1.
Food energy
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Food energy is chemical energy that animals derive from food and molecular oxygen through the process of cellular respiration. Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of energy to sustain their metabolism. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, water, vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight. Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as organic acids, polyols. Some diet components that provide little or no energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down, fiber, a type of carbohydrate, cannot be completely digested by the human body. Ruminants can extract energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens. Using the International System of Units, researchers measure energy in joules or in its multiples, the kilojoule is most often used for food-related quantities. An older metric system unit of energy, still used in food-related contexts, is the calorie, more precisely. Within the European Union, both the kilocalorie and kilojoule appear on nutrition labels, in many countries, only one of the units is displayed, in the US and Canada labels spell out the unit as calorie or as Calorie. Fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of energy per gram,37 and 29 kJ/g. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 17 kJ/g, carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fiber, or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols and organic acids contribute 10 kJ/g and 13 kJ/g respectively, the amount of water, fat, and fiber in foods determines those foods energy density. Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using the Gibbs free energy of combustion, however, the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction, with the water substance produced being in the liquid phase. The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th century, based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids. The system was improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA. Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, in the European Union, manufacturers of packaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In Australia and New Zealand, the energy must be stated in kilojoules
2.
Gram
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The gram is a metric system unit of mass. Originally defined as the weight of a volume of pure water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of a metre. The only unit symbol for gram that is recognised by the International System of Units is g following the numeric value with a space, the SI does not support the use of abbreviations such as gr, gm or Gm. The word gramme was adopted by the French National Convention in its 1795 decree revising the system as replacing the gravet introduced in 1793. Its definition remained that of the weight of a centimetre of water. French gramme was taken from the Late Latin term gramma and this word, ultimately from Greek γράμμα letter had adopted a specialised meaning in Late Antiquity of one twenty-fourth part of an ounce, corresponding to about 1.14 grams. This use of the term is found in the carmen de ponderibus et mensuris composed around 400 AD, the gram was the fundamental unit of mass in the 19th-century centimetre–gram–second system of units. The gram is today the most widely used unit of measurement for non-liquid ingredients in cooking and grocery shopping worldwide. 1 gram =15.4323583529 grains 1 grain =0.06479891 grams 1 avoirdupois ounce =28.349523125 grams 1 troy ounce =31.1034768 grams 100 grams =3.527396195 ounces 1 gram =5 carats 1 gram =8. 1 gram is roughly equal to 1 small paper clip or pen cap, the Japanese 1 yen coin has a mass of one gram. Conversion of units Duella Gold gram Orders of magnitude Gram at Encyclopædia Britannica
3.
Tarte Tatin
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The tarte Tatin is an upside-down pastry in which the fruit are caramelized in butter and sugar before the tart is baked. It originated in France but has spread to other countries over the years, research shows that the tarte Tatin was created accidentally at the Hotel Tatin in Lamotte-Beuvron, France, about 100 miles south of Paris, in the 1880s. The hotel was run by two sisters, Stéphanie and Caroline Tatin, there are conflicting stories concerning the tarts origin, but the most common is that Stéphanie Tatin, who did most of the cooking, was overworked one day. She started to make an apple pie but left the apples cooking in butter. Smelling the burning, she tried to rescue the dish by putting the base on top of the pan of apples. After turning out the upside down tart, she was surprised to find how much the hotel guests appreciated the dessert, in an alternative version of the tarts origin, Stéphanie baked a caramelized apple tart upside-down by mistake, regardless she served her guests the unusual dish. However, whatever the veracity of this story, the concept of the upside down tarts was not a new one, for instance, patissier M. A. Carême already mentions glazed gâteaux renversés adorned with apples from Rouen or other fruit in his Pâtissier Royal Parisien. The tarte became a dish of the Hôtel Tatin. That recognition was bestowed upon them by Curnonsky, famous French author and epicure, one of the legends has it that Louis Vaudable, the owner of Maxims, once tasted it and was smitten. In reality, Mr. Vaudable was born in 1902, the sisters retired in 1906 and died in 1911 and 1917, originally, the tarte Tatin was made with two regional apple varieties, Reine des Reinettes, and Calville. Over the years, other varieties have tended to them, including Golden Delicious, Granny Smith, Fuji. When choosing apples for a tarte Tatin, it is important to some that will hold their shape while cooking. In North America, Golden Delicious, Granny Smith, or Jonathan are excellent choices, Tarte Tatin can also be made with pears, peaches, pineapple, tomatoes, other fruit, or vegetables, such as onion. In terms of dough the tarte Tatin should be made with puff pastry, variations of this recipe can also be made as turnovers, where the pastry is not only cooked upside-down, but also inverted. Gourmet magazine′s recipe for tarte tatin A Guide on How to Make Tarte Tatin
4.
Pie
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A pie is a baked dish which is usually made of a pastry dough casing that covers or completely contains a filling of various sweet or savoury ingredients. Pies are defined by their crusts, a filled pie, has pastry lining the baking dish, and the filling is placed on top of the pastry but left open. A top-crust pie has the filling in the bottom of the dish and is covered with a pastry or other covering before baking, a two-crust pie has the filling completely enclosed in the pastry shell. Shortcrust pastry is a kind of pastry used for pie crusts, but many things can be used, including baking powder biscuits, mashed potatoes. Pies can be a variety of sizes, ranging from bite-size to ones designed for multiple servings. The need for nutritious, easy-to-store, easy-to-carry, and long-lasting foods on long journeys, however, this took up additional space on what were either horse-powered treks or small ships, reducing the time of travel before additional food was required. This resulted in early armies adopting the style of hunter-foraging, the introduction of the baking of processed cereals including the creation of flour, provided a more reliable source of food. Egyptian sailors carried a flat brittle loaf of millet bread called dhourra cake. Early pies were in the form of flat, round or freeform crusty cakes called galettes consisting of a crust of ground oats, wheat, rye, sometime before 2000 BC, a recipe for chicken pie was written on a tablet in Sumer. Ancient Greeks are believed to have originated pie pastry, in the plays of Aristophanes, there are mentions of sweetmeats including small pastries filled with fruit. Nothing is known of the pastry used, but the Greeks certainly recognized the trade of pastry-cook as distinct from that of baker. The Romans made a plain pastry of flour, oil, and water to meats and fowls which were baked. A richer pastry, intended to be eaten, was used to make small pasties containing eggs or little birds which were among the items served at banquets. The 1st-century Roman cookbook Apicius makes various mentions of recipes which involve a pie case, by 160 BC, Roman statesman Marcus Porcius Cato, who wrote De Agri Cultura, notes the recipe for the most popular pie/cake called placenta. Also called libum by the Romans, it was more like a modern-day cheesecake on a pastry base, with the development of the Roman Empire and its efficient road transport, pie cooking spread throughout Europe. The Cornish pasty is an excellent adaptation of the pie to a working mans daily food needs, medieval cooks had restricted access to ovens due to their costs of construction and need for abundant supplies of fuel. Pies could be cooked over an open fire, while partnering with a baker allowed them to cook the filling inside their own locally defined casing. The earliest pie-like recipes refer to coffyns, with straight sealed sides, song birds at the time were a fine delicacy and protected by Royal Law
5.
Tart
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A tart is a baked dish consisting of a filling over a pastry base with an open top not covered with pastry. The pastry is usually shortcrust pastry, the filling may be sweet or savoury, though modern tarts are usually fruit-based, tartlet refers to a miniature tart, an example would be egg tarts. The categories of tart, flan, quiche, and pie overlap, Tarts are thought to have either come from a tradition of layering food, or to be a product of Medieval pie making. Enriched dough is thought to have been first commonly used in 1550, in this period, they were viewed as high-cuisine, popular with nobility, in contrast to the view of a commoners pie. An early tart was the Italian crostata, dating to at least the mid-15th century and it has been described as a rustic free-form version of an open fruit tart. There are many types of tarts, with varieties including Treacle tart, meringue tart, tarte tatin. Another popular tart flavour is jam tarts, which may be different colours depending on the flavour of the jam used to fill them, tarte Tatin is an upside-down tart, of apples, other fruit, or onions. Savoury tarts include quiche, a family of savoury tarts with a custard filling, German Zwiebelkuchen onion tart. Gourmet Gifts,100 Delicious Recipes for Every Occasion to Make Yourself & Wrap with Style, media related to Tarts at Wikimedia Commons
6.
Apple
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The apple tree is a deciduous tree in the rose family best known for its sweet, pomaceous fruit, the apple. It is cultivated worldwide as a tree, and is the most widely grown species in the genus Malus. The tree originated in Central Asia, where its wild ancestor, Apples have been grown for thousands of years in Asia and Europe, and were brought to North America by European colonists. Apples have religious and mythological significance in many cultures, including Norse, Greek, Apple trees are large if grown from seed. Generally apple cultivars are propagated by grafting onto rootstocks, which control the size of the resulting tree, There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples, resulting in a range of desired characteristics. Different cultivars are bred for various tastes and uses, including cooking, eating raw, trees and fruit are prone to a number of fungal, bacterial and pest problems, which can be controlled by a number of organic and non-organic means. In 2010, the genome was sequenced as part of research on disease control. Worldwide production of apples in 2014 was 84.6 million tonnes, the apple is a deciduous tree, generally standing 1.8 to 4.6 m tall in cultivation and up to 12 m in the wild. When cultivated, the size, shape and branch density are determined by rootstock selection, the leaves are alternately arranged dark green-colored simple ovals with serrated margins and slightly downy undersides. Blossoms are produced in spring simultaneously with the budding of the leaves, the 3 to 4 cm flowers are white with a pink tinge that gradually fades, five petaled, with an inflorescence consisting of a cyme with 4–6 flowers. The central flower of the inflorescence is called the king bloom, it opens first, the fruit matures in late summer or autumn, and cultivars exist with a wide range of sizes. Commercial growers aim to produce an apple that is 7.0 to 8.3 cm in diameter, due to market preference. Some consumers, especially those in Japan, prefer a larger apple, while apples below 5.7 cm are generally used for making juice and have little market value. The skin of ripe apples is generally red, yellow, green, pink, the skin may also be wholly or partly russeted i. e. rough and brown. The skin is covered in a layer of epicuticular wax. The exocarp is generally pale yellowish-white, though pink or yellow also occur. The original wild ancestor of Malus pumila was Malus sieversii, found growing wild in the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, in strains without recent admixture the contribution of the latter predominates. It had about 57,000 genes, the highest number of any plant genome studied to date and this new understanding of the apple genome will help scientists in identifying genes and gene variants that contribute to resistance to disease and drought, and other desirable characteristics
7.
Whipped cream
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Whipped cream is cream that is whipped by a whisk or mixer until it is light and fluffy. Whipped cream is often sweetened and sometimes flavored with vanilla, whipped cream is often called Chantilly cream or crème Chantilly. Whipped cream is an aerated colloid produced when air is incorporated into cream containing at least 35% fat, during whipping, partially coalesced fat molecules create a stabilized network which traps air bubbles. The resulting colloid is roughly double the volume of the original cream, if, however, the whipping is continued, the fat droplets will stick together destroying the colloid and forming butter. Lower-fat cream does not whip well, while higher-fat cream produces a stable foam. Cream is usually whipped with a whisk, an electric or hand mixer, results are best when the equipment and ingredients are cold. Whipped cream is flavored with sugar, vanilla, coffee, chocolate, orange. Many 19th-century recipes recommend adding gum tragacanth to stabilize whipped cream, various other substances, including gelatin and diphosphate, are used in commercial stabilizers. Whipped cream may also be made in a siphon, typically using nitrous oxide as the gas, as carbon dioxide tends to give a sour taste. The siphon may have replaceable cartridges or be sold as a retail package. The gas dissolves in the butterfat under pressure, and when the pressure is released, produces bubbles, whipped cream, often sweetened and aromatised, was popular in the 16th century, with recipes in the writings of Cristoforo di Messisbugo, Bartolomeo Scappi, and Lancelot de Casteau. A1545 English recipe, A Dyschefull of Snow, includes whipped egg whites as well, by the end of the 19th century, centrifuge-separated, high-fat cream made it much faster and easier to make whipped cream. The French name crème fouettée whipped cream is attested in 1629, the name snow cream continued to be used in the 17th century. Modern mousses, including mousse au chocolat, are a continuation of this tradition, cream whipped in a whipping siphon with nitrous oxide was invented in the 1930s by both Charles Getz, working with G. Frederick Smith, and Marshall Reinecke. Both filed patents, which were later litigated, the Getz patents were originally deemed invalid, but were upheld on appeal. Crème Chantilly is another name for whipped cream, the difference between whipped cream and crème Chantilly is not systematic. Some authors distinguish between the two, with crème Chantilly being sweetened, and whipped cream not, however, most authors treat the two as synonyms, with both being sweetened, neither being sweetened, or treating sweetening as optional. Many authors use one of the two names, so it is not clear if they distinguish the two
8.
Ice cream
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Ice cream is a sweetened frozen food typically eaten as a snack or dessert. It is usually made from dairy products, such as milk and cream and it is typically sweetened with sugar or sugar substitutes. Typically, flavourings and colourings are added in addition to stabilizers, the mixture is stirred to incorporate air spaces and cooled below the freezing point of water to prevent detectable ice crystals from forming. The result is a smooth, semi-solid foam that is solid at low temperatures. It becomes more malleable as its temperature increases, the meaning of the phrase ice cream varies from one country to another. Phrases such as frozen custard, frozen yogurt, sorbet, gelato, products that do not meet the criteria to be called ice cream are labelled frozen dairy dessert instead. In other countries, such as Italy and Argentina, one word is used for all variants, analogues made from dairy alternatives, such as goats or sheeps milk, or milk substitutes, are available for those who are lactose intolerant, allergic to dairy protein, or vegan. Ice cream may be served in dishes, for eating with a spoon, or in cones, Ice cream may be served with other desserts, such as apple pie. Ice cream is used to other desserts, including ice cream floats, sundaes, milkshakes, ice cream cakes and even baked items. During the 5th century BC, ancient Greeks ate snow mixed with honey, the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates, encouraged his Ancient Greek patients to eat ice as it livens the life-juices and increases the well-being. In 400 BC, the Persians invented a special chilled food, made of water and vermicelli. The ice was mixed with saffron, fruits, and various other flavours, a frozen mixture of milk and rice was used in China around 200 BC. The Roman Emperor Nero had ice brought from the mountains and combined it with fruit toppings to create chilled delicacies, in the sixteenth century, the Mughal emperors used relays of horsemen to bring ice from the Hindu Kush to Delhi, where it was used in fruit sorbets. When Italian duchess Catherine de Medici married the Duke of Orléans in 1533, there is no historical evidence to support these legends, which first appeared during the 19th century. The first recipe in French for flavoured ices appears in 1674, recipes for sorbetti saw publication in the 1694 edition of Antonio Latinis Lo Scalco alla Moderna. Recipes for flavoured ices begin to appear in François Massialots Nouvelle Instruction pour les Confitures, les Liqueurs, et les Fruits, Massialots recipes result in a coarse, pebbly texture. Latini claims that the results of his recipes should have the consistency of sugar. Ice cream recipes first appeared in England in the 18th century, the recipe for ice cream was published in Mrs. Mary Ealess Receipts in London in 1718
9.
Cheddar cheese
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Cheddar cheese is a relatively hard, off-white, sometimes sharp-tasting, natural cheese. Originating in the British village of Cheddar in Somerset, cheeses of this style are produced beyond this region, Cheddar is the most popular type of cheese in the UK, accounting for 51% of the countrys £1.9 billion annual cheese market. It is also the second-most-popular cheese in the US, with an annual consumption of 10 lb per capita. The US produced approximately 3,000,000,000 lb in 2014, the term Cheddar cheese is widely used, but has no Protected Designation of Origin within the European Union. The cheese originates from the village of Cheddar in Somerset, south west England, Cheddar Gorge on the edge of the village contains a number of caves, which provided the ideal humidity and steady temperature for maturing the cheese. Cheddar cheese traditionally had to be made within 30 mi of Wells Cathedral, Cheddar has been produced since at least the 12th century. A pipe roll of King Henry II from 1170 records the purchase of 10,240 lb at a farthing per pound, charles I also bought cheese from the village. Romans may have brought the recipe to Britain from the Cantal region of France, central to the modernisation and standardisation of Cheddar cheese was the 19th-century Somerset dairyman Joseph Harding. For his technical innovations, promotion of hygiene, and volunteer dissemination of modern cheese-making techniques. Harding introduced new equipment to the process of cheese-making, including his revolving breaker for curd cutting, saving much manual effort, the Joseph Harding method was the first modern system for Cheddar production based upon scientific principles. Harding stated that Cheddar cheese is not made in the field, nor in the byre, nor even in the cow and his wife and he were behind the introduction of the cheese into Scotland and North America. His sons, Henry and William Harding, were responsible for introducing Cheddar cheese production to Australia and facilitating the establishment of the industry in New Zealand. This almost resulted in wiping out all other production in the country. Before the First World War, more than 3,500 cheese producers were in Britain, according to a United States Department of Agriculture researcher, Cheddar cheese is the worlds most popular variety of cheese, and the most studied type of cheese in scientific publications. The curds and whey are separated using rennet, an enzyme complex normally produced from the stomachs of newborn calves. Cheddaring refers to a step in the production of Cheddar cheese where, after heating, the curd is kneaded with salt, cut into cubes to drain the whey. Strong, extra-mature Cheddar, sometimes called vintage, needs to be matured for up to 15 months, the cheese is kept at a constant temperature, often requiring special facilities. Additionally, some versions of Cheddar cheese are smoked, Cheddar made in the classical way tends to have a sharp, pungent flavour, often slightly earthy
10.
Braeburn
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The Braeburn is a cultivar of apple that is firm to the touch with a red/orange vertical streaky appearance on a yellow/green background. Its color intensity varies with different growing conditions and it was discovered as a chance seedling in 1952 by the farmer O. Moran from Waiwhero in the Moutere Hills near Motueka, New Zealand. It was then cultivated by the Williams Brothers nursery as a potential export variety and it is a seedling from the Lady Hamilton apple. The apple itself is named after Braeburn Orchard near Motueka, where it was first commercially grown, Braeburn apples have a combination of sweet and tart flavour. They are available October through April in the hemisphere and are medium to large in size. They are a fruit for growers because of their ability to store well when chilled. Braeburn apples are useful in cooking in that they hold their shape, according to the US Apple Association website it is one of the fifteen most popular apple cultivars in the United States. Apples can be preserved by short, medium or long-term storage, Braeburn can turn brown inside during commercial long term storage, and it’s usually not possible to tell if an apple has the Braeburn browning disorder until a person bites or cuts into it. Apples respond dramatically to both temperature and atmosphere modification, however, modern commercial warehouses couple temperature management with controlled atmosphere for long-term storage of apples. Braeburn can be stored at 0 °C in air for 3–4 months, the variety has a relatively impermeable skin, which restricts diffusion of gases into and out of the fruit, leading to high internal carbon dioxide concentrations. Maintaining the superior qualities of Braeburn while eliminating Braeburn browning disorder led to development of the Jazz cultivar, since Braeburn is such a desirable variety, commercial orchards and trees in regions and locations that have proven not susceptible to the browning disorder are being maintained. Since most home orchardists do not attempt very long term storage, they do not encounter the browning disorder
11.
Gala (apple)
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Gala is a clonally propagated apple cultivar with a mild and sweet flavor. Gala apples ranked at number 2 in 2006 on the US Apple Associations list of most popular apples, after Red Delicious and before Golden Delicious, Granny Smith, the skin color of the fruit is non-uniform. Gala apples are vertically striped or mottled, overall orange in colour, Gala apples are sweet, fine textured, and aromatic, and can be added to salads or cooked, and are especially suitable for creating sauces. The first Gala apple tree was one of many seedlings resulting from a cross between a Golden Delicious and a Kidds Orange Red planted in New Zealand in the 1930s by orchardist J. H. Kidd. Donald W. McKenzie, an employee of Stark Bros Nursery and it is a relatively new introduction to the UK, first planted in commercial volumes during the 1980s. The variety now represents about 20% of the volume of the commercial production of eating apples grown in the UK. Many sports of Gala have been selected, mostly for increased red color, the original cultivar produced fruit with orange stripes and a partial orange blush over a yellow background. Since then, several un-patented sports have been recognized, australian Gala are available from late January. California fruit is available until October, while the season usually lasts only 9 or 10 months, they are able to last all year round. These usually taste different from those in season, the UK season begins in late summer. Storage makes the UK fruit available nearly year-round as with fruit from other origins, Royal Gala is a cultigen made from a redder sport of the Gala apple in the 1970s. It is a dessert apple and is therefore usually eaten fresh. Royal Galas are usually harvested in early to late February in the southern hemisphere, in New Zealand the pinker original Gala has almost disappeared as a commercial apple in favour of the darker skinned Royal cultigen. The optimum temperature for storing apples is between −1° and 1 °C, and the relative humidity is 90 to 95%. Ethylene gas can speed ripening and spoilage and reduce firmness of apples, in the beginning of 2015, Royal Gala and Granny Smith apples from the United States were identified as the likely cause of a Listeriosis outbreak. Listeria is a bacterium that can cause nausea, vomiting, headaches, neck stiffness, New York Apple Association description JUSTICIA Patents – Apple tree named ‘McLaughlin Gala’
12.
Cortland (apple)
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Cortland is a cultivar of apple, that was raised at the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station in Geneva, New York, USA in 1898. The apple was named after nearby Cortland County, New York and it is among the fifteen most popular in the United States. After the many attributes of McIntosh were discovered, plant breeders began crossing it with other varieties to enhance its traits, one of the earliest was the Cortland. Its flavor is sweet compared to McIntosh, and it has a flush of crimson against a yellow background sprinkled with short, dark red stripes. Cortland has very white flesh and is an excellent dessert apple, the original Cortland variety, introduced in 1915 by the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, produced apples which were 20—30% red, and was not patented. Since then, several sports have been identified and patented, Birgit Bonnier
13.
Bramley apple
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Malus domestica Bramleys Seedling is a cultivar of apple which is usually eaten cooked due to its sourness. The Concise Household Encyclopedia states, Some people eat this apple raw in order to cleanse the palate, once cooked, however, it has a lighter flavour. A peculiarity of the variety is that when cooked it becomes golden, Bramleys Seedling apple trees are large, vigorous, spreading and long-lived. The apples are very large, two or three times the weight of a dessert apple. They are flat with a green skin which becomes red on the side which receives direct sunlight. The tree is resistant to scab and mildew and does best when grown as a standard in somewhat heavy clay soil. It is a heavy and regular bearer, and as a triploid and it needs a pollenizer but cannot pollenize in return, so it is normally grown with two other varieties of apple for pollination. It has won awards and currently holds the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit. Plants produced from the tree by tissue culture in 1990 have proved to be much more compact. The cloning work was done by scientists at the University of Nottingham, twelve of the cloned trees now grow in the University grounds, one was also planted beside the old tree at Southwell. The first Bramleys Seedling tree grew from pips planted by Mary Ann Brailsford when she was a girl in her garden in Southwell, Nottinghamshire. The tree in the garden was included in the purchase of the cottage by a local butcher. In 1856, a nurseryman, Henry Merryweather asked if he could take cuttings from the tree. Bramley agreed but insisted that the apples should bear his name, on 31 October 1862, the first recorded sale of a Bramley was noted in Merryweathers accounts. He sold three Bramley apples for 2/- to Mr Geo Cooper of Upton Hall, on 6 December 1876, the Bramley was highly commended at the Royal Horticultural Societys Fruit Committee exhibition. The variety is now the most important cooking apple in England and Wales, with 21.68 km², the Bramley is almost exclusively a British variety, however it is also grown by a few United States farms, and can be found in Canada, Australia and Japan. The town of Southwell hosts many celebrations of the Bramley Apple including the Bramley Apple Festival in October, the Bramley Apple Inn is located just a few doors away from the original apple tree, which is considered to be a town treasure. A blue plaque on the house in Southwell now commemorates the apple, Bramley apples from County Armagh enjoy Protected Geographical Indication status within the European Union
14.
Empire (apple)
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Empire is the name of a clonally-propagated cultivar of apple derived from a seed grown in 1945 by Lester C. Anderson, a Cornell University fruit nutritionist who conducted open pollination research on his various orchards, according to the US Apple Association website it is one of the fifteen most popular apple cultivars in the United States. Empire apples are red, juicy, firm, crunchy and sweet and they ripen during September and October, and will keep until January. The original seed was a cross between the varieties McIntosh and Red Delicious, Empire apples are excellent for eating and salads, and good for sauce, baking, pies and freezing. It is an ideal lunch-box apple, not least because it does not bruise easily, by the year 2001, three mutant cultivars of Empire had received US plant patents. None of them were mutants of mutants, Scab, high Powdery mildew, high Cedar apple rust, low Fire blight, medium NY Apple country National Fruit Collection page
15.
Northern Spy
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The Northern Spy apple, also called Spy and King, is a cultivar of domesticated apple that originated in East Bloomfield, New York in about 1800. It is popular in upstate New York, skin color is a green ground, flushed with red stripes where not shaded, and it produces fairly late in the season. The white flesh is juicy, crisp and mildly sweet with a rich, aromatic subacid flavor and its characteristic flavor is more tart than most popular varieties, and its flesh is harder/crunchier than most, with a thin skin. It is commonly used for desserts and pies, but is used for juices. Further, the Northern Spy is also an excellent apple for storage, in 2013 the United States Postal Service issued a set of four 33¢ stamps commemorating apples, including the Northern Spy as well as Baldwin, Golden Delicious, and Granny Smith. It was discovered around 1800 in East Bloomfield, New York, south of Rochester, New York, the Wagener apple is believed to be one of its forebears. It is not widely available at retail outside its growing regions, apple Use USDA Pomological Watercolor Collection
16.
Granny Smith
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The Granny Smith is a tip-bearing apple cultivar, which originated in Australia in 1868. It is named after Maria Ann Smith, who propagated the cultivar from a chance seedling, the tree is thought to be a hybrid of Malus sylvestris, the European Wild Apple, with the domestic apple M. domestica as the polleniser. The fruit has hard, light skin and a crisp. They go from being green to turning yellow when overripe. The acidity mellows significantly on ripening, and it takes on a balanced flavour, though also consumed raw, it is one of the most popular cooking apples. The Granny Smith cultivar originated in Eastwood, New South Wales and its discoverer, Maria Ann Smith, had emigrated to the district from Beckley, East Sussex in 1839 with her husband Thomas. They purchased an orchard in the area in 1855-1856 and began cultivating fruit. Smith had numerous children and was a prominent figure in the district, the first description of the origin of the Granny Smith apple was not published until 1924. In that year, Farmer and Settler published the account of a historian who had interviewed two men who had known Smith. One of those interviewed recalled that in 1868 he and his father had been invited to Smiths farm to inspect a chance seedling that had sprung near a creek, Smith had dumped there among the ferns the remains of French crab-apples that had been grown in Tasmania. Whatever the case, Smith took it herself to propagate the new cultivar on her property, finding the apples good for cooking. Having all the appearances of an apple, they were not tart but instead were sweet. She took a stall at Sydneys George Street market, where the apples stored exceptionally well and became popular, Smith died only a couple of years after her discovery, but her work had been noticed by other local planters. Edward Gallard was one such planter, who extensively planted Granny Smith trees on his property, Gallard was successful in marketing the apple locally, but it did not receive widespread attention until 1890. The apple was successful and the year many were exhibiting Granny Smith apples at horticultural shows. Over the following years the government actively promoted the apple, leading to its widespread adoption and its worldwide fame grew from the fact that it could be picked from March and stored until November. Enterprising fruit merchants in 1890s and 1900s experimented with methods to transport the apples overseas in cold storage, Granny Smiths were exported in enormous quantities after the First World War, and by 1975,40 percent of Australias apple crop was Granny Smith. By this time it was being grown intensely elsewhere in the Southern Hemisphere, as well as in France, the advent of the Granny Smith apple is now celebrated annually in Eastwood with the Granny Smith Festival
17.
McIntosh (apple)
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The McIntosh, McIntosh Red, or colloquially the Mac is an apple cultivar, the national apple of Canada. The fruit has red and green skin, a tart flavour, and tender white flesh, in the 20th century it was the most popular cultivar in Eastern Canada and New England, and is considered an all-purpose apple, suitable both for cooking and eating raw. Apple Inc. employee Jef Raskin named the Macintosh line of personal computers after the fruit, John McIntosh discovered the original McIntosh sapling on his Dundela farm in Upper Canada in 1811. He and his wife bred it, and the family started grafting the tree, in 1870, it entered commercial production, and became common in northeastern North America after 1900. While still important in production, the fruits popularity fell in the early 21st century in the face of competition from such as the Gala. According to the US Apple Association website it is one of the fifteen most popular cultivars in the United States. The McIntosh or McIntosh Red, is the most popular cultivar in eastern Canada. It also sells well in eastern Europe, a spreading tree that is moderately vigorous, the McIntosh bears annually or in alternate years. The tree is hardy to at least USDA Hardiness zone 4a, the McIntosh apple is a small- to medium-sized round fruit with a short stem. It has a red and green skin that is thick, tender and its white flesh is sometime tinged with green or pink and is juicy, tender, and firm, soon becoming soft. The fruit is considered all-purpose, suitable both for eating raw and for cooking and it is used primarily for dessert, and requires less time to cook than most cultivars. It is usually blended when used for juice, the fruit grows best in cool areas where nights are cold and autumn days are clear, otherwise, it suffers from poor colour and soft flesh, and tends to fall from the tree before harvest. It stores for two to three months in air, but is prone to scald, flesh softening, chilling sensitivity and it can become mealy when stored at temperatures below 2 °C. The McIntosh is most commonly cultivated in Canada, the United States, the parentage of the McIntosh is unknown, but the Snow Apple, Fall St Lawrence, and Alexander have been speculated. It is one of the top five apple cultivars used in cloning, if unsprayed, the McIntosh succumbs easily to apple scab, which may lead to entire crops being unmarketable. It has generally low susceptibility to blight, powdery mildew, cedar-apple rust, quince rust. It is susceptible to diseases such as Nectria canker, brown rot, black rot. It is moderately resistant to Pezicula bark rot and Alternaria leaf blotch, the McIntosh is one of the most common cultivars used in cloning, a 1996 study found that the McIntosh was a parent in 101 of 439 cultivars selected, more than any other founding clone
18.
Dried fruit
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Dried fruit is fruit from which the majority of the original water content has been removed either naturally, through sun drying, or through the use of specialized dryers or dehydrators. Dried fruit has a tradition of use dating back to the fourth millennium BC in Mesopotamia, and is prized because of its sweet taste, nutritive value. It is also part of a mixture of distilled spirits and spices, today, dried fruit consumption is widespread. Nearly half of the dried fruits sold are raisins, followed by dates, prunes, figs, apricots, peaches, apples and these are referred to as conventional or traditional dried fruits, fruits that have been dried in the sun or in heated wind tunnel dryers. Many fruits such as cranberries, blueberries, cherries, strawberries, some products sold as dried fruit, like papaya, kiwi fruit and pineapple are most often candied fruit. Dried fruits retain most of the value of fresh fruits. The specific nutrient content of the different dried fruits reflects their fresh counterpart, traditional dried fruit such as raisins, figs, dates, apricots and apples have been a staple of Mediterranean diets for millennia. Drying or dehydration also happened to be the earliest form of preservation, grapes, dates. Early hunter-gatherers observed that these fallen fruit took on an edible form, the latest recorded mention of dried fruits can be found in Mesopotamian tablets dating to about 1700 BC, which contain what are probably the oldest known written recipes. These early civilizations used dates, date juice evaporated into syrup and they included dried fruits in their breads for which they had more than 300 recipes, from simple barley bread for the workers to very elaborate, spiced cakes with honey for the palaces and temples. Because cuneiform was very complex and only scribes who had studied for years could read it, it is unlikely that the tablets were meant for everyday cooks or chefs, instead they were written to document the culinary art of the times. Many recipes are quite elaborate and have rare ingredients so we may assume that they represent Mediterranean haute cuisine, the date palm was one of the first cultivated trees. It was domesticated in Mesopotamia more than 5,000 years ago and it grew abundantly in the Fertile Crescent and it was so productive that dates were the cheapest of staple foods. Because they were so valuable they were recorded in Assyrian and Babylonian monuments. The villagers in Mesopotamia dried them and ate them as sweets, whether fresh, soft-dried or hard-dried, they helped to give character to meat dishes and grain pies. They were valued by travelers for their energy and were recommended as stimulants against fatigue, Figs were also prized in early Mesopotamia, Israel and Egypt where their daily use was probably greater than or equal to that of dates. As well as appearing in paintings, many specimens have been found in Egyptian tombs as funerary offerings. In Greece and Crete, figs grew very readily and they were the staple of poor and rich alike, grape cultivation first began in Armenia and the eastern regions of the Mediterranean in the 4th century BC
19.
Fruit
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In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
20.
Cheese
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Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, during production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form, Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature, hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk, whether they have been pasteurized, the content, the bacteria and mold, the processing. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents, the yellow to red color of many cheeses, such as Red Leicester, is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as pepper, garlic. For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice, most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available, most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei, cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs. Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, generally speaking, hard cheeses, such as parmesan last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goats milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, There is some debate as to the best way to store cheese, but some experts say that wrapping it in cheese paper provides optimal results. Cheese paper is coated in a plastic on the inside. A specialist seller of cheese is known as a cheesemonger. Becoming an expert in this field requires some formal education and years of tasting and hands-on experience, the cheesemonger is responsible for all aspects of the cheese inventory, selecting the cheese menu, purchasing, receiving, storage, and ripening. The word cheese comes from Latin caseus, from which the modern word casein is also derived, the earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root *kwat-, which means to ferment, become sour. The word cheese comes from chese and cīese or cēse, the Online Etymological Dictionary states that cheese comes from Old English cyse, cese. from West Germanic *kasjus, from Latin caseus cheese. The Online Etymological Dictionary states that the word is of. unknown origin, perhaps from a PIE root *kwat- to ferment, Old Norse ostr, Danish ost, Swedish ost are related to Latin ius broth, sauce, juice. When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries supplies and it is from this word that the French fromage, proper Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj, and Provençal furmo are derived
21.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
22.
Cookbook
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A cookbook is a kitchen reference publication that typically contains a collection of recipes. Modern versions may also include illustrations and advice on purchasing quality ingredients or making substitutions. Cookbooks can also cover a variety of topics, including cooking techniques for the home, recipes and commentary from famous chefs, institutional kitchen manuals. Ancient Mesopotamian recipes have been found on three Akkadian tablets, dating to about 1700 BC, the earliest collection of recipes that has survived in Europe is De re coquinaria, written in Latin. An early version was first compiled sometime in the 1st century and has often attributed to the Roman gourmet Marcus Gavius Apicius. An Apicius came to designate a book of recipes, the current text appears to have been compiled in the late 4th or early 5th century, the first print edition is from 1483. It records a mix of ancient Greek and Roman cuisine, but with few details on preparation, an abbreviated epitome entitled Apici Excerpta a Vinidario, a pocket Apicius by Vinidarius, an illustrious man, was made in the Carolingian era. In spite of its date it represents the last manifestation of the cuisine of Antiquity. The earliest cookbooks known in Arabic are those of al-Warraq and al-Baghdadi, chinese recipe books are known from the Tang dynasty, but most were lost. One of the earliest surviving Chinese-language cookbooks is Hu Sihuis Yinshan Zhengyao, Hu Sihui, Buyantu Khans dietitian and therapist, recorded a Chinese-inflected Central Asian cuisine as eaten by the Yuan court, his recipes were adapted from foods eaten all over the Mongol Empire. Eumsik dimibang, written around 1670, is the oldest Korean cookbook, after a long interval, the first recipe books to be compiled in Europe since Late Antiquity started to appear in the late thirteenth century. About a hundred are known to have survived, some fragmentary, low and High German manuscripts are among the most numerous. Among them is Daz buch von guter spise written c.1350 in Würzberg and Kuchenmeysterey, recipes originating in England include the earliest recorded recipe for ravioli and Forme of Cury, a late 14th-century manuscript written by chefs of Richard II of England. With the advent of the press in the 16th and 17th centuries, numerous books were written on how to manage households. In Holland and England competition grew between the families as to who could prepare the most lavish banquet. By the 1660s, cookery had progressed to an art form, many of them published their own books detailing their recipes in competition with their rivals. Many of these books have now been translated and are available online, by the 19th century, the Victorian preoccupation for domestic respectability brought about the emergence of cookery writing in its modern form. Although eclipsed in fame and regard by Isabella Beeton, the first modern writer and compiler of recipes for the home was Eliza Acton
23.
Dutch oven
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A Dutch oven is a thick-walled cooking pot with a tight-fitting lid. Dutch ovens are made of seasoned cast iron, however some Dutch ovens are instead made of cast aluminium. Some metal varieties are enameled rather than being seasoned, Dutch ovens have been used as cooking vessels for hundreds of years. They are called casserole dishes in English speaking countries other than the United States and they are similar to both the Japanese tetsunabe and the Sač, a traditional Balkan cast-iron oven, and are related to the South African Potjie and the Australian Bedourie oven. During the late 17th century, the Dutch system of producing these cast metal cooking vessels was more advanced than the English system, the Dutch used dry sand to make their molds, giving their pots a smoother surface. Consequently, metal cooking vessels produced in the Netherlands were imported into Britain, in 1704, an Englishman named Abraham Darby decided to go to the Netherlands to observe the Dutch system for making these cooking vessels. Four years later, back in England, Darby patented a casting procedure similar to the Dutch process and began to produce cast-metal cooking vessels for Britain, thus the term “Dutch oven” has endured for over 300 years, since at least 1710. American Dutch ovens changed over time during the colonial era and these changes included a shallower pot, legs to hold the oven above the coals, and a lid flange to keep the coals on the lid and out of the food. Paul Revere is credited with the design of the lid with a ridge for holding coals as well as the addition of legs to the pots. Colonists and settlers valued cast-iron cookware because of its versatility and durability, cooks used them to boil, bake, stew, fry, and roast. The ovens were so valuable that wills in the 18th and 19th centuries frequently spelled out the desired inheritor and this bequest included several Dutch ovens. Westward bound settlers took Dutch ovens with them, a Dutch oven was among the gear Lewis and Clark carried when they explored the great American Northwest in 1804–1806. Mormon pioneers who settled the American West also took along their Dutch ovens, in fact, a statue raised to honor the Mormon handcart companies who entered Utah’s Salt Lake Valley in the 1850s proudly displays a Dutch oven hanging from the front of the handcart. The Dutch oven is also the official state cooking pot of Texas, Utah, mountain men exploring the great American frontier used Dutch ovens into the late 19th century. Chuck wagons accompanying western cattle drives also carried Dutch ovens from the century into the early 20th century. In the Netherlands, a Dutch oven is called a braadpan, the design most used today is a black enameled steel pan, that is suitable for gas and induction heating. The model was introduced in 1891 by BK, a well known Dutch manufacturer of cookware, cheaper and lighter in weight than cast iron, it proved to be a revolution in the kitchen. A braadpan is mainly used for frying meat only, but it can also be used for making traditional stews such as hachée, cast iron models exist, but are used less frequently
24.
Sieve
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The word sift derives from sieve. In cooking, a sifter is used to separate and break up clumps in dry ingredients such as flour, as well as to aerate, a strainer is a form of sieve used to separate solids from liquid. Some industrial strainers available are simplex basket strainers, duplex basket strainers, simple basket strainers are used to protect valuable or sensitive equipment in systems that are meant to be shut down temporarily. Some commonly used strainers are bell mouth strainers, foot valve strainers, most processing industries will opt for a self-cleaning strainer instead of a basket strainer or a simplex strainer due to limitations of simple filtration systems. The self-cleaning strainers or filters are more efficient and provide an automatic filtration solution, sieving is a simple technique for separating particles of different sizes. A sieve such as used for sifting flour has very small holes, coarse particles are separated or broken up by grinding against one-another and screen openings. Depending upon the types of particles to be separated, sieves with different types of holes are used, sieves are also used to separate stones from sand. Triage sieving refers to grouping people according to their severity of injury, the mesh in a wooden sieve might be made from wood or wicker. Use of wood to avoid contamination is important when the sieve is used for sampling, henry Stephens, in his Book of the Farm, advised that the withes of a wooden riddle or sieve be made from fir or willow with American elm being best. The rims would be made of fir, oak or, especially, a sieve analysis is a practice or procedure used to assess the particle size distribution of a granular material. Sieve sizes used in combinations of four to eight sieves
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Spice
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A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring, coloring or preserving food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, sometimes, spices may be ground into a powder for convenience. Spices are sometimes used in medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics or perfume production, the spice trade developed throughout South Asia and Middle East by at least 2000 BCE with cinnamon and black pepper, and in East Asia with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for mummification and their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade. The word spice comes from the Old French word espice, which became epice, and which came from the Latin root spec, by 1000 BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in China, Korea, and India. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, archaeological excavations have uncovered clove burnt onto the floor of a kitchen, dated to 1700 BCE, at the Mesopotamian site of Terqa, in modern-day Syria. The ancient Indian epic Ramayana mentions cloves, the Romans had cloves in the 1st century CE, as Pliny the Elder wrote about them. In the story of Genesis, Joseph was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants, in the biblical poem Song of Solomon, the male speaker compares his beloved to many forms of spices. The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, the Ebers Papyrus from Early Egyptians that dates from 1550 B. C. E. Describes some eight hundred different medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures, historians believe that nutmeg, which originates from the Banda Islands in Southeast Asia, was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE. Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, Arab merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian port city of Alexandria being the trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade were the monsoon winds, sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans. Spices were among the most demanded and expensive available in Europe in the Middle Ages. Given medieval medicines main theory of humorism, spices and herbs were indispensable to balance humors in food, in addition to being desired by those using medieval medicine, the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages. An example of the European aristocracys demand for spice comes from the King of Aragon and he was specifically looking for spices to put in wine, and was not alone among European monarchs at the time to have such a desire for spice. Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive, from the 8th until the 15th century, the Republic of Venice had the monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, and along with it the neighboring Italian city-states. The trade made the region rich and it has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the Late Middle Ages
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Cardamom
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Cardamom, sometimes Cardamon or Cardamum, is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genera Elettaria and Amomum in the family Zingiberaceae. Both genera are native to India, Bhutan, Indonesia and Nepal, some other countries, such as Sri Lanka, have also begun to cultivate it. Cardamom is the worlds third-most expensive spice, surpassed in price per weight only by vanilla, the modern genus name Elettaria is derived from the local name. The root ēlam is attested in all Dravidian languages viz. Kannada elakki, Telugu yelakulu, Tamil elakkai, the second element kai means seed or fruit. The Malabar region had historical connections and was a prominent area of cardamom cultivation. A related root is present in Hindi ilaychi, Bengali ælachi. In Sindhi it is called Photta, in Sanskrit it was known as ela or ellka. In Marathi it is known as velchi or veldoda. In Sri Lanka, the plant is known as Enasal by Sinhala language, there are two main types of cardamom, True or green cardamom comes from the species Elettaria cardamomum and is distributed from India to Malaysia. What is often referred to as white cardamon is actually Siam cardamom, the two types of cardamom, κάρδαμομον and ἄμωμον, were distinguished in the fourth century BCE by the Greek father of botany, Theophrastus. Theophrastus and informants knew that these varieties were originally and solely from India, both forms of cardamom are used as flavorings and cooking spices in both food and drink, and as a medicine. E. cardamomum is used as a spice, a masticatory, Cardamom has a strong, unique taste, with an intensely aromatic, resinous fragrance. Black cardamom has a distinctly more smokey, though not bitter, aroma, green cardamom is one of the more expensive spices by weight, but little is needed to impart flavor. It is best stored in the pod as exposed or ground seeds quickly lose their flavor, grinding the pods and seeds together lowers both the quality and the price. For recipes requiring whole cardamom pods, a generally accepted equivalent is 10 pods equals 1 1⁄2 teaspoons of ground cardamom and it is a common ingredient in Indian cooking. In the Middle East, green cardamom powder is used as a spice for sweet dishes, as well as traditional flavouring in coffee, Cardamom is used to a wide extent in savoury dishes. In Asia both types of cardamom are used in both sweet and savory dishes, particularly in the south. Both are frequent components in spice mixes, such as Indian and Nepali masalas, green cardamom is often used in traditional Indian sweets and in masala chai
27.
Ginger
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Ginger is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or simply ginger, is widely used as a spice or a folk medicine. It is a perennial which grows annual stems about a meter tall bearing narrow green leaves. Ginger is in the family Zingiberaceae, to also belong turmeric, cardamom. Ginger originated in the tropical rainforest in Southern Asia, although ginger no longer grows wild, it is thought to have originated on the Indian subcontinent because the ginger plants grown in India show the largest amount of genetic variation. Ginger was exported to Europe via India in the first century AD as a result of the spice trade and was used extensively by the Romans. The distantly related dicots in the genus Asarum are commonly called wild ginger because of their similar taste. But this may be Sanskrit folk etymology, and the word may be from an ancient Dravidian name that produced the Tamil and Malayalam name for the spice, inchi-ver. The word probably was readopted in Middle English from Old French gingibre, ginger produces clusters of white and pink flower buds that bloom into yellow flowers. Because of its appeal and the adaptation of the plant to warm climates. It is a perennial plant with annual leafy stems, about a meter tall. Traditionally, the rhizome is gathered when the stalk withers, it is scalded, or washed and scraped, to kill it. The fragrant perisperm of the Zingiberaceae is used as sweetmeats by Bantu, ginger produces a hot, fragrant kitchen spice. Young ginger rhizomes are juicy and fleshy with a mild taste. They are often pickled in vinegar or sherry as a snack or cooked as an ingredient in many dishes and they can be steeped in boiling water to make ginger tisane, to which honey is often added, sliced orange or lemon fruit may be added. Ginger can be made into candy, or ginger wine, which has been made commercially since 1740, mature ginger rhizomes are fibrous and nearly dry. Fresh ginger can be substituted for ground ginger at a ratio of six to one, although the flavors of fresh, powdered dry ginger root is typically used as a flavoring for recipes such as gingerbread, cookies, crackers and cakes, ginger ale, and ginger beer. Candied ginger, or crystallized ginger, is the root cooked in sugar until soft, fresh ginger may be peeled before eating. For longer-term storage, the ginger can be placed in a plastic bag, in Indian cuisine, ginger is a key ingredient, especially in thicker gravies, as well as in many other dishes, both vegetarian and meat-based
28.
Cinnamon
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Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus Cinnamomum. Cinnamon is used in sweet and savoury foods. The term cinnamon also refers to its mid-brown colour, Cinnamon is the name for perhaps a dozen species of trees and the commercial spice products that some of them produce. All are members of the genus Cinnamomum in the family Lauraceae, only a few Cinnamomum species are grown commercially for spice. The English word cinnamon, attested in English since the 15th century, derives from the Greek κιννάμωμον kinnámōmon, via Latin, the Greek was borrowed from a Phoenician word, which was similar to the related Hebrew qinnamon. The name cassia, first recorded in English around AD1000, was borrowed via Latin and ultimately derives from Hebrew qtsīʿāh, Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity. It was imported to Egypt as early as 2000 BCE, the first Greek reference to kasia is found in a poem by Sappho in the seventh century BCE. According to Herodotus, both cinnamon and cassia grew in Arabia, together with incense, myrrh, and ladanum, the phoenix was reputed to build its nest from cinnamon and cassia. Herodotus mentions other writers who believed the source of cassia was the home of Dionysos, egyptian recipes for kyphi, an aromatic used for burning, included cinnamon and cassia from Hellenistic times onward. The gifts of Hellenistic rulers to temples sometimes included cassia and cinnamon, as well as incense, myrrh, Cinnamon was brought around the Arabian peninsula on rafts without rudders or sails or oars, taking advantage of the winter trade winds. Pliny also mentions cassia as a agent for wine. According to Pliny, a Roman pound of cassia, cinnamon, or serichatum cost up to 300 denarii, diocletians Edict on Maximum Prices from 301 AD gives a price of 125 denarii for a pound of cassia, while an agricultural labourer earned 25 denarii per day. Malabathrum leaves were used in cooking and for distilling an oil used in a sauce for oysters by the Roman gourmet Gaius Gavius Apicius. Malabathrum is among the spices that, according to Apicius, any good kitchen should contain, through the Middle Ages, the source of cinnamon was a mystery to the Western world. From reading Latin writers who quoted Herodotus, Europeans had learned that cinnamon came up the Red Sea to the ports of Egypt. Marco Polo avoided precision on the topic, Pliny the Elder wrote in the first century that traders had made this up to charge more, but the story remained current in Byzantium as late as 1310. The first mention that the spice grew in Sri Lanka was in Zakariya al-Qazwinis Athar al-bilad wa-akhbar al-‘ibad about 1270 and this was followed shortly thereafter by John of Montecorvino in a letter of about 1292. Indonesian rafts transported cinnamon directly from the Moluccas to East Africa, venetian traders from Italy held a monopoly on the spice trade in Europe, distributing cinnamon from Alexandria
29.
Nutmeg
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Nutmeg is one of the two spices – the other being mace – derived from several species of tree in the genus Myristica. The most important commercial species is Myristica fragrans, a tree indigenous to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas of Indonesia. The first harvest of nutmeg trees takes place 7–9 years after planting, Nutmeg is usually used in powdered form. This is the tropical fruit that is the source of two different spices, obtained from different parts of the plant. Several other commercial products are produced from the trees, including essential oils, extracted oleoresins. The common or fragrant nutmeg, Myristica fragrans, is native to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas, other species used to adulterate the spice include Papuan nutmeg M. argentea from New Guinea, and M. malabarica from India. In the 17th-century work Hortus Botanicus Malabaricus, Hendrik van Rheede records that Indians learned the usage of nutmeg from the Indonesians through ancient trade routes, Nutmeg trees are dioecious plants which are propagated sexually and asexually, the latter being the standard. Sexual propagation by seedling yields 50% male seedlings, which are unproductive, epicotyl grafting, approach grafting, and patch budding have proved successful, with epicotyl grafting being the most widely adopted standard. Air-layering, or marcotting, is an alternative though not preferred method because of its low success rate, Nutmeg and mace have similar sensory qualities, with nutmeg having a slightly sweeter and mace a more delicate flavour. Mace is often preferred in light dishes for the bright orange, Nutmeg is used for flavouring many dishes, usually in ground or grated form, and is best grated fresh in a nutmeg grater. In Indonesian cuisine, nutmeg is used in dishes, mainly in many spicy soups, such as some variant of soto, konro, oxtail soup, sup iga, bakso. It is also used in gravy for meat dishes, such as beef stew, ribs with tomato, to European derived dishes such as bistik, rolade. Sliced nutmeg fruit flesh could be made as manisan, either wet, in Penang cuisine, dried, shredded nutmeg rind with sugar coating is used as toppings on the uniquely Penang ais kacang. Nutmeg rind is also blended or boiled to make iced nutmeg juice, in Indian cuisine, nutmeg is used in many sweet, as well as savoury, dishes. It is also added in quantities as a medicine for infants. It may also be used in quantities in garam masala. Ground nutmeg is also smoked in India, in Middle Eastern cuisine, ground nutmeg is often used as a spice for savoury dishes. In traditional European cuisine, nutmeg and mace are used especially in dishes and in processed meat products, they are also used in soups, sauces
30.
Clove
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Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, Syzygium aromaticum. They are native to the Maluku Islands in Indonesia, and are used as a spice. Cloves are commercially harvested primarily in Bangladesh, Indonesia, India, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, cloves are available throughout the year. The clove tree is an evergreen that grows up to 8–12 m tall, with large leaves, the flower buds initially have a pale hue, gradually turn green, then transition to a bright red when ready for harvest. Cloves are harvested at 1. 5–2.0 cm long, and consist of a calyx that terminates in four spreading sepals. Cloves are used in the cuisine of Asian, African, and the Near and Middle East countries, lending flavor to meats, curries, cloves may be used to give aromatic and flavor qualities to hot beverages, often combined with other ingredients such as lemon and sugar. They are an element in spice blends such as pumpkin pie spice. In Mexican cuisine, cloves are best known as clavos de olor and they are also used in Peruvian cuisine, in a wide variety of dishes as carapulcra and arroz con leche. A major component of clove taste is imparted by the chemical eugenol, and it pairs well with cinnamon, allspice, vanilla, red wine and basil, as well as onion, citrus peel, star anise, or peppercorns. The spice is used in a type of cigarette called kretek in Indonesia, clove cigarettes have been smoked throughout Europe, Asia and the United States. Starting in 2009, clove cigarettes must be classified as cigars in the US, because of the bioactive chemicals of clove, the spice may be used as an ant repellent. Cloves can be used to make a fragrance pomander when combined with an orange, when given as a gift in Victorian England, such a pomander indicated warmth of feeling. Cloves are used in Indian Ayurvedic medicine, Chinese medicine, and western herbalism, cloves are used as a carminative, to increase hydrochloric acid in the stomach and to improve peristalsis. Cloves are also said to be a natural anthelmintic, the essential oil is used in aromatherapy when stimulation and warming are needed, especially for digestive problems. Topical application over the stomach or abdomen are said to warm the digestive tract, applied to a cavity in a decayed tooth, it also relieves toothache. Because the herb is so warming, it is contraindicated in any persons with fire symptoms, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration has reclassified eugenol, downgrading its effectiveness rating. The FDA now believes not enough evidence indicates clove oil or eugenol is effective for toothache pain or a variety of types of pain. Studies to determine its effectiveness for fever reduction, as a mosquito repellent and it remains unproven whether clove may reduce blood sugar levels
31.
Powdered sugar
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Powdered sugar, also called confectioners sugar, icing sugar, and icing cake, is a finely ground sugar produced by milling granulated sugar into a powdered state. It usually contains an amount of anti-caking agent—usually cornstarch in North America, or tricalcium phosphate in other regions—to prevent clumping. Although most often produced in a factory, powdered sugar can also be made by processing ordinary granulated sugar in a grinder, or by crushing it by hand in a mortar. Powdered sugar is utilized in industrial food production when a sugar is required. Home cooks use it principally to make icing or frosting and other cake decorations and it is often dusted onto baked goods to add a subtle sweetness and delicate decoration. Powdered sugar is available in varying degrees of fineness, most commonly XXX, XXXX, and 10X, the greater the number of Xs, finer particles absorb more moisture, results in caking. Corn starch or tricalcium phosphate is added at 3 to 5% concentration to absorb moisture, powdered sugar contains corn starch to prevent caking, therefore it cannot always be used as a substitute for granulated sugar, such as in coffee or tea. Caster sugar has a particle size than powdered sugar, approximately half that of granulated sugar. It is mostly used for decorative purposes, media related to powdered sugar at Wikimedia Commons Asadi, Mosen. Chen, James C. P. Chung Chi Chou, Cane Sugar Handbook, A Manual for Cane Sugar Manufacturers and Their Chemists
32.
Cream
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Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-butterfat layer skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, in the industrial production of cream, this process is accelerated by using centrifuges called separators. In many countries, cream is sold in several grades depending on the total butterfat content, Cream can be dried to a powder for shipment to distant markets. Cream has high levels of saturated fat, Cream skimmed from milk may be called sweet cream to distinguish it from whey cream skimmed from whey, a by-product of cheese-making. Whey cream has a fat content and tastes more salty, tangy. In many countries, cream is usually sold partially fermented, sour cream, crème fraîche, Cream has many culinary uses in sweet, bitter, salty and tangy dishes. This is also the origin of butters yellow color, Cream from goats milk, or from cows fed indoors on grain or grain-based pellets, is white. Cream is used as an ingredient in foods, including ice cream, many sauces, soups, stews, puddings, and some custard bases. Whipped cream is served as a topping on ice cream sundaes, milkshakes, egg nog, irish cream is an alcoholic liqueur which blends cream with whiskey, and often honey, wine, or coffee. Cream is also used in Indian curries such as masala dishes, Cream is often added to coffee in the US and Canada. Both single and double cream can be used in cooking, double cream or full-fat crème fraîche are often used when cream is added to a hot sauce, to prevent any problem with it separating or splitting. Double cream can be thinned with milk to make an approximation of single cream, the French word crème denotes not only dairy cream, but also other thick liquids such as sweet and savory custards, which are normally made with milk, not cream. Different grades of cream are distinguished by their fat content, whether they have been heat-treated, whipped, in many jurisdictions, there are regulations for each type. In the United States, cream is sold as, Most cream products sold in the United States at retail contain the minimum permissible fat content for their product type. Half and half almost always contains only 10. 5% butterfat, not all grades are defined by all jurisdictions, and the exact fat content ranges vary. Cream must contain no less than 350 g/kg of milk fat, in Canada, light cream is very low-fat cream, usually with 5% or 6% butterfat. Specific product characteristics are generally uniform throughout Canada, but names vary by geographic and linguistic area and by manufacturer. It can be confusing, coffee cream may be 10% or 18% and half-and-half may be 3%, 5%, 6% or 10%, all depending on location
33.
Dutch cuisine
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Dutch cuisine is formed from the cooking traditions and practices of the Netherlands. The countrys cuisine is shaped by its location in the fertile North Sea river delta of the European Plain, giving rise to fishing, farming, and trading over sea. The diet contains many dairy products and was high in carbohydrates and fat. Without many refinements, it is best described as rustic, though many holidays are celebrated with special foods, during the twentieth century, Dutch cuisine and diet changed. Influenced by the culture of its colonies, it became more cosmopolitan. Little evidence is available about food and drink in the late medieval Low Countries, in the consumption of pottage, the Low Countries were not very different from other Western European countries during the Middle Ages. Half-liquid pottage consisted of milk, beer, water, root vegetable and peas or grain, the content changes throughout the seasons. Beer flavoured with gruit was produced until the 14th century at the monasteries, gruit was replaced with hop, a tradition introduced from the German city of Bremen, and this started off a beer culture and the Low Counties as a major exporter of beer. Dutch butter and cheese became famous products at an early stage, the sea and the rivers provided an abundance of fish. The process of gibbing was invented by Willem Beukelszoon, a 14th-century Zealand fisherman, the invention created an export industry for salt herring that was monopolized by the Dutch. They began to build ships and eventually moved from trading in herring to colonizing, gardening was initially practiced by monasteries, but castles and country houses began also to develop gardens with herbs and vegetables and hunting grounds. The famous tourist attraction and flower park Keukenhof is an example of a former 15th-century hunting ground and herbs garden for Jacqueline, orchards for pears and apples connected to castles were later used for export and set off a Dutch horticulture tradition that remains to this day. During the 15th century haute cuisine began to emerge, largely limited to the aristocracy, cookery books from this period are aimed at the upper class. The first Dutch-language cook book printed in Brussels is called Een notabel boecxken van cokeryen and it offers medieval recipes for festivities, such as sauces, game, jellies, fish, meat, pies, tarts, eggs, dairy products, candied quinces and ginger. The recipes come from sources, many of them French. This is still visible in traditional Dutch restaurants and the Southern regional cuisine, the Dutch Empire enabled spices, sugar, and exotic fruits to be imported to the country. The Dutch East India Company was the first to import coffee on a scale to Europe. The Dutch later grew the crop in Java and Ceylon, the first exports of Indonesian coffee from Java to the Netherlands occurred in 1711
34.
Lemon
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The lemon, Citrus limon Osbeck, is a species of small evergreen tree in the flowering plant family Rutaceae, native to Asia. The trees ellipsoidal yellow fruit is used for culinary and non-culinary purposes throughout the world, primarily for its juice, the pulp and rind are also used in cooking and baking. The juice of the lemon is about 5% to 6% citric acid, the distinctive sour taste of lemon juice makes it a key ingredient in drinks and foods such as lemonade and lemon meringue pie. The origin of the lemon is unknown, though lemons are thought to have first grown in Assam, a study of the genetic origin of the lemon reported it to be hybrid between bitter orange and citron. Lemons entered Europe near southern Italy no later than the second century AD, however, they were not widely cultivated. They were later introduced to Persia and then to Iraq and Egypt around 700 AD, the lemon was first recorded in literature in a 10th-century Arabic treatise on farming, and was also used as an ornamental plant in early Islamic gardens. It was distributed throughout the Arab world and the Mediterranean region between 1000 and 1150. The first substantial cultivation of lemons in Europe began in Genoa in the middle of the 15th century, the lemon was later introduced to the Americas in 1493 when Christopher Columbus brought lemon seeds to Hispaniola on his voyages. Spanish conquest throughout the New World helped spread lemon seeds and it was mainly used as an ornamental plant and for medicine. In the 19th century, lemons were increasingly planted in Florida, in 1747, James Linds experiments on seamen suffering from scurvy involved adding lemon juice to their diets, though vitamin C was not yet known. The origin of the lemon may be Middle Eastern. The word draws from the Old French limon, then Italian limone, from the Arabic laymūn or līmūn, and from the Persian līmūn, a term for citrus fruit. The Bonnie Brae is oblong, smooth, thin-skinned, and seedless, the Eureka grows year-round and abundantly. This is the common supermarket lemon, also known as Four Seasons because of its ability to produce fruit and this variety is also available as a plant to domestic customers. There is also a pink-fleshed Eureka lemon, with a green, the Femminello St. Teresa, or Sorrento is native to Italy. This fruits zest is high in lemon oils and it is the variety traditionally used in the making of limoncello. The Meyer is a cross between a lemon and possibly an orange or a mandarin, and was named after Frank N. Meyer, who first introduced it to the USA in 1908. Thin-skinned and slightly less acidic than the Lisbon and Eureka lemons, Meyer lemons often mature to a yellow-orange color
35.
Almond paste
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Almond paste is made from ground almonds or almond meal and sugar in equal quantities, with small amounts of cooking oil, beaten eggs, heavy cream or corn syrup added as a binder. Almond paste is used as a filling in pastries, but it can also be found in chocolates, in commercially manufactured almond paste, ground apricot or peach kernels are sometimes added to keep the cost down. Almond paste is used as a filling in pastries of many different cultures and it is a chief ingredient of the American bear claw pastry. In Scandinavia almond paste is used extensively, in various pastries and cookies, in Sweden it is used in biscuits, muffins and buns and as a filling in the traditional spring season pastry semla and is used in Easter and Christmas sweets. In Denmark, almond paste is used in pastries, for example as a filling in the Danish traditional pastry kringle. In the Netherlands, almond paste is used in gevulde speculaas and it is used as filling in the fruited Christmas bread Kerststol, traditionally eaten at Christmas breakfast. In Germany, almond paste is used in pastries and sweets. In the German language, almond paste is known as Marzipanrohmasse and sold for example as Lübecker Edelmarzipan, Almond paste is the main ingredient of French traditional calisson candy in Aix-en-Provence. It is used as a filling in almond croissants, the Chinese use almond paste in sweetheart cakes. The sweetheart cake or wife cake is a traditional Chinese pastry made with winter melon, in Turkey, almond paste is traditionally made in Edirne, once the capital of Ottoman Empire. During the Ottoman era of Turkish history, it was a royal delight mostly used in palace and it is now sold at delight shops in Istanbul and Edirne. Rainbow cookie Marzipan Parsi Almond Fish
36.
Elstar
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The Elstar apple is an apple cultivar that was first developed in the Netherlands in Elst in the 1950s by crossing Golden Delicious and Ingrid Marie apples. It quickly became popular, especially in Europe and was first introduced to America in 1972 and it remains popular in Continental Europe, but less so in the United Kingdom. The Elstar is a medium-sized apple whose skin is red with yellow showing. The flesh is white, and has a soft, crispy texture and it may be used for cooking and is especially good for making apple sauce. In general, however, it is used in due to its sweet flavour. Santana Ecolette Collina Scab, high Powdery mildew, high Cedar apple rust, high Orange Pippin - Elstar Elstar produce profile National Fruit Collection page
37.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
38.
Dough
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Dough is a thick, malleable, sometimes elastic, paste made out of any grains, leguminous or chestnut crops. Doughs are made from a variety of flours, commonly wheat but also flours made from maize, rice, rye, legumes, almonds. Doughs vary widely depending on ingredients, the kind of product being produced, the type of leavening agent, how the dough is mixed, there is no formal definition of what makes dough, though most doughs have viscoelastic properties. Leavened or fermented doughs are used all over the world to various breads. Salt, oils or fats, sugars or honey and sometimes milk or eggs are common ingredients in bread dough. Commercial bread doughs may also include dough conditioners, a class of ingredients that aid in dough consistency and final product. Flatbreads such as pita, lafa, lavash, matzah or matzo, naan, roti, sangak, tortilla, some flatbreads, such as naan, use leavening agents, others, such as matzo, do not. Crackers are also made from dough, and some are leavened, pasta and noodles are generally based on unleavened doughs that are worked until they are dry and smooth, and then shaped into their final form. The finished pasta may be cooked immediately or dried before cooking, doughs with higher fat content have a lesser water content, develop less gluten and are therefore generally less elastic than bread doughs, these doughs are often called short by bakers. This category includes many cookie and pie crust doughs, such as shortcrust pastry, in many parts of central India, people use the quick method of making an instant roasted dough ball or baati. In countries in the Sahel region of Africa, dough balls called aiysh or biya are made from sorghum or millet, and are ground and boiled. Quick breads use leavening agents other than yeast, and include most cookies, cakes, biscuits, and more, Techniques used in dough production depend on the type of dough and final product. For yeast-based and sponge breads, a production technique is the dough is mixed, kneaded. Many bread doughs call for a stage, where the dough is kneaded again, shaped into the final form. Kneading is the process of working a dough to produce a smooth, pasta is typically made from a dry dough that is kneaded and shaped, either through extrusion, rolling out in a pasta machine, or stretched or shaped by hand. Pasta may be cooked directly after production or dried, which renders it shelf-stable, doughs for biscuits and many flatbreads which are not leavened with yeast are typically mixed but not kneaded or left to rise, these doughs are shaped and cooked directly after mixing. While breads and other products made from doughs are often baked, some types of dough-based foods are cooked over direct heat, such as tortillas, fried dough foods are also common in many cultures. Unlike bread dough, these batters are not stabilized by the formation of a gluten network, the word dough is a common slang term for money in English-speaking countries, this usage is originally American, and dates to the mid-19th century
39.
Streusel
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In baking and pastry making, streusel is a crumbly topping of flour, butter, and sugar that is baked on top of muffins, breads, pies, and cakes. Some modern recipes add spices and chopped nutmeats, the mixture can also be layered or ribboned in the middle of the cake. Some dishes which have a streusel topping are streuselkuchen, coffee cake, the term is also sometimes used for rich pastries topped with, or mixed with, streusel. From German Streusel something scattered or sprinkled, from the verb streuen, cognate with the English verb strew. food portal
40.
Geoffrey Chaucer
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Geoffrey Chaucer, known as the Father of English literature, is widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages. He was the first poet to be buried in Poets Corner of Westminster Abbey, among his many works are The Book of the Duchess, The House of Fame, The Legend of Good Women and Troilus and Criseyde. He is best known today for The Canterbury Tales, Chaucers work was crucial in legitimizing the literary use of the Middle English vernacular at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were French and Latin. Geoffrey Chaucer was born in London sometime around 1343, though the precise date and his father and grandfather were both London vintners, several previous generations had been merchants in Ipswich. In 1324 John Chaucer, Geoffreys father, was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the boy to her daughter in an attempt to keep property in Ipswich. The aunt was imprisoned and the fine levied suggests that the family was financially secure. In the City Hustings Roll 110,5, Ric II, dated June 1380, Geoffrey Chaucer refers to himself as me Galfridum Chaucer, filium Johannis Chaucer, Vinetarii, Londonie. He also worked as a courtier, a diplomat, and a civil servant, as well as working for the king from 1389 to 1391 as Clerk of the Kings Works. In 1359, in the stages of the Hundred Years War, Edward III invaded France and Chaucer travelled with Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, Elizabeths husband. In 1360, he was captured during the siege of Rheims, Edward paid £16 for his ransom, a considerable sum, and Chaucer was released. After this, Chaucers life is uncertain, but he seems to have travelled in France, Spain, around 1366, Chaucer married Philippa Roet. She was a lady-in-waiting to Edward IIIs queen, Philippa of Hainault, and a sister of Katherine Swynford and it is uncertain how many children Chaucer and Philippa had, but three or four are most commonly cited. His son, Thomas Chaucer, had a career, as chief butler to four kings, envoy to France. Thomass daughter, Alice, married the Duke of Suffolk, thomass great-grandson, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, was the heir to the throne designated by Richard III before he was deposed. Geoffreys other children probably included Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun at Barking Abbey, Agnes, an attendant at Henry IVs coronation, Chaucers Treatise on the Astrolabe was written for Lewis. According to tradition, Chaucer studied law in the Inner Temple at this time and he became a member of the royal court of Edward III as a valet de chambre, yeoman, or esquire on 20 June 1367, a position which could entail a wide variety of tasks. His wife also received a pension for court employment and he travelled abroad many times, at least some of them in his role as a valet. In 1368, he may have attended the wedding of Lionel of Antwerp to Violante Visconti, daughter of Galeazzo II Visconti, two other literary stars of the era were in attendance, Jean Froissart and Petrarch
41.
Ficus
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Ficus is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are throughout the tropics with a few species extending into the semi-warm temperate zone. The common fig is a species native to southwest Asia and the Mediterranean region. The fruit of most other species are edible though they are usually of only local economic importance or eaten as bushfood. However, they are important food resources for wildlife. Figs are also of cultural importance throughout the tropics, both as objects of worship and for their many practical uses. Fig species are characterized by their unique inflorescence and distinctive pollination syndrome, the specific identification of many of the species can be difficult, but figs as a group are relatively easy to recognize. Many have aerial roots and a shape or habit. The fig fruit is an inflorescence, sometimes referred to as a syconium. Finally, there are three traits that together are unique to figs. There are no unambiguous older fossils of Ficus, however, current molecular clock estimates indicate that Ficus is a relatively ancient genus being at least 60 million years old, and possibly as old as 80 million years. The main radiation of extant species, however, may have taken more recently. Moreover, figs with different plant habits have undergone radiation in different biogeographic regions. In the tropics, it is common to find that Ficus is the most species-rich plant genus in a particular forest. In Asia as many as 70 or more species can co-exist, Ficus species richness declines with an increase in latitude in both hemispheres. Figs are keystone species in many rainforest ecosystems and their fruit are a key resource for some frugivores including fruit bats, capuchin monkeys, langurs and mangabeys. They are even more important for some birds, asian barbets, pigeons, hornbills, fig-parrots and bulbuls are examples of taxa that may almost entirely subsist on figs when these are in plenty. The citrus long-horned beetle, for example, has larvae that feed on wood, including that of fig trees, similarly, the sweet potato whitefly is frequently found as a pest on figs grown as potted plants and is spread through the export of these plants to other localities
42.
Raisin
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A raisin is a dried grape. Raisins are produced in regions of the world and may be eaten raw or used in cooking, baking. The word raisin dates back to Middle English and is a loanword from Old French, in modern French, raisin means grape, while a dried grape is a raisin sec, or dry grape. The Old French word, in turn, developed from the Latin word racemus, Raisin varieties depend on the type of grape used, and are made in a variety of sizes and colors including green, black, brown, blue, purple, and yellow. Seedless varieties include the sultana, the Greek currants and Flame grapes, Raisins are traditionally sun-dried, but may also be water-dipped and artificially dehydrated. Golden raisins are treated with sulfur dioxide after drying to give them their golden color, black Corinth or Zante currant are miniature, sometimes seedless raisins that are much darker and have a tart, tangy flavor. Muscat raisins are large compared to varieties, and also sweeter. Several varieties of raisins produced in Asia are available in the West only at ethnic grocers, monukka grapes are used for some of these. Raisins can contain up to 72% sugars by weight, most of which is fructose and glucose and they also contain about 3% protein and 3. 7%–6. 8% dietary fiber. Raisins, like prunes and apricots, are high in certain antioxidants. Raisins are low in sodium and contain no cholesterol, Raisins can cause renal failure in dogs. The cause of this is not known, Raisins are sweet due to their high concentration of sugars. The sugars can crystallise inside the fruit when stored after a period, making the dry raisins gritty. These sugar grains can be dissolved by blanching the fruit in hot water or other liquids, grade A The color is good, and the flavor is characteristic of raisins. These raisins show development characteristics indicative of the fact that they are prepared from well-matured grapes, the processed raisins contain less than 19% moisture by weight. Grade B The color and flavor is reasonably good and these raisins show development characteristics that highlight the fact that the raisins were prepared from reasonably well-matured grapes containing at least 70% water by weight. These raisins also contain less than 19% moisture, by weight, grade C The color and flavor are fairly good. These raisins show development characteristics of raisins prepared from fairly well-matured grapes containing at least 55% water by weight and these raisins also contain less than 19% moisture, by weight
43.
Pear
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The pear is any of several tree and shrub species of genus Pyrus /ˈpaɪrəs/, in the family Rosaceae. It is also the name of the fruit of the trees. Several species of pear are valued for their fruit, while others are cultivated as ornamental trees. The word “pear” is probably from Germanic pera as a loanword of Vulgar Latin pira, the term pyriform is used to describe something pear-shaped. The pear is native to coastal and mildly temperate regions of the Old World, from western Europe and it is a medium-sized tree, reaching 10–17 metres tall, often with a tall, narrow crown, a few species are shrubby. The leaves are arranged, simple, 2–12 centimetres long, glossy green on some species, densely silvery-hairy in some others. Most pears are deciduous, but one or two species in southeast Asia are evergreen, most are cold-hardy, withstanding temperatures between −25 °C and −40 °C in winter, except for the evergreen species, which only tolerate temperatures down to about −15 °C. The flowers are white, rarely tinted yellow or pink, 2–4 centimetres diameter, the fruit is composed of the receptacle or upper end of the flower-stalk greatly dilated. Enclosed within its cellular flesh is the fruit, five cartilaginous carpels. From the upper rim of the receptacle are given off the five sepals, the five petals, pears and apples cannot always be distinguished by the form of the fruit, some pears look very much like some apples, e. g. the nashi pear. One major difference is that the flesh of pear fruit contains stone cells, Pear cultivation in cool temperate climates extends to the remotest antiquity, and there is evidence of its use as a food since prehistoric times. Many traces of it have been found in pile dwellings around Lake Zurich. The pear was also cultivated by the Romans, who ate the raw or cooked. Plinys Natural History recommended stewing them with honey and noted three dozen varieties, the Roman cookbook De re coquinaria has a recipe for a spiced, stewed-pear patina, or soufflé. A certain race of pears, with white down on the undersurface of their leaves, is supposed to have originated from P. nivalis, and their fruit is chiefly used in France in the manufacture of perry. Other small-fruited pears, distinguished by their early ripening and apple-like fruit, may be referred to as P. cordata, pears have been cultivated in China for approximately 3000 years. Court accounts of Henry III of England record pears shipped from La Rochelle-Normande, Asian species with medium to large edible fruit include P. pyrifolia, P. ussuriensis, P. × bretschneideri, P. × sinkiangensis, and P. pashia. Other small-fruited species are used as rootstocks for the cultivated forms
44.
Saffron
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Saffron is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the saffron crocus. Saffron crocus grows to 20–30 cm and bears up to four flowers, the styles and stigmas, called threads, are collected and dried to be used mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent in food. Saffron, long among the worlds most costly spices by weight, is native to Southwest Asia and was probably first cultivated in or near Greece. As a genetically monomorphic clone, it was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was brought to parts of North Africa, North America. Saffrons taste and iodoform or hay-like fragrance result from the chemicals picrocrocin and it also contains a carotenoid pigment, crocin, which imparts a rich golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles. Its recorded history is attested in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical treatise compiled under Ashurbanipal, Iran now accounts for approximately 90% of the world production of saffron. A degree of uncertainty surrounds the origin of the English word saffron and it might stem from the 12th-century Old French term safran, which comes from the Latin word safranum or from Arabic, az-zafaran, having unknown origin. Safranum comes from the Persian intercessor zafarān, the domesticated saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, is an autumn-flowering perennial plant unknown in the wild. Its progenitors are possibly the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering Crocus cartwrightianus, which is known as wild saffron. The saffron crocus probably resulted when C. cartwrightianus was subjected to artificial selection by growers seeking longer stigmata. C. thomasii and C. pallasii are other possible sources, a corm survives for one season, producing via this vegetative division up to ten cormlets that can grow into new plants in the next season. Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like, that grow up to 5 cm above the plants neck, the plant grows to a height of 20–30 cm, and sprouts 5–11 white and non-photosynthetic leaves known as cataphylls. These membrane-like structures cover and protect the crocuss 5 to 11 true leaves as they bud and develop. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are 1–3 mm in diameter, C. sativus cataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigated relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bear bracteoles, or specialised leaves, that sprout from the flower stems, after aestivating in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to 40 cm in length. The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance, upon flowering, plants average less than 30 cm in height. A three-pronged style emerges from each flower, each prong terminates with a vivid crimson stigma 25–30 mm in length. The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, probably descends from Crocus cartwrightianus, if C. sativus is a mutant form of C. cartwrightianus, then it may have emerged via plant breeding, which would have selected for elongated stigmata, in late Bronze Age Crete
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Custard
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Custard is a variety of culinary preparations based on a cooked mixture of milk or cream and egg yolk. Depending on how much egg or thickener is used, custard may vary in consistency from a thin pouring sauce to a thick pastry cream used to fill éclairs, most common custards are used as desserts or dessert sauces and typically include sugar and vanilla. Custard bases may also be used for quiches and other savory foods, sometimes flour, corn starch, or gelatin is added as in pastry cream or crème pâtissière. Custard preparation is an operation, because a temperature increase of 3–6 °C leads to overcooking and curdling. Generally, a fully cooked custard should not exceed 80 °C, a water bath slows heat transfer and makes it easier to remove the custard from the oven before it curdles. Mixtures of milk and eggs thickened by heat have long been part of European cuisine, examples include Crustardes of flessh and Crustade, in the 14th century English collection The Forme of Cury. These recipes include solid ingredients such as meat, fish, stirred custards cooked in pots are also found under the names Creme Boylede and Creme boiled. In modern times, the custard is sometimes applied to starch-thickened preparations like blancmange. While custard may refer to a variety of thickened dishes. Crème pâtissière is a key ingredient in many French desserts including mille-feuille and it is also used in Italian pastry and sometimes in Boston cream pie. Although egg thickens the custard, the effect is minimal, with the majority of thickening resulting from starch, corn flour or flour thicken at 100 °C and as such many recipes instruct the pastry cream to be boiled. Once cooled, the amount of starch in pastry cream sets the cream, when gelatin is added, it is known as crème anglaise collée. When starch is used alone as a thickener, the result is a blancmange, in the United Kingdom, custard has various traditional recipes some thickened principally with cornflour rather than the egg component, others involving regular flour, see custard powder. After the custard has thickened, it may be mixed with other ingredients, mixed with beaten egg whites and gelatin, it is chiboust cream, mixed with whipped cream. Beating in softened butter produces German buttercream or crème mousseline, a quiche is a savoury custard tart. Some kinds of timbale or vegetable loaf are made of a custard base mixed with chopped savoury ingredients, Custard royale is a thick custard cut into decorative shapes and used to garnish soup, stew or broth. In German it is known as Eierstich and is used as a garnish in German Wedding Soup, chawanmushi is a Japanese savoury custard, steamed and served in a small bowl or on a saucer. Chinese steamed egg is a similar but larger savoury egg dish, Custard may also be used as a top layer in gratins, such as the South African bobotie and many Balkan versions of moussaka
Cookbook: Apple pie 
Media: Apple pie
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