prose. During a century of activity, the Maskilim produced a massive contribution, in 1755, Moses Mendelssohn began publishing Qohelet Musar, regarded as the beginning of modern writing in Hebrew and the very first journal in the language. Between 1789 and his death, Hartwig Wessely compiled Shirei Tiferet, Joseph ha-Efrati Troplowitz was the Haskalahs pioneering playwright, best known for his 1794 epic drama Melukhat Shaul which was printed in twelve editions by 1888. Solomon Löwisohn was the first to translate Shakespeare into Hebrew, monologue in Henry IV, Part 2 was included in his 1816 lyrical compilation Melitzat Yeshurun. Joseph Perl pioneered satirist writings in his biting, mocking critique of Hasidism, adam HaCohen was primarily a leading metricist, with his 1842 Shirei Sfat ha-Qodesh considered a milestone in Hebrew poetry, and also authored biblical exegesis and educational handbooks
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Non-Zionism
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Non-Zionism is the political stance of Jews who were willing to help support depoliticized Jewish settlement in Palestine but will not come on aliyah. The non-Zionists were willing to offer the fledgling Jewish homeland fiscal and diplomatic counsel, not for their own benefit or spiritual comfort, there is a marked difference between non-Zionism and anti-Zionism. A non-Zionist may challenge the theoretical underpinning of the concept of an ingathering of the exiles in an independent Jewish State and they are not content with a critical assessment of the situation confined to an historical framework. Not merely do they have an opinion about the establishment of Israel in the past, but they contest the legitimacy of Israel as a State in the present time. Non-Zionism has also defined in terms of a non-position on Zionism. Generally, those groups of Ashkenazi Haredi Jews who participate in the Israeli government, the most prominent non-Zionist Haredi group is Agudath Israel. Unlike the older definition, many live in the State of Israel and they tend to be extremely pro-Israel politically, as can be seen in such publications as Mishpacha and Hamodia. Sephardi Haredi Jews may refer to themselves as Zionist, Gideon Shimoni, From Anti-Zionism to Non-Zionism in Anglo Jewry, 1917-1937, Jewish Journal of Sociology,28, pp. 19-48 Gideon Shimoni, The Non-Zionists in Anglo Jewry, 1937-1948. Bennett Muraskin, Anti-Zionism and Non-Zionism in Jewish Life—Past and Present
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Conservative Judaism
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Conservative Judaism is a major Jewish denomination, which views Jewish Law, or Halakha, as both binding and subject to historical development. The movement considers its approach as the authentic and most appropriate continuation of halakhic discourse, worldwide, affiliated communities are united within the umbrella organization Masorti Olami. Conservative Judaism is estimated to represent close to 1,100,000 people, Conservative Judaism, from its earliest stages, was marked by ambivalence and ambiguity in all matters theological. Rabbi Zecharias Frankel, considered its progenitor, believed the very notion of theology was alien to traditional Judaism. He was often accused of obscurity on the subject by his opponents, the American movement largely espoused a similar approach, and its leaders mostly avoided the field. Only in 1985 did a course about Conservative theology open in the JTS, the hitherto sole major attempt to define a clear credo was made in 1988, with the Statement of Principles Emet ve-Emunah, formulated and issued by the Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism. The introduction stated that lack of definition was useful in the past, Conservative Judaism largely upholds the theistic notion of a personal God. Emet ve-Emunah stated that we affirm our faith in God as the Creator and Governor of the universe and his power called the world into being, His wisdom and goodness guide its destiny. Concurrently, the platform also noted that His nature was elusive, a naturalistic conception of divinity, regarding it as inseparable from the mundane world, once had an important place within the denomination, especially represented by Mordecai Kaplan. After Kaplans Reconstructionism fully coalesced into an independent movement, these views were marginalized, a similarly inconclusive position is expressed toward other precepts. Most theologians adhere to the Immortality of the Soul, but while references to the Resurrection of the Dead are maintained, in Emet, it was stated that death is not tantamount to the end of ones personality. The 1988 platform announced that some believe in classic eschathology, the notions of Election of Israel and Gods covenant with it were basically retained as well. Conservative conception of Revelation encompasses an extensive spectrum, Zecharias Frankel himself applied critical-scientific methods to analyze the stages in the development of the Oral Torah, pioneering modern study of the Mishnah. Yet he also vehemently rejected utilizing these disciplines on the Pentateuch, maintaining it was beyond human reach, Frankel never elucidated his beliefs, and the exact correlation between human and divine in his thought is still subject to scholarly debate. Along with other Reconstructionist tenets, it dwindled as the latter consolidated into a separate group, Kaplans views and the permeation of Higher Criticism gradually swayed most Conservative thinkers towards a non-verbal understanding of theophany, which has become dominant in the 1970s. This was en sync with the trend of lowering rates of Americans who accepted the Bible as the Word of God. Dorff categorized the proponents of this into two schools, one maintains that God projected some form of message which inspired the human authors of the Pentateuch to record what they perceived. The other is often influenced by Franz Rosenzweig and other existentialists
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Hasidic Judaism
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Hasidism, sometimes Hasidic Judaism, is a Jewish religious sect. It arose as a revival movement in contemporary Western Ukraine during the 18th century. Today most affiliates reside in the United States, Israel, Israel Ben Eliezer, the Baal Shem Tov, is regarded as its founding father, and his disciples developed and disseminated it. Current Hasidism is a sub-group within Ultra-Orthodox Judaism and is noted for its religious conservatism, Hasidic thought draws heavily on Lurianic Kabbalah and to an extent is a popularization of it. Hasidim, the adherents of Hasidism, are organized in independent sects known as courts or dynasties, each headed by its own hereditary leader, a Rebbe. Reverence and submission to the Rebbe are key tenets, as he is considered an authority with whom the follower must bond to gain closeness to God. The various courts share basic convictions but operate apart and possess unique traits, there are several courts with many thousands of member households each, and dozens of smaller ones. The terms hasid and hasidut, meaning pietist and piety, have a history in Judaism. The Talmud and other old sources refer to the Pietists of Old who would contemplate an entire hour in preparation for prayer, the phrase denoted extremely devoted individuals who did not only observe the Law to its letter but performed good deeds even beyond it. Adam himself is honored with the title in tractate Eruvin 18b by Rabbi Meir, Adam was a great hasid, the title continued to be applied as an honorific for the exceptionally devout. In the 16th century, when Kabbalah spread, the title became associated with it. Jacob ben Hayyim Zemah wrote in his glossa on Isaac Lurias version of the Shulchan Aruch that one who wishes to tap the hidden wisdom, the movement founded by Israel Ben Eliezer in the 18th century adopted the term hasidim in the original connotation. But when the sect grew and developed specific attributes, from the 1770s and its common adherents, belonging to groups each headed by a spiritual leader, were henceforth known as Hasidim. Yet eventually, the sect gained such a mass following that the old connotation was sidelined. In popular discourse at least, Hasid came to someone who follows a religious teacher from the movement. It also entered Modern Hebrew as such, meaning adherent or disciple, one was not merely a hasid anymore, observed historian David Assaf, but a Hasid of someone or some dynasty in particular. Originally denoting an observant, moral person, in Hasidic literature Tzaddiq became synonymous with the often hereditary master heading a sect of followers, as noted by Joseph Dan, every attempt to present such a body of ideas has failed. The difficulty of separating the movements philosophy from that of its inspiration, Lurianic Kabbalah
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Satmar (Hasidic dynasty)
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Satmar is a Hasidic sect originating from the city of Satu Mare, in present-day Romania and then in Hungary, where it was founded in 1905 by Rabbi Joel Teitelbaum. Following World War II it was re-established in New York, becoming one of the largest Hasidic movements in the world, after Joels death, he was succeeded by his nephew, Moshe Teitelbaum. Since the latters death in 2006, the dynasty is split between his two sons, Aaron Teitelbaum and Zalman Teitelbaum. Satmar is one of the largest Hasidic dynasties in the world, The estimated number of affiliated men, women and it is characterized by extreme religious rigidity, rejection of modern culture, and fierce anti-Zionism. Satmar sponsors a comprehensive education and media system in Yiddish, upon the death of Chananya Yom Tov Lipa Teitelbaum, the Grand Rebbe of the Sighet Hasidic dynasty, in 1904, he was succeeded by his oldest son, Chaim Tzvi Teitelbaum. A small fraction of his hasidim regarded his second son, Joel Teitelbaum, on 8 September 1905, he settled in Szatmárnémeti, where he began to attract a small following in addition to his few old supporters. Hungarian journalist Dezső Schön, who researched the Teitelbaum rabbis in the 1930s, Joels power base grew with the years. In 1911, he received his first rabbinical post, being appointed chief rabbi of Irshava, in 1921, the northeastern regions of Hungary, which were densely populated with Orthodox Jews, were ceded to Czechoslovakia and Romania under the terms of the Treaty of Trianon. Many Sighet hasidim, unable to regularly visit Chaim Tzvis court, in 1925, Joel was appointed chief Orthodox rabbi of Carei. On 21 January 1926, Chaim Tzvi died unexpectedly, leaving his fourteen-year-old son, Chaim Tzvis followers accepted Joel as their leader, and he became the dynastys head in all but name. In 1928, Joel was elected as chief Orthodox rabbi of Satu Mare itself, the appointment resulted in bitter strife within the Jewish community, and he only accepted the post in 1934. Joel rose to become a prominent figure in Orthodox circles, leading a conservative line against modernization. Among other issues, he was an opponent of Zionism. On 19 March 1944, the German Army entered Hungary, the Jewish population, which was spared wholesale destruction prior to that time, was concentrated in the Satu Mare ghetto, and deportations to the concentration camps ensued. Joel sought to reassure the people who for the most part werent able to leave the country, saying that in the merit of their religiosity. However, when the Germans invaded, he was saved by his followers who paid a huge ransom to have him included in the passenger list of the Kastner train. Joel reached Switzerland on the night of 7–8 December 1944, many of Joels followers whom he left behind were killed by the Nazis. Joel chose to move to the United States following his last daughters death in Jerusalem, after a year, Joel settled in Williamsburg, Brooklyn with a small group of followers, and set out to re-establish his sect, which was destroyed in the Holocaust
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Joel Teitelbaum
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Joel Teitelbaum was the founder and first Grand Rebbe of the Satmar dynasty. A major figure in the renaissance of Hasidism, he espoused a strictly conservative and isolationist line. Teitelbaum was an opponent of Zionism, which he decried as inherently heretical. According to Satmar spokesman Rabbi Edgar Gluck, Teitelbaum was born on 13 January 1887 and he was the fifth and youngest child and second son of Grand Rabbi Chananyah Yom Tov Lipa Teitelbaum and his second wife, Chana Ashkenazi. His father wed her in 1878, after receiving a permission from one hundred rabbis to enter marriage, his first wife. Chananyah served as the rabbi of Sighet, the dean of the local Rabbinical seminary, and he was the great-grandson of Moses Teitelbaum, a disciple of the Seer of Lublin who was one of the main promulgators of Hasidism in Hungary. The rabbis of the Teitelbaum family were known for their highly conservative stance and their opposition to the Enlightenment, Teitelbaum was renowned for his intellectual capacities from a young age. At his Bar mitzvah, he delivered a sermon of several hours concerning an issue from the Shabbat tractate and he was stringent in matters regarding ritual purity, and would lengthily prepare for prayer by meticulously cleaning himself. Even before his wedding, he received letters of ordination from eight prominent rabbis, in 1904, just several days before his fathers death on 15 February, the 17-year-old married Chavah Horowitz, the daughter of Rabbi Abraham Chaim Horowitz of Polaniec. They had three daughters, none of whom survived their father or had any children, the first, Esther, died in her youth on 14 September 1921, Rachel died on 19 March 1931, the last, Chaya Roisa, died on 23 October 1953. Teitelbaums older brother Chaim Tzvi Teitelbaum succeeded their father in all three of his posts, a small faction of hasidim regarded Teitelbaum as the appropriate heir, and he was also supported by his mother. He then moved to his new residence in Radomyśl Wielki. On 8 September 1905 he settled in Szatmárnémeti, or Satmar in Yiddish, in spite of his young age, his supporters opened a study hall for him. He gradually began to attract a local following. Journalist Dezső David Schön, who researched the Teitelbaum dynasty, wrote that Teitelbaum started to refer to himself as Rebbe of Satmar at that point, subsequently, he had tense relations with the first to claim the title, Yisaschar Dov Leifer, son of Mordechai of Nadvorna. However, the latter died on 12 September 1906, in 1911, Teitelbaum was invited by the Jewish community in Ilosva, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to serve as their towns rabbi. During his stay there, he established a seminary and spread the ideas of Hasidism among the populace. Upon the outbreak of World War I he returned to Szatmárnémeti, in the meantime, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was dissolved following the war
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