1.
Charles Henry Niehaus
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Charles Henry Niehaus, was an American sculptor. Niehaus was born in Cincinnati, Ohio to German parents and he began working as a marble and wood carver, and then gained entrance to the McMicken School of Design in Cincinnati. He studied at the Royal Academy in Munich, Germany, the effect of the German study was that he retained much of the Neo-Classical flavor in his art while most other sculptors of his generation were drawn towards Beaux-Arts realism. He returned to America in 1881 and he moved to Rome, Italy, where he worked on the commissions, and made a study of ancient sculpture. He modeled three major male nudes during his years in Rome, including The Scraper and Caestus and he returned to New York City in 1885, and opened a studio. In 1887, he created a statue of Ohioan William Allen, monuments by Niehaus can be found in many American cities. Several of the works authored by him are equestrian statues, as was the case with other sculptors of his day he also fashioned a fair amount of architectural sculpture. In 1900 Niehaus married noted horticulturalist Regina Armstrong and moved to New Rochelle, New York, James A. Garfield, Piatt Park, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1882-87. The Scraper, Brookgreen Gardens, Murrells Inlet, South Carolina,1883, Caestus, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, 1883-85. Bas-relief panel of Surrender of the Hessians, Trenton Battle Monument, Trenton, New Jersey, William Rudolf ODonovan sculpted the colossal George Washington statue atop the monument, and statues of two Continental soldiers flanking the entrance. Thomas Eakins modeled two other bas-relief panels, moses, Main Reading Room, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.1894. Edward Gibbon, Main Reading Room, Library of Congress, Washington, samuel Hahnemann Monument, Scott Circle, Washington, D. C. Hackley Park, Muskegon, Michigan, Bust of Charles Hackley,1890, replicas of Niehauss Abraham Lincoln are at the Buffalo History Museum in Buffalo, New York, and at Library Park in Kenosha, Wisconsin. Bust of Robert Blum, Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio, the Driller, Edwin Drake Memorial, Woodlawn Cemetery, Titusville, Pennsylvania,1901. Equestrian Statue of General Forrest, Nathan Bedford Forrest Grave, Forrest Park, Memphis, Tennessee, apotheosis of St. Louis, Forest Park, St. Louis, Missouri,1906. William McKinley, McKinley Memorial Mausoleum, Canton, Ohio,1907, Niehaus also modeled the lunette bas-relief over the entrance. Benjamin Harrison, Indiana World War Memorial Plaza, Indianapolis, Indiana,1908, James W. Beardsley, Beardsley Park, Bridgeport, Connecticut,1909. John Paul Jones, John Paul Jones Memorial, West Potomac Park, Washington, Niehauss plaster original is at the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland
2.
Bronze
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These additions produce a range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as stiffness, ductility, or machinability. The archeological period where bronze was the hardest metal in use is known as the Bronze Age. In the ancient Near East this began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC, with India and China starting to use bronze around the same time, everywhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age starting from about 1300 BC and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BC, the discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the major ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC. Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the process could be more easily controlled. Also, unlike arsenic, metallic tin and fumes from tin refining are not toxic, the earliest tin-alloy bronze dates to 4500 BCE in a Vinča culture site in Pločnik. Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium BC in Africa, Susa and some ancient sites in China, Luristan, ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together, so serious bronze work has always involved trade. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall. In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artefacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value, in Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes, are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes, which are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other sources and these were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings. Pure iron is soft, and the process of beating and folding sponge iron to wrought iron removes from the metal carbon. Careful control of the alloying and tempering eventually allowed for wrought iron with properties comparable to modern steel, Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day. Among other advantages, it does not rust, the weaker wrought iron was found to be sufficiently strong for many uses. Archaeologists suspect that a disruption of the tin trade precipitated the transition. The population migrations around 1200–1100 BC reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean, limiting supplies, there are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin
3.
St. Louis
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St. Louis is an independent city and major U. S. port in the state of Missouri, built along the western bank of the Mississippi River, on the border with Illinois. Prior to European settlement, the area was a regional center of Native American Mississippian culture. The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and Auguste Chouteau, in 1764, following Frances defeat in the Seven Years War, the area was ceded to Spain and retroceded back to France in 1800. In 1803, the United States acquired the territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase, during the 19th century, St. Louis developed as a major port on the Mississippi River. In the 1870 Census, St. Louis was ranked as the 4th-largest city in the United States and it separated from St. Louis County in 1877, becoming an independent city and limiting its own political boundaries. In 1904, it hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the Summer Olympics, the economy of metro St. Louis relies on service, manufacturing, trade, transportation of goods, and tourism. This city has become known for its growing medical, pharmaceutical. St. Louis has 2 professional sports teams, the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, the city is commonly identified with the 630-foot tall Gateway Arch in Downtown St. Louis. The area that would become St. Louis was a center of the Native American Mississippian culture and their major regional center was at Cahokia Mounds, active from 900 AD to 1500 AD. Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the Mound City and these mounds were mostly demolished during the citys development. Historic Native American tribes in the area included the Siouan-speaking Osage people, whose territory extended west, European exploration of the area was first recorded in 1673, when French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled through the Mississippi River valley. Five years later, La Salle claimed the region for France as part of La Louisiane. The earliest European settlements in the area were built in Illinois Country on the east side of the Mississippi River during the 1690s and early 1700s at Cahokia, Kaskaskia, migrants from the French villages on the opposite side of the Mississippi River founded Ste. In early 1764, after France lost the 7 Years War, Pierre Laclède, the early French families built the citys economy on the fur trade with the Osage, as well as with more distant tribes along the Missouri River. The Chouteau brothers gained a monopoly from Spain on the fur trade with Santa Fe, French colonists used African slaves as domestic servants and workers in the city. In 1780 during the American Revolutionary War, St. Louis was attacked by British forces, mostly Native American allies, the founding of St. Louis began in 1763. Pierre Laclede led an expedition to set up a fur-trading post farther up the Mississippi River, before then, Laclede had been a very successful merchant. For this reason, he and his trading partner Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent were offered monopolies for six years of the fur trading in that area
4.
Louis IX of France
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Louis IX, commonly known as Saint Louis, was King of France from 1226 until his death. Louis was crowned in Reims at the age of 12, following the death of his father Louis VIII the Lion, although his mother, Blanche of Castile, ruled the kingdom until he reached maturity. During Louiss childhood, Blanche dealt with the opposition of rebellious vassals, as an adult, Louis IX faced recurring conflicts with some of the most powerful nobles, such as Hugh X of Lusignan and Peter of Dreux. Simultaneously, Henry III of England tried to restore his continental possessions and his reign saw the annexation of several provinces, notably Normandy, Maine and Provence. Louis IX was a reformer and developed French royal justice, in which the king is the judge to whom anyone is able to appeal to seek the amendment of a judgment. He banned trials by ordeal, tried to prevent the private wars that were plaguing the country, to enforce the correct application of this new legal system, Louis IX created provosts and bailiffs. According to his vow made after an illness, and confirmed after a miraculous cure. He was succeeded by his son Philip III, Louiss actions were inspired by Christian values and Catholic devotion. He decided to punish blasphemy, gambling, interest-bearing loans and prostitution and he also expanded the scope of the Inquisition and ordered the burning of Talmuds. He is the only canonized king of France, and there are many places named after him. Much of what is known of Louiss life comes from Jean de Joinvilles famous Life of Saint Louis, two other important biographies were written by the kings confessor, Geoffrey of Beaulieu, and his chaplain, William of Chartres. The fourth important source of information is William of Saint-Parthus biography, while several individuals wrote biographies in the decades following the kings death, only Jean of Joinville, Geoffrey of Beaulieu, and William of Chartres wrote from personal knowledge of the king. Louis was born on 25 April 1214 at Poissy, near Paris, the son of Prince Louis the Lion and Princess Blanche, and baptised in La Collégiale Notre-Dame church. His grandfather on his fathers side was Philip II, king of France, while his grandfather on his mothers side was Alfonso VIII, tutors of Blanches choosing taught him most of what a king must know—Latin, public speaking, writing, military arts, and government. He was 9 years old when his grandfather Philip II died, a member of the House of Capet, Louis was twelve years old when his father died on 8 November 1226. He was crowned king within the month at Reims cathedral, because of Louiss youth, his mother ruled France as regent during his minority. Louis mother trained him to be a leader and a good Christian. She used to say, I love you, my son, as much as a mother can love her child
5.
Forest Park (St. Louis)
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Forest Park is a public park located in the western portion of the city of St. Louis, Missouri, United States. It is a prominent civic center and covers 1,371 acres, opened in 1876, more than a decade after its proposal, the park has hosted several significant events, including the Louisiana Purchase Exposition of 1904 and the 1904 Summer Olympics. Since the early-2000s, it has carried out a $100 million restoration of its facilities through a public-private partnership aided by its Master Plan, changes have extended to improving landscaping and habitat as well. The parks acreage includes meadows and trees and a variety of ponds, manmade lakes, for several years, the park has been restoring prairie and wetlands areas of the park. It has reduced flooding and attracted a greater variety of birds and wildlife. An 1864 plan for a park in the city limits was rejected by St. Louis voters. In 1872, St. Louis developer Hiram Leffingwell proposed a 1, the next year another developer, Andrew McKinley, prepared another proposal that met legal challenges. The tract selected that became Forest Park included a heavily forested 1, using McKinleys proposal as a guide, in 1874 the General Assembly passed the Forest Park Act, which established the park and created a county-wide property tax to fund it. In November 1874, the Missouri Supreme Court upheld the new law and referred all questions of land ownership and value to the circuit court. The largest parcels of land needed for the park belonged to Thomas Skinker, Charles P. Chouteau, Julia Maffitt, and William Forsyth, the city purchased the land for a price of $849,058, with another million dollars dedicated to maintenance and improvement. The state of the parkland in 1876 was rural, on the eastern and western edges of the park were unpaved roads. Flowing through the lowlands and turning southeast in the park was the River des Peres. The southwestern part of the park was heavily forested land, a railroad right-of-way cut through the northeast corner of the park. Maximillian G. Kern and Julius Pitzman, the Prussian-born St. Louis Surveyor, the park was dedicated June 24,1876 with a crowd of about 50,000 in attendance. Officials and a band occupied a music stand and podium, and dedicated a statue of Edward Bates, by the early 1890s, streetcar lines reached the park, carrying nearly 3 million visitors a year. After the closing of the city zoo during this period, its animals were moved to a facility in the park, in 1901, Forest Park was selected as the location of the 1904 Worlds Fair, known as the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. The fair opened April 30,1904 and closed December 1,1904, in addition to the fair, the park hosted the diving, swimming, and water polo events for the 1904 Summer Olympics. Fifteen sports offered Olympic competition events, but women could compete only in archery, the 1904 Games were the first time that African Americans were allowed to compete
6.
Gateway Arch
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The Gateway Arch is a 630-foot monument in St. Louis in the U. S. state of Missouri. Louis, as well as a popular tourist destination, the Arch was designed by Finnish-American architect Eero Saarinen in 1947, construction began on February 12,1963, and was completed on October 28,1965, for $13 million. The monument opened to the public on June 10,1967 and it is located at the site of St. Louis founding on the west bank of the Mississippi River. He communicated his idea to mayor Bernard Dickmann, who on December 15,1933 and they sanctioned the proposal, and the nonprofit Jefferson National Expansion Memorial Association was formed. Smith was appointed chairman and Dickmann vice chairman, many locals did not approve of depleting public funds for the cause. SaLees, Smiths daughter, related that people would tell him we needed more practical things. The association expected that $30 million would be needed to undertake the construction of such a monument and it called upon the federal government to foot three-quarters of the bill. The suggestion to renew the riverfront was not original, as projects were attempted but lacked popularity. The Jefferson memorial idea emerged amid the economic disarray of the Great Depression, the project was expected to create 5,000 jobs for three to four years. Committee members began to raise awareness by organizing fundraisers and writing pamphlets. They also engaged Congress by planning budgets and preparing bills, in addition to researching ownership of the land they had chosen, from Third Street east to the present elevated railroad. In March of the year, joint resolutions proposed the establishment of a federal commission to develop the memorial. Although the proposal aimed for only authorization, the bill incurred opposition because people suspected that JNEMA would later seek appropriation. On March 28 the Senate bill was reported out, and on April 5 it was turned over to the House Library Committee, on June 8, both the Senate and House bills were passed. On June 15, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the bill into law, the commission comprised 15 members, chosen by Roosevelt, the House, the Senate, and JNEMA. It first convened on December 19 in St. Louis, where members examined the project, meanwhile, in December, the JNEMA discussed organizing an architectural competition to determine the design of the monument. Local architect Louis LeBeaume had drawn up competition guidelines by January 1935, on April 13,1935, the commission certified JNEMAs project proposals, including memorial perimeters, the historical significance of the memorial, the competition, and the $30 million budget. Between February and April, the Missouri State Legislature passed an act allowing the use of bonds to facilitate the project, on April 15, then Governor Guy B
