1.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
2.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
3.
Hebrew
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
4.
Dead Sea
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The Dead Sea, is a salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east and Israel and Palestine to the west. Its surface and shores are 430.5 metres below sea level, the Dead Sea is 304 m deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. With 34. 2% salinity, it is 9.6 times as salty as the ocean and this salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals cannot flourish, hence its name. The Dead Sea is 50 kilometres long and 15 kilometres wide at its widest point and it lies in the Jordan Rift Valley and its main tributary is the Jordan River. The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years and it was one of the worlds first health resorts, and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products, from asphalt for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilizers. People also use the salt and the minerals from the Dead Sea to create cosmetics, the Dead Sea water has a density of 1.24 kg/litre, which makes swimming similar to floating. The Dead Sea is receding at an alarming rate, multiple canals and pipelines were proposed to reduce its recession, which had begun causing many problems. The Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance project, carried out by Jordan, will provide water to neighboring countries, the first phase of the project is scheduled to begin in 2018 and be completed in 2021. In Hebrew, the Dead Sea is Yām ha-Melaḥ, meaning sea of salt, the Bible uses this term alongside two others, the Sea of the Arabah, and the Eastern Sea. The designation Dead Sea never appears in the Bible, in prose sometimes the term Yām ha-Māvet is used, due to the scarcity of aquatic life there. In Arabic the Dead Sea is called al-Bahr al-Mayyit, or less commonly baḥrᵘ lūṭᵃ, another historic name in Arabic was the Sea of Zoʼar, after a nearby town in biblical times. The Greeks called it Lake Asphaltites, the Dead Sea is an endorheic lake located in the Jordan Rift Valley, a geographic feature formed by the Dead Sea Transform. This left lateral-moving transform fault lies along the plate boundary between the African Plate and the Arabian Plate. It runs between the East Anatolian Fault zone in Turkey and the end of the Red Sea Rift offshore of the southern tip of Sinai. It is here that the Upper Jordan River/Sea of Galilee/Lower Jordan River water system comes to an end. The Jordan River is the major water source flowing into the Dead Sea, although there are small perennial springs under and around the Dead Sea, forming pools. The Mujib River, biblical Arnon, is one the larger sources of the Dead Sea other than the Jordan. The Wadi Mujib valley,420 m below the sea level in the southern of Jordan valley, is a biosphere reserve, other more substantial sources are Wadi Darajeh /Nahal Dragot, and Nahal Arugot
5.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
6.
Jordan
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Jordan, officially The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is an Arab kingdom in Western Asia, on the East Bank of the Jordan River. Jordan is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the east and south, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north, Israel, Palestine and the Dead Sea to the west, Jordan is strategically located at the crossroads of Asia, Africa and Europe. The capital, Amman, is Jordans most populous city as well as the countrys economic, what is now Jordan has been inhabited by humans since the Paleolithic period. Three stable kingdoms emerged there at the end of the Bronze Age, Ammon, Moab, later rulers include the Nabataean Kingdom, the Roman Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. After the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottomans in 1916 during World War I, the Emirate of Transjordan was established in 1921 by the then Emir Abdullah I and became a British protectorate. In 1946, Jordan became an independent state known as The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. Jordan captured the West Bank, which it later lost in 1967, during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Jordan is a founding member of the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and is one of two Arab states to have signed a peace treaty with Israel. The country is a monarchy, but the king holds wide executive and legislative powers. Jordan is a relatively-small, semi-arid, almost-landlocked country with a population numbering at 9.5 million, Sunni Islam, practiced by around 92% of the population, is the dominant religion in Jordan. It coexists with an indigenous Christian minority, Jordan is considered to be among the safest of Arab countries in the Middle East, and has avoided long-term terrorism and instability. The kingdom is also a refuge to thousands of Iraqi Christians fleeing the Islamic State, while Jordan continues to accept refugees, the recent large influx from Syria placed substantial strain on national resources and infrastructure. Jordan is classified as a country of high human development with a middle income economy. The Jordanian economy, one of the smallest economies in the region, is attractive to foreign investors based upon a skilled workforce, the country is a major tourist destination, and also attracts medical tourism due to its well developed health sector. Nonetheless, a lack of resources, large flow of refugees. Jordan is named after the Jordan River, where Jesus is said to have been baptized, the origin of the rivers name is debated, but the most common explanation is that it derives from the word yarad, found in Hebrew, Aramaic, and other Semitic languages. Others regard the name as having an Indo-Aryan origin, combining the words yor and don, another theory is that it is from the Arabic root word wrd, as in people coming to a major source of water. The name Jordan appears in an ancient Egyptian papyrus called Papyrus Anastasi I, the lands of modern-day Jordan were historically called Transjordan, meaning beyond the Jordan River. The name was Arabized into Al-Urdunn during the Muslim conquest of the Levant, during crusader rule, it was called Oultrejordain
7.
Jordan Rift Valley
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The Jordan Rift Valley, also called the Syro-African Depression, is an elongated depression located in modern-day Israel, Jordan, and Palestine. The Jordan Rift Valley was formed millions of years ago in the Miocene epoch when the Arabian Plate moved northward. One million years later, the land between the Mediterranean and the Jordan Rift Valley rose so that the sea water stopped flooding the area, the outcropping formations around the basins represent alternating deposition and erosion phases. The lowest point in the Jordan Rift Valley is in the Dead Sea, the shore of the Dead Sea is the lowest land on earth, at 400 meters below sea level. Rising sharply to almost 1,000 meters in the west, and similarly in the east, the valley north of the Dead Sea has long been a site of agriculture because of water available from the Jordan River and numerous springs located on the valleys flanks. The plate boundary which extends through the valley is called the Dead Sea Transform or Dead Sea Rift. The boundary separates the Arabian Plate from the African Plate, connecting the divergent plate boundary in the Red Sea to the East Anatolian Fault in Turkey, the DST fault system is generally considered to be a transform fault that has accommodated a 105-km-northwards displacement of the Arabian Plate. GPS data give similar rates of movement of the Arabian Plate relative to the Africa Plate. It has also proposed that the fault zone is a rift system that is an incipient oceanic spreading center. Geography of Israel Geography of Jordan
8.
Sea of Galilee
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The Sea of Galilee, also Kinneret, Lake of Gennesaret, or Lake Tiberias, is a large freshwater lake in Israel. It is approximately 53 km in circumference, about 21 km long and its area is 166.7 km2 at its fullest, and its maximum depth is approximately 43 m. At levels between 215 metres and 209 metres below sea level, it is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth, the lake is fed partly by underground springs although its main source is the Jordan River which flows through it from north to south. The Sea of Galilee is situated in northeast Israel, between the Golan Heights and the Galilee region, in the Jordan Rift Valley, the caused by the separation of the African and Arabian Plates. Consequently, the area is subject to earthquakes, and in the past and this is evident by the abundant basalt and other igneous rocks that define the geology of the Galilee. The lake has been called by different names throughout its history, with changing fate of the towns, the lakes name also changed. This name was found in the scripts of Ugarit, in the Aqhat Epic. Kinneret was listed among the cities in Joshua 19,35. A persistent, though likely erroneous popular etymology of the name presumes that the name Kinneret may originate from the Hebrew word kinnor, the scholarly consensus though is that the origin of the name lies with the important Bronze and Iron Age city of Kinneret, excavated at Tell el-Oreimeh. However, there is no evidence that the city of Kinneret itself was not named after the body of water rather than vice versa, or for the origin of the towns name. Sea of Ginosar The Babylonian Talmud, as well as Flavius Josephus mention the sea by the name Sea of Ginosar after the fertile plain of Ginosar that lies on its western side. Ginosar is yet another name derived from Kinneret, Sea of Tiberias is also the name mentioned in Roman texts and in the Jerusalem Talmud, and was adopted into Arabic as Buhairet Tabariyya, Lake Tiberias. This is the name employed by the medieval Persian and Arab scholars Al-Baladhuri, Al-Tabari, in 1989 remains of a hunter-gatherer site were found under the water at the southern end. Remains of mud huts were found which are the oldest known buildings in the world, the Sea of Galilee lies on the ancient Via Maris, which linked Egypt with the northern empires. The Greeks, Hasmoneans, and Romans founded flourishing towns and settlements on the lake including Hippos. The first-century historian Flavius Josephus was so impressed by the area that he wrote, Josephus also reported a thriving fishing industry at this time, with 230 boats regularly working in the lake. Archaeologists discovered one such boat, nicknamed the Jesus Boat, in 1986, much of the ministry of Jesus occurred on the shores of Lake Galilee. In those days, there was a ribbon development of settlements and villages around the lake and plenty of trade
9.
Gulf of Aqaba
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The Gulf of Aqaba or Gulf of Eilat is a large gulf at the northern tip of the Red Sea, east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian mainland. Its coastline is divided between four countries, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia, the gulf is east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian Peninsula. With the Gulf of Suez to the west, it extends from the portion of the Red Sea. It reaches a depth of 1,850 m in its central area. The gulf measures 24 kilometres at its widest point and stretches some 160 kilometres north from the Straits of Tiran to where Israel meets Egypt, like the coastal waters of the Red Sea, the gulf is one of the worlds premier sites for diving. At this northern end of the gulf are three important cities, Taba in Egypt, Eilat in Israel, and Aqaba in Jordan and they are strategically important commercial ports and popular resorts for tourists seeking to enjoy the warm climate. Further south, Haql is the largest Saudi Arabian city on the gulf, on Sinai, Sharm el-Sheikh and Dahab are the major centers. The largest population center is Aqaba, with a population of 108,000, followed by Eilat with a population of 48,000. The gulf is one of two created by the Sinai Peninsulas bifurcation of the northern Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez lying to the west of the peninsula. Geologically, the forms the southern end of the Dead Sea Transform. It contains three small pull-apart basins, the Elat Deep, Aragonese Deep and Dakar Deep, formed between four left lateral strike-slip fault segments, movement on one of these faults caused the 1995 Gulf of Aqaba earthquake. Trade across the Red Sea between Thebes port of Elim and Elat at the head of the gulf is documented as early as the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt, egyptian settlements near Timna at the head of the gulf date to the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt. At the northern edge, the ancient city of Ayla was a hub for the Nabateans. The Romans built the Via Traiana Nova, which joined the Kings Highway at Aqaba and connected Africa to Asia, Aqaba was a major Ottoman port, connected to Damascus and Medina by the Hejaz railway. During World War I, the Battle of Aqaba was the key battle that ended a 500-year Ottoman rule over Greater Syria, the gulf is one of the most popular diving destinations in the world. About 250,000 dives are performed annually in Eilats 11 km coastline, the Landscape of Wadi Rum to the east of the northern edge of the gulf is a popular destination. Other destinations are the ruins of the civilization of Ayla in the city of Aqaba. Whales, orcas, dolphins, dugongs, and whale sharks live in the gulf as well
10.
Aqaba
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Aqaba is the only coastal city in Jordan and the largest and most populous city on the Gulf of Aqaba. Situated in southernmost Jordan, Aqaba is the centre of the Aqaba Governorate. The city has a population of 188,160 and a area of 375 square kilometres. Today, Aqaba plays a role in the development of the Jordanian economy, through the vibrant trade. The Port of Aqaba also serves other countries in the region, Aqabas strategic location at the northeastern tip of the Red Sea between the continents of Asia and Africa, has made its port important over the course of thousands of years. The ancient city was called Ayla, its location and proximity to copper mines, made it a regional hub for copper production. Ayla became a bishopric under Byzantine rule and later became a Latin Catholic titular see after Islamic conquest around 600 AD, the Great Arab Revolts Battle of Aqaba, depicted in the film Lawrence of Arabia, resulted in victory for Arab forces over the Ottoman defenders. They are expected to turn the city into a tourism hub in the region. However, industrial and commercial activities remain important, due to the location of the city as the countrys only seaport. The city was called Ayla in ancient times, which is a Semitic name written in historical sources in different ways, Aila, Ailana, Elana, Haila, Ailath, Elath. The exact origin of name is disputed, some argue that it comes from the Hebrew root Ayl which is also the root for the word Elah, while others argue it is named after the term Ayl that appears in the ancient Mesopotamic poem called the Epic of Gilgamesh. Aqaba gained its name during the Mamluk era, which means Obstacle in Arabic, due to the mountains surrounding the city. Excavations at Tall Hujayrat Al-Ghuzlan and Tall Al-Magass in Aqaba revealed that the city has been a settlement since 4000 BC. This period is unknown due to the absence of written historical sources. The people who inhabited the site had developed a water system in irrigating their crops which was mostly grapes. Several different-sized clay pots were found suggesting that copper production was a major industry in the region. Scientific studies performed on site revealed that it had undergone two earthquakes, with the one leaving the site completely destroyed. They profited from its location at the junction of trading routes between Asia and Africa
11.
Eilat
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Eilat is Israels southernmost city, a busy port and popular resort at the northern tip of the Red Sea, on the Gulf of Aqaba. The citys beaches, coral reef, nightlife and desert landscapes make it a destination for domestic. A concerted effort by the Israeli Government to populate Elat began in 1955, Eilats arid desert climate and low humidity are moderated by proximity to a warm sea. Temperatures often exceed 40 °C in summer, and 21 °C in winter, Eilat averages 360 sunny days a year. With an annual rainfall of 28 millimetres and summer temperatures of 40 °C and higher, water resources. The main elements that influenced the history were the copper resources and other minerals, the ancient international roads that crossed the area. These resulted in a settlement density that defies the environmental conditions, like numerous other localities, Eilat is mentioned in the Bible both in singular and plural form. The original settlement was probably at the tip of the Gulf of Eilat. Ancient Egyptian records also document the extensive and lucrative mining operations, Eilat is mentioned in antiquity as a major trading partner with Elim, Thebes Red Sea Port, as early as the Twelfth dynasty of Egypt. In antiquity Eilat bordered the states of Edom, Midian and the territory of the Rephidim. Eilat is first mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in the Book of Exodus, the first six stations of the Exodus are in Egypt. The 7th is the crossing of the Red Sea and the 9th–13th are in and around Eilat, after the exodus from Egypt, station 12 refers to a dozen campsites in and around Timna in Modern Israel near Eilat. When King David conquered Edom, which up to then had been a border of Edom and Midian, he took over Eilat. The commercial port city and copper based industrial center were maintained by Egypt until reportedly rebuilt by Solomon at a known as Ezion-Geber. In 2 Kings 14, 21–22 All the people of Judah took Uzziah, who was sixteen years old and he rebuilt Elath, and restored it to Judah, after his fathers death. And again in 2 Kings 16,6, At that time the king of Edom recovered Elath for Edom and it was a prosperous Judean trading port from the 9th through 7th centuries BCE. Naʾaman, Nadav. During the Roman period a road was built to link the area with the Nabataean city of Petra, in the writings of medieval Muslim scholars, such as Al-Waqidi, it is told that Muhammad made a treaty with Eilats population, Jews and Christians. In the treaty, Muhammad offered protection to the Jews and the Christians, preserving their self-rule over the city, another reference to the Eilat in Islamic texts is believed to appear in the Quran, sura 7, 163–169
12.
Jordan Valley (Middle East)
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The Jordan Valley forms part of the larger Jordan Rift Valley. This Rift Valley segment is 120 km long and 15 km wide. In a wider sense, the term may cover the Dead Sea basin and the Wadi Arabah or Arava valley. Over most of its length, the Jordan Valley forms the border between Jordan to the east, and Israel and the West Bank to the west, Israel has allocated 86% of the land to Israeli settlements. According to the used in this article, what is elsewhere sometimes termed the Upper Jordan Valley is not considered part of the Jordan Valley. The Upper Jordan Valley comprises the Jordan River sources and the course of the Jordan River through the Hula Valley, the northern part of the valley, known in Arabic as the Ghor, includes the Jordan River segment south of the Sea of Galilee. Several degrees warmer than adjacent areas, its year-round agricultural climate, fertile soils, south of the Dead Sea, the Jordan Valley contains the hot, dry southern part of the valley known as Wadi Araba, the wilderness or Arabah desert of the Bible. Prior to the 1967 Six-Day War, the valleys Jordanian side was home to about 60,000 people largely engaged in agriculture and pastoralism. By 1971, the Valleys Jordanian population had declined to 5,000 as a result of the 1967 war, investments by the Jordanian government in the region allowed the population to rebound to over 85,000 by 1979. 80% of the farms in the Jordanian part of the valley are family farms no larger than 30 dunams. Some 47,000 Palestinians live in the part of the valley lies in the West Bank in about twenty permanent communities. Thousands of Bedouins also live in temporary communities, since the end of the 1967 war, every Israeli government has considered the western Jordan Valley to be the eastern border of Israel with Jordan. The 1994 peace treaty between Israel and Jordan defines the border between the countries on the Jordan and Yarmouk Rivers in the center of those two river courses. In regard to the West Bank, Annex I provides that This line is the boundary between Jordan and the territory which came under Israeli military government control in 1967. Any treatment of this line shall be without prejudice to the status of the territory, in Area C of the West Bank, Israel has been steadily demolishing homes of Palestinians claiming a variety of rationales. In the context of pre-state Zionist and later Israeli settlement, Jordan Valley means the tip of the Sea of Galilee. In the late 1930s, the kibbutzim in the Jordan Valley formed the Council of the Gush, in the 1940s, this economic, cultural, and security cooperation between the kibbutzim continued, and a regional school system was established. In 1949, the Jordan Valley Regional Council was formed, becoming the model for regional councils throughout Israel, by about 3000 BCE, produce from the valley was being exported to neighboring regions
13.
Southern District (Israel)
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The Southern District is one of Israels six administrative districts, and is the largest in terms of land area as well as the most sparsely populated. It covers most of the Negev desert, as well as the Arava valley, the population of the Southern District is 1,086,240 and its area is 14,185 km2. It is 79. 66% Jewish and 12. 72% Arab and 7. 62% Others, the district capital is Beersheba, while the largest city is Ashdod. Beershebas dormitory towns of Omer, Meitar, and Lehavim are all relatively affluent, while the development towns, some villages do not fall under the jurisdiction of a regional council. These include, Mahane Yatir Umm al-Hiran List of cities in Israel Arab localities in Israel Gaza Strip
14.
Drainage divide
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A drainage divide, water divide, divide, ridgeline, watershed, water parting, is the line that separates neighbouring drainage basins. In hilly country, the divide lies along topographical ridges, and may be in the form of a range of hills or mountains. In flat country—especially where the ground is marshy—the divide may be harder to discern, a valley floor divide is a low drainage divide that runs across a valley, sometimes created by deposition or stream capture. Settlements are often built on valley-floor divides in the Alps, examples are Eben im Pongau, Kirchberg in Tirol and Waidring. Extremely low divides with heights of less than two metres are found on the North German Plain within the Urstromtäler, for example, between Havel and Finow in the Eberswalde Urstromtal. In marsh deltas such as the Okavango, the largest drainage area on earth, or in large areas, such as the Finnish Lakeland. Another case is bifurcation, where the watershed is effectively in the river bed, in pre-industrial times, water divides were crossed at portages. Later, canals connected adjoining drainage basins, a key problem in such canals is ensuring a sufficient water supply, category, Drainage basins List of watershed topics European watershed Scottish watershed River source
15.
Red Sea
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The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait, to the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez. The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion, the sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley. The Red Sea has an area of roughly 438,000 km2, is about 2250 km long and. It has a depth of 2211 m in the central median trench. However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life, the sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the worlds northernmost tropical sea, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Red Sea as follows, On the North. The Southern limits of the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba, a line joining Husn Murad and Ras Siyyan. Red Sea is a translation of the Greek Erythra Thalassa, Latin Mare Rubrum, Arabic, البحر الأحمر. Al-Baḥr Al-Aḥmar, Somali Badda Cas and Tigrinya Qeyyiḥ bāḥrī, the name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red-coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the waters surface. A theory favored by modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions, herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably. Historically, it was known to western geographers as Mare Mecca. Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf or Gulf of Arabia. C, in that version, the Yam Suph is translated as Erythra Thalassa. The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms — the others being the Black Sea, the White Sea and the Yellow Sea. The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the part of the Indian Ocean. The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians, one such expedition took place around 2500 BC, and another around 1500 BC. Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea, historically, scholars argued whether these trips were possible
16.
Caracal
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The caracal is a medium-sized wild cat native to Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia and India. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and threatened by anthropogenic mortality and habitat loss due to conversion of habitat for agricultural land. Its natural habitat includes semi-deserts, open savannas, shrublands, moist woodlands, the caracal is characterised by a robust build, long legs, a short face, long tufted ears and long canine teeth. Its coat is reddish tan or sandy, while the ventral parts are lighter with small reddish markings. It reaches 40–50 cm at the shoulder and weighs 8–18 kg and it was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in 1777. Typically nocturnal, the caracal is highly secretive and difficult to observe and it is territorial, and lives mainly alone or in pairs. The caracal is a carnivore that preys upon small mammals, birds. It can leap higher than 3 m and catch birds in mid-air and it stalks its prey until it is within 5 m of it, after which it runs it down, the prey being killed by a bite to the throat or to the back of the neck. Breeding takes place throughout the year with both sexes becoming sexually mature by the time they are a year old, gestation lasts between two and three months, resulting in a litter of one to six kittens. Juveniles leave their mothers at nine to ten months, though a few stay back with their mothers. The average lifespan of the caracal in captivity is nearly 16 years, caracals have been tamed and used for hunting in ancient Egypt until the 20th century. The caracal is placed in the family Felidae and subfamily Felinae, the species was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber as Felis caracal in the journal Die Säugetiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur mit Beschreibungen in 1776. In 1843, British zoologist John Edward Gray placed the animal in the genus Caracal, the name caracal is composed of two Turkish words, kara, meaning black, and kulak, meaning ear. The first recorded use of this dates back to 1760. Alternative names for the caracal include gazelle cat, red cat, rooikat, the lynx of the Greeks and Romans was most probably the caracal and the name lynx is sometimes still applied to it, but the present-day lynx proper is a separate species. Earlier, the caracal was classified under the genera Felis or Lynx, however, a 2006 phylogenetic study showed that the caracal evolved nearly a million years before the lynx appeared. The caracal is most closely related to the African golden cat and these two species, together with the serval, form one of the eight lineages of Felidae. The Caracal lineage came into existence 8.5 mya, and it diverged from the serval probably within the last five million years, around the boundary between the Pliocene and the Pleistocene
17.
Savanna
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A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland grassland ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support a herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses. Savannas maintain an open canopy despite a high tree density and it is often believed that savannas feature widely spaced, scattered trees. However, in savannas, tree densities are higher and trees are more regularly spaced than in forests. Savanna covers approximately 20% of the Earths land area, the word originally entered English in 1555 as the Latin Zauana, equivalent in the orthography of the times to zavana. Peter Martyr reported it as the name for the plain around Comagre. The accounts are inexact, but this is placed in present-day Madugandí or at points on the nearby Guna Yala coast opposite Ustupo or on Point Mosquitos. These areas are now given over to modern cropland or jungle. The common usage meaning to describe vegetation now conflicts with a simplified yet widespread climatic concept meaning, the divergence has sometimes caused areas such as extensive savannas north and south of the Congo and Amazon Rivers to be excluded from mapped savanna categories. Barrens has been used almost interchangeably with savanna in different parts of North America, sometimes midwestern savanna were described as grassland with trees. Different authors have defined the limits of savanna tree coverage as 5–10%. Two factors common to all environments are rainfall variations from year to year. In the Americas, e. g. in Belize, Central America, savanna vegetation is similar from Mexico to South America, savannas are subject to regular wildfires and the ecosystem appears to be the result of human use of fire. For example, Native Americans created the Pre-Columbian savannas of North America by periodically burning where fire-resistant plants were the dominant species, pine barrens in scattered locations from New Jersey to coastal New England are remnants of these savannas. Aboriginal burning appears to have responsible for the widespread occurrence of savanna in tropical Australia and New Guinea. The maquis shrub savannas of the Mediterranean region were created and maintained by anthropogenic fire. These fires are usually confined to the layer and do little long term damage to mature trees. However, these either kill or suppress tree seedlings, thus preventing the establishment of a continuous tree canopy which would prevent further grass growth
18.
Solomon
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Solomon, also called Jedidiah, was, according to the Bible, Quran, hadith and Hidden Words a fabulously wealthy and wise king of Israel and a son of David, the previous king of Israel. The conventional dates of Solomons reign are circa 970 to 931 BC and he is described as the third king of the United Monarchy, which would break apart into the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah shortly after his death. Following the split, his descendants ruled over Judah alone. According to the Talmud, Solomon is one of the 48 prophets, in the Quran, he is considered a major prophet, and Muslims generally refer to him by the Arabic variant Sulayman, son of David. Solomon was, according to the Quran, a king of ancient Israel as well as the son of David, the Hebrew Bible credits him as the builder of the First Temple in Jerusalem. It portrays him as great in wisdom, wealth, and power any of the previous kings of the country. His sins included idolatry, marrying foreign women, and ultimately turning away from Yahweh, Solomon is the subject of many other later references and legends, most notably in the 1st-century apocryphal work known as the Testament of Solomon. Solomon was born in Jerusalem, the second child of David and his wife Bathsheba. The first child, a son conceived adulterously during Uriahs lifetime, had died before Solomon was conceived as a punishment on account of the death of Uriah by Davids order. Solomon had three named full brothers through Bathsheba, Nathan, Shammua, and Shobab, besides six known older half-brothers through as many mothers, according to the First Book of Kings, when David was old, he could not get warm. So they sought a young woman throughout all the territory of Israel, and found Abishag the Shunammite. The young woman was very beautiful, and she was of service to the king and attended to him, while David was in this state, court factions were maneuvering for power. Solomon greatly expanded his military strength, especially the cavalry and chariot arms and he founded numerous colonies, some of which doubled as trading posts and military outposts. Trade relationships were a focus of his administration, Solomon is considered the most wealthy of the Israelite kings named in the Bible. Solomon also built the First Temple, beginning in the year of his reign. Solomon was the Biblical king most famous for his wisdom, in 1 Kings he sacrificed to God and prayed for wisdom. God personally answered his prayer, promising him great wisdom because he did not ask for self-serving rewards like long life or the death of his enemies. Perhaps the best known story of his wisdom is the Judgment of Solomon, Solomon easily resolved the dispute by commanding the child to be cut in half and shared between the two
19.
Edom
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Edom is the name of a country and a people located initially in Transjordan, between Ammon to the north, the Dead Sea and the Arabah to the west, and the Arabian desert to the south and east. Edom is a used in written sources relating to the late Bronze Age and to the entire Iron Age in the Levant, such as the Hebrew Bible. In classical antiquity the cognate name Idumea was used to refer to an area in the same general region. Edom is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, but also in a list of the Egyptian pharaoh Seti I from c.1215 BC, the Edomites, who have been identified archaeologically, were a Semitic people who probably arrived in the region around the 14th century BC. Archaeological investigation showed that the country flourished between the 13th and 8th centuries BC, and was destroyed after a period of decline in the 6th century BC by the Babylonians. Once pushed out of their territory, the Edomites settled during the Persian period in an area comprising the hills of Judea down to the area north of Beer Sheva. Here the people appear under the form of their old name, as Idumeans or Idumaeans, and their new territory is called Idumea or Idumaea. The Hebrew word Edom means red, and is derived from the name of its founder, whose name was Esau. Later, as an adult, he sold his birthright to his brother Jacob for red pottage. The Tanakh describes the Edomites as descendants of Esau, the Edomites may have been connected with the Shasu and Shutu, nomadic raiders mentioned in Egyptian sources. The earliest Iron Age settlements—possibly copper mining camps—date to the 9th century BC, settlement intensified by the late 8th century BC and the main sites so far excavated have been dated between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. This occurred after the Hebrew prophet Isaiah had earlier quoted Yahweh as pronouncing that Edom was marked for destruction, another scriptural reference from Ezekiel chapter 35 foretells that Edom will be completely destroyed. According to the Egyptian inscriptions, the Aduma at times extended their possessions to the borders of Egypt, after the conquest of Judah by the Babylonians, Edomites settled in the region of Hebron. They prospered in this new country, called by the Greeks and Romans Idumaea or Idumea, the Edomites original country, according to the Hebrew Bible, stretched from the Sinai peninsula as far as Kadesh Barnea. Southward it reached as far as Eilat, which was the seaport of Edom, on the north of Edom was the territory of Moab. The boundary between Moab and Edom was the Wadi Zered, the ancient capital of Edom was Bozrah. According to Genesis, Esaus descendants settled in land after displacing the Horites. It was also called the land of Seir, Mount Seir appears to have been identified with them
20.
Nabataean Kingdom
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The Nabataean Kingdom, also named Nabatea, was a political state of the Arab Nabataeans during classical antiquity. Nabataea remained independent from the 4th century BC until it was annexed by the Roman Empire in AD106, the Nabataeans were one among several nomadic Bedouin tribes that roamed the Arabian Desert and moved with their herds to wherever they could find pasture and water. They became familiar with their area as seasons passed, and they struggled to survive during bad years when seasonal rainfall diminished, although the Nabataeans were initially embedded in Aramaic culture, theories about them having Aramean roots are rejected by modern scholars. Instead, archaeological, religious and linguistic evidence confirm that they are a northern Arabian tribe, the precise origin of the specific tribe of Arab nomads remains uncertain. One hypothesis locates their original homeland in todays Yemen, in the southwest of the Arabian peninsula, another hypothesis argues that they came from the eastern coast of the peninsula. The Nabataeans might have originated there and migrated west between the 6th and 4th centuries BC into northwestern Arabia and much of what is now modern-day Jordan. Nabataeans have been associated with other groups of people. A people called the Nabaiti, who were defeated by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, were associated by some with the Nabataeans because of the temptation to link their similar names. Another misconception is their identification with the Nebaioth of the Hebrew Bible, unlike the rest of the Arabian tribes, the Nabataeans later emerged as vital players in the region during their times of prosperity. However, their influence then faded, and the Nabataeans were forgotten, although the Nabataeans were literate, they left no lengthy historical texts. However, there are thousands of inscriptions still found today in places where they once lived, including graffiti. The first historical reference to the Nabataeans is by Greek historian Diodorus Siculus who lived around 30 BC and he uses a source by Hieronymus of Cardia, one of Alexander the Greats generals who had a first-hand encounter with the Nabataeans. Diodorus relates how the Nabataeans survive in a desert and how they managed to defeat any enemies by hiding in the desert until the latter would surrender for lack of water. The Nabataeans dug cisterns that were covered and left signs known only to themselves and they never brought their attempts to a successful conclusion. - Diodorus After Alexander the Greats death in 323 BC, his empire split among his generals, during the conflict between Alexanders generals, Antigonus I conquered the Levant and this brought him to the borders of Edom, just north of Petra. This wealth distinguished the Nabataeans from other Arab tribes, Antigonus appointed one of his officers to attack the Nabataean barbarians and take their herds as booty. The three raids either came to nothing or ended up in disaster for the Greeks. In the first raid, the Greeks managed to loot tonnes of spices and silver from Petra in 312 BC, although the year is regarded as the start of Nabataean history
21.
Petra
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Petra, originally known to the Nabataeans as Raqmu, is a historical and archaeological city in southern Jordan. The city is famous for its architecture and water conduit system. Another name for Petra is the Rose City due to the color of the out of which it is carved. Established possibly as early as 312 BC as the city of the Arab Nabataeans, it is a symbol of Jordan. The Nabataeans were nomadic Arabs who took advantage of Petras proximity to trade routes to establish it as a major trading hub. The Nabataeans are also known for their ability in constructing efficient water-collecting methods in the barren deserts. Petra lies on the slope of Jebel al-Madhbah in a basin among the mountains form the eastern flank of Arabah. It has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985, the site remained unknown to the western world until 1812, when it was introduced by Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt. It was described as a rose-red city half as old as time in a Newdigate Prize-winning poem by John William Burgon, UNESCO has described it as one of the most precious cultural properties of mans cultural heritage. Petra was named amongst the New7Wonders of the World in 2007 and was chosen by the Smithsonian Magazine as one of the 28 Places to See Before You Die. Pliny the Elder and other writers identify Petra as the capital of the Nabataeans, excavations have demonstrated that it was the ability of the Nabataeans to control the water supply that led to the rise of the desert city, creating an artificial oasis. The area is visited by flash floods, and archaeological evidence demonstrates the Nabataeans controlled these floods by the use of dams, cisterns and these innovations stored water for prolonged periods of drought and enabled the city to prosper from its sale. Another approach was possibly from the plateau to the north. Today, most modern visitors approach the site from the east, at the end of the narrow gorge stands Petras most elaborate ruin, Al Khazneh, hewn into the sandstone cliff. A little farther from the Treasury, at the foot of the mountain called en-Nejr, is a massive theatre, at the point where the valley opens out into the plain, the site of the city is revealed with striking effect. The amphitheatre has been cut into the hillside and into several of the tombs during its construction, rectangular gaps in the seating are still visible. Almost enclosing it on three sides are rose-colored mountain walls, divided into groups by deep fissures and lined with knobs cut from the rock in the form of towers. By 2010 BC, some of the earliest recorded farmers had settled in Beidha, Petra is listed in Egyptian campaign accounts and the Amarna letters as Pel, Sela or Seir
22.
Timna Valley
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The Timna Valley is located in southern Israel in the southwestern Arabah, approximately 30 kilometres north of the Gulf of Aqaba and the town of Eilat. The area is rich in ore and has been mined since the 5th millennium BCE. There is controversy whether the mines were active during the Kingdom of Israel, a large section of the valley, containing ancient remnants of copper mining and ancient worship, is encompassed in a recreation park. In July 2011, the Israeli government approved the construction of an international airport, copper has been mined in the area since the 5th or 6th millennium BCE. The copper was used for ornaments, but more importantly for stone cutting, as saws, scientific attention and public interest was aroused in the 1930s, when Nelson Glueck attributed the copper mining at Timna to King Solomon and named the site King Solomons Mines. His excavation and restoration of the allowed for the reconstruction of Timna Valley’s long and complex history of copper production. The modern state of Israel also began mining copper on the edge of the valley in 1955. The mine was reopened in 1980, the mine was named Timnah after a Biblical chief. Timna Valley is notable for its uncommon stone formations and sand, although predominantly red, the sand can be yellow, orange, grey, dark brown, or black. Light green or blue sand occurs near the copper mines, water and wind erosion have created several unusual formations that are only found in similar climates. The most striking and well-known formation in Timna Valley are Solomons Pillars, the pillars are natural structures that were formed by centuries of water erosion through fractures in the sandstone cliff until it became a series of distinct, pillar-shaped structures. American archaeologist Nelson Glueck caused a surge of attention for the pillars in the 1930s and he claimed that the pillars were related to King Solomon and gave them the name Solomons Pillars. Although his hypothesis lacked support and has not been accepted, the name stuck, the pillars are known as the backdrop for evening concerts and dance performances the park presents in the summer. The Mushroom is a monolithic, mushroom-shaped, red sandstone rock formation known as a hoodoo. The mushroom shape was caused by wind, humidity, and water erosion over centuries, the Mushroom is surrounded by copper ore smelting sites from between the 14th and 12th centuries BCE. The Arches are natural arches formed by erosion, as well, Arches are not as rare as Solomons Pillars and the Mushroom, and similar structures can be found in elsewhere in the world. The walking trail goes to the Arches also goes past the copper mine shafts. Beno Rothenberg, the excavator of the Timna Valley area, excavated a small Egyptian temple dedicated to Hathor
23.
Wadi Rum
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Wadi Rum also known as The Valley of the Moon is a valley cut into the sandstone and granite rock in southern Jordan 60 km to the east of Aqaba, it is the largest wadi in Jordan. Wadi Rum has been inhabited by human cultures since prehistoric times, with many cultures–including the Nabateans–leaving their mark in the form of rock paintings, graffiti. In the West, Wadi Rum may be best known for its connection with British officer T. E. Lawrence, the area is centered on the main valley of Wadi Rum. The highest elevation in Jordan is Jabal Umm ad Dami at 1,840 m high and it was first located by Difallah Ateeg, a Zalabia Bedouin from Rum. On a clear day, it is possible to see the Red Sea and the Saudi border from the top. Jabal Ram or Jebel Rum is the second highest peak in Jordan and the highest peak in the central Rum, rising directly above Rum valley, opposite Jebel um Ishrin, which is possibly one metre lower. Khazali Canyon in Wadi Rum is the site of petroglyphs etched into the walls depicting humans. Recently, Geoff Lawton has achieved success in establishing a permaculture ecosystem in Wadi Rum, shots of Wadi Rum in Lawrence of Arabia kick-started Jordans tourism industry. Wadi Rum is home to the Zalabia Bedouin who, working with climbers and trekkers, have made a success of developing eco-adventure tourism, in recent years, its luxury camping retreats have spurred more tourism to the area as well. Popular activities in the environment include camping under the stars, riding Arab horses. ATVs and Jeeps are also available and new camps have opened that offer accommodation for tourists. Dima and Lama Hattab coordinate an annual marathon in the region called Jabal Ishrin, the Bedouin have climbed in the Sandstone mountains of Wadi Rum for many generations. Many of their Bedouin Roads have been rediscovered and documented by modern climbers, several are included in the climbing guidebook by Tony Howard, and online by Liên and Gilles Rappeneau. In 1949 Sheikh Hamdan took surveyors to the summit of Jabal Ram, the first recorded European ascent of Jabal Ram took place in November 1952, by Charmian Longstaff and Sylvia Branford, guided by Sheik Hamdan. The first recorded rock climbs started in 1984, with the first of many visits by English climbers Howard, Baker, Taylor and Shaw. Many new routes were climbed in the 1980s, by team, French guide Wilfried Colonna, by the Swiss Remy brothers. The first dedicated climbing guide book, Treks and Climb in Wadi Rum, some of the many Bedouin routes have been documented online by Lien and Gilles Rappeneau. A new routes book for climbers is held at the Wadi Rum Guest House, the route Guerre Sainte was climbed in 2000 by Batoux, Petit and friends
24.
Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature
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The organizations principal activities include, Setting up protected areas to safeguard the best wildlife and scenic areas Breeding endangered species to save them from extinction. Enforcing governmental laws to protect wildlife, control illegal hunting Raise awareness in environmental issues through educational programs, promoting the sustainable use of natural resources. The organization has made a number of important achievements include the breeding and re-introduction into the wilderness of the Arabian Oryx, gazelle. It has also established six protected areas within Jordan covering over 1200 square kilometers and it has also built a Food Café and Internet Café to increase sales as the revenue of these two cafes is used directly to assist local communities. The Wild Jordan center, located in Amman was funded by USAID, the RSCN has 100% local employment policy in all their protected areas, resulting in ecotourism directly supporting upwards of 160,000 families throughout Jordan. Wild Jordans position in the RSCN allows for control over ecotourism through the management of income generating programs that build on local products, in 2010, Wild Jordan won the prestigious Guardian-Observer Ethical Travel Award, which is given for outstanding work in responsible tourism. Feynan Ecolodge is owned by the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature and is the first of its kind in Jordan, Feynan Ecolodge was developed to provide economic opportunities for local communities and generate revenue for the conservation of Jordans wild places. Feynan Lodge consists of 26 rooms, which can accommodate 60 people and it was constructed in the shape of an ancient caravanserai. Electricity is generated through solar panels, which is used in the reception office, bathrooms. The rest of the building is lit by candles, which are made locally by hand, local springs are the source for water used at the lodge. Vegetarian food is served and is prepared from products purchased within a 40 km radius of the lodge. Alcohol is banned as a courtesy to cultural sensitivity, additionally, Feynan employs local women, which is unusual especially in rural Jordan. Feynan EcoLodge provides employment in an area there are few jobs. Feynan Ecolodge directly benefits over 80 families in the local Bedouin community, locals and Bedouins incorporate culture in the lodge by introducing their way of life and providing genuine cultural interactions. Um Khalid is a Bedouin woman who bakes all of Feynans bread fresh daily, Feynan Lodge is considered the emblem of the Jordans conservation crusade and the heart of sustainable tourism in Dana. In September 2009, EcoHotels took over the management and operation of the lodge, EcoHotels manages and operates the ecolodge in a unique private sector/NGO partnership with the RSCN, an arrangement that USAID encouraged. Since EcoHotels has taken over, visitor numbers increased by 130% in the first 18 months of operation, the Wadi Feynan eco-lodge now runs at 80 percent occupancy in season. Ecotourism activities in the Dana-Feynman area generated about $565,000 in revenue, tarazi attributes Feynans success to the ecotourism model that generates profit while also improving the surrounding area
25.
Ein Tamar
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Ein Tamar is a moshav in the northern Arabah valley in Israel. Located south of the Dead Sea, it falls under the jurisdiction of Tamar Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 190. The moshav was established in August 1982 by 24 families, the historical, biblical village of Tamar is probably located in the Hatzeva Fortress near Ir Ovot. Ein Tamar Center for the Development of the Negev and Galilee
26.
Ir Ovot
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Ir Ovot, was an agricultural cooperative in Israel 1967–1980s, located in the northeastern Negevs Arava region, and still refers to a small, group of homes near New Ein Hatzeva. It is the site of an archaeological complex known as Tamar Fortress or Hatzevah Fortress which dates to the 10th century BCE. The settlement abuts the Ein Hatzeva bloc of agricultural villages on the side of Highway 90 near the Jordanian border. Originally the site of the Ein Husub police station during the British Mandate of Palestine, the village of Ir Ovot was founded in 1967, in an area deserted apart from a small military base and roadside cafe on the way to Eilat. It was founded by a group of American Jews led by law student and court clerk Rabbi Simcha Pearlmutter. First observed and documented by Alois Musil in 1902, the Roman fortress was identified on Fritz Franks 1932 travels in the region. In the 1960s, it was first suggested by Yohanan Aharoni that the site might be the same as Tamar of the Book of Ezekiel 47,19 and 48,28 and it includes a 1, 000-year-old shade tree, and the largest Paliurus spina-christi in Israel. The area was used for training crews in site conservation before their work on the Masada site, the earliest remains, dating to the Solomonic period of the 10th century BCE, resembles other contemporary Negev plateau fortresses and included period Negevite pottery. The second layer consists of a very large Iron Age fortification surrounded by a casemate wall, excavation revealed a four-chambered, north-facing gate complex near the northeastern corner and three storerooms, a pair of granaries, a moat and a defensive wall. A third fortress from the Late First Temple period from the 7th–6th centuries BCE was found, though only the walls foundations remain. However, a wall with two towers set 14 metres apart was reconstructed. A pit full of smashed clay and stone, which were reassembled into 74 cultic vessels, was also found, indicating a probable Edomite shrine. Censers, chalices, altars and human figurines were unearthed outside the wall on the sites northern edge in 1993. Some of the sherds resemble vessels found in an Edomite shrine at Horvat Qitmit, a circular stone stamp seal discovered inside the fortress, picturing two men in long robes on either side of an altar, provides another indicator of Edomite origin. The pit recoveries dating to the end of the century could possibly have been destroyed in the campaign of religious reforms spearheaded by King Josiah mentioned in Book of Kings II. The Roman fortress layout is similar to other imperial outposts in the region, an official Latin inscription that dates several area strongholds to the 3rd century CE was discovered on a large limestone slab at nearby Yotvata bears. This site was the largest in the area at 46 square metres, a thermæ and caravanserai of the same period were also found, and is similar to the thermæ at Ashkelon and others in the nearby country. A row of rooms from an earlier, 1st century BCE to 1st century CE fortress revealed artefacts pointing to a Nabatæan occupation predating Roman annexation, coins bearing the likeness of Nabatæan kings were found, along with storage jars and other vessels
27.
Idan, Israel
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Idan is a moshav in southern Israel. Located in the Arabah valley, it falls under the jurisdiction of the Central Arava Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 360. Moshav Idan was founded in 1980 by immigrants from Canada, the United States, and South Africa and it takes its name from the nearby Idan Stream, which was in turn named after the Arab name for the stream, Wadi al-Aidan. In 2005, it had a population of 150, after the Israel–Jordan peace treaty, some of the lands of Idan were handed over to Jordan. Between Idan and Hatzeva is a road, called Peace Road. The Jewish National Fund paved the Peace Route, along the border between Israel and Jordan, for the benefit of central Arava inhabitants, following the Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty of 1994. The road runs along the foot of the Arava Cliffs, opposite the Edom Mountains, a picnic area, lookouts and a trail have been built along the way. The road allows access to the eastern part of the Shezaf Nature Reserve
28.
Ein Hatzeva
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Ein Hatzeva is a moshav in the central Arava valley in Israel. Located south of the Dead Sea, it falls under the jurisdiction of Tamar Regional Council, ein Hatzeva was founded in 1960 as an unaffiliated agriculture farm, and was not recognized by the government. The founders attempted to grow vegetables in the arid Arava area, and it was named after the nearby Hatzeva Spring, which in turn takes its name from the Arabic name, Ayn Husb. The location was mentioned in Greek texts as Eisebon
29.
Hatzeva
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Hatzeva is a moshav in southern Israel. Located in the Arava,12 km north of Ein Yahav, in 2015 it had a population of 566. Hatzeva was founded in 1965 as a Nahal settlement near the Arava Road and it was named after the nearby Hatzeva Fortress. In 1971 its location changed slightly, near the moshavs access road lies the Hatzeva field school, located where the moshav was until 1971
30.
Ein Yahav
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Ein Yahav is a moshav in Israel. Located 100 m below sea level in the northern Arava,12 km south of Hatzeva, in 2015 it has a population of 665. It is named after the Yahav Spring, located southwest of the moshav, in 1950, an agricultural experimentation station was set up at Ein Yahav by members of Shahal, a movement to settle arid areas of Israel. The name was derived from the Arabic name for the area, Ayn Wiba, the station was abandoned and on 7 October 1953, Israel Defense Forces veterans settled there. In 1959 a Nahal settlement was established 5 km to the east of the original, in 1962 it was civilianized by senior moshavniks and in 1967 the settlement moved to its current location. Ein Yahav has developed chocolate-colored peppers that combine the benefits of red. There is an ancient copper-smelting site near Ein Yahav, a small hill with blackened slopes, covered mainly by crushed copper slag, identify the remains of the smelting devices used at the end of the Early Bronze Age for smelting copper
31.
Moshav
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Moshav is a type of Israeli town or settlement, in particular a type of cooperative agricultural community of individual farms pioneered by the Labour Zionists during the second wave of aliyah. A resident or a member of a moshav can be called a moshavnik, the moshavim are similar to kibbutzim with an emphasis on community labour. Workers produced crops and goods on their properties through individual and/or pooled labour and resources and used profit, moshavim are governed by an elected council. Community projects and facilities were financed by a special tax, there are several variants, of which the most common are, Moshav ovdim, a workers cooperative settlement. This is the more numerous type and relies on cooperative purchasing of supplies and marketing of produce, the family or household is, however, Moshav shitufi, a collective smallholders settlement that combines the economic features of a kibbutz with the social features of a moshav. Farming is done collectively and profits are shared equally and this form is closer to the collectivity of the kibbutz, although consumption is family- or household-based, production and marketing are collective. Unlike the moshav ovdim, land is not allotted to households or individuals, the first moshav, Nahalal, was established in the Jezreel Valley on September 11,1921. By 1986 about 156,700 Israelis lived and worked on 448 moshavim, for this reason, the moshav became largely a Mizrahi institution, whereas the kibbutz movement remained basically an Ashkenazi institution. Since the Six-Day War in 1967, both moshavim and kibbutzim have relied increasingly on outside—particularly Palestinian—labour, financial instabilities in the early 1980s hit many moshavim hard, as did their high birth rate and the problem of absorbing all the children who might wish to remain in the community. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress
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Sapir, Israel
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Sapir is a communal settlement in southern Israel. Located near Route 90, it falls under the jurisdiction of Central Arava Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 374. The village was established in 1979 and is named after Pinchas Sapir and it was planned by the architect Gershon Tzippor and was founded primarily to provide housing for municipal workers of the regional council. As time passed, its nature changed, as of 2006 it houses mostly people of various professions, as opposed to other settlements of the Arabah, which mostly do agriculture. Near the community there is a park and an airstrip
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Tzofar
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Tzofar is a moshav in southern Israel. Located near Route 90, about 120 km north of Eilat, south of Sapir and north of Tzukim, in 2015 it had a population of 394. The name derives from the nearby Tzofar stream and is referring to one of the friends of Job. In the Negev there are also kibbutzim with the names of the two friends, Mahane Bildad in the centre and Elifaz in the southern Arava. The settlement was founded as a Nahal settlement in 1968 where Bildad Camp is currently located, in 1975 it was established as a moshav by city residents and native moshavniks and relocated several kilometers north to reach is present-day location. Winter farming is the industry of the moshav. The produce is intended mainly for export, while some of it is sold locally, vegetables grown in the moshav include melons, peppers, and tomatoes. An attempt has been made to farm lobster in artificial ponds, pens for cattle have been constructed to serve as a holding place for cattle being imported into Israel. The moshav also contains a grove of palm trees jointly owned by all the inhabitants, a secondary source of income is tourism, based on the proximity of Tzofar to the ancient Nabatean spice route and ancient Nabatean city of Moa
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Tzukim
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Tzukim, also Zuqim, is a communal settlement in southern Israel. Located in the Arava,8 km south of Tzofar, it falls under jurisdiction of the Central Arava Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 289. Tzukim was founded in 2001 on land vacated by the Bildad army camp, Bildad also served as a transit point for new settlement in the Arabah valley. The first settlement phase was supposed to begin in 2003, with fifty families, the first settlers were people in their 40s from central Israel. Tzukims economy is supposed to be based on tourism,200 guest houses are planned here as well as restaurants and spas. By 2008, twelve rooms had been built and with 70 under construction
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Paran, Israel
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Paran is a small moshav in southern Israel. Located in the Arabah valley around 100 km north of Eilat, in 2015 it had a population of 435. The moshav is named after a passage in the Book of Genesis, And God was with the lad, and he grew, and dwelt in the wilderness, and he dwelt in the wilderness of Paran. And his mother took him an out of the land of Egypt. Each of the family farm units covers 50 dunams, the main crops are high quality peppers and flowers for export. In addition,14 of the run a cowshed of 40-45 dairy cows each. Among the smaller branches are a date palm orchard and turkey production. In 2008 new rules in Israel made solar power profitable, some families started to produce electricity from 50 kWp photovoltaic power plants, using the areas high daily solar radiation and dry weather
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Yahel
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Yahel is a Reform kibbutz in southern Israel. Located in the Arabah region of the Negev desert,60 miles from the city of Eilat, in 2015 it had a population of 182. Established in 1977, it was the first kibbutz founded by the Reform movement, the name is symbolic and means will put up a tent. It comes from the Book of Isaiah, zion in the desert, American Jews in Israel’s Reform Kibbutzim. Albany, NY, State University of New York Press,2007, official website Kibbutz Yahel - Maayan BaMidbar
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Neot Smadar
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Neot Smadar is a kibbutz in southern Israel. Located in the Arabah, it falls under the jurisdiction of Hevel Eilot Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 210. Neot Smadar is located in the southern Negev about 70 km. north of Eilat, the kibbutz was established in 1989, on the grounds of an abandoned kibbutz, Shizafon. Neot Smadar is as a community featuring architecturally unique buildings with passive cooling towers. The Art Center houses 14 workshops for Stained glass, ceramics, textile, wood, the building is insulated with mud bricks, with air conditioning supplied by a desert cooling tower. The economy is based on agriculture, with 500 dunams of organically cultivated vineyards, deciduous trees, olives, date plantations, Olive oil is produced in a cold press set up with assistance from ICA and Israels Ministry of Industry and Trade in 2001. The high-quality oil has been conferred the highest grade by Israels Olive Council, the kibbutz operates a boutique organic winery and produces a variety of cheeses from fresh goat milk. Its roadside restaurant, Pundak Neot Smadar, offers vegetarian food and sells the kibbutzs organic products
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Neve Harif
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Neve Harif is a kibbutz in southern Israel. Located in the Arabah valley near Eilat, it falls under the jurisdiction of Hevel Eilot Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 110. The kibbutz was founded in 1983 by city dwellers who wanted to establish a kibbutz that would combine the kibbutz ideology with a daily lifestyle. The community was established on a site named Shitim, moving to the current site a year later. The kibbutz was originally named Avida based on its location, but was renamed Neve Harif in honour of Knesset member and kibbutz activist Moshe Harif who was killed in a car crash in 1982
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Lotan, Israel
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Lotan is a Reform kibbutz in southern Israel. Located in the Arabah Valley in the Negev desert, it falls under the jurisdiction of Hevel Eilot Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 181. The kibbutz is a member of the Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism, the name of the Kibbutz derives from one of the sons of Seir. The kibbutzs Center for Creative Ecology is an education, research. The Center offers academic programs in conjunction with the University of Massachusetts Amherst and certification courses in permaculture, sustainable design and training
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Ketura, Israel
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Ketura is a kibbutz in southern Israel. Located north of Eilat in the Arabah valley, it falls under the jurisdiction of Hevel Eilot Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 485. Ketura was founded in November 1973 by a group of young Americans and its name was taken from a nearby hill and wadi, and is also the name of the second wife of Abraham. Difficulties in the early years frustrated many of the inhabitants of the kibbutz, at the same time, more Young Judaeans joined the community, along with a variety of other immigrants as well as Israel Boy and Girl Scouts Federation graduates. Ketura is in the Southern Arava - Hevel Eilot Regional Council, today Ketura has about 150 members and several young families who are candidates to become members. Ketura is unique among kibbutzim for its religious pluralism, the population of the kibbutz is composed of observant, masorati, and secular members, an unusual situation for a kibbutz. Ketura received the Speaker of the Knesset Prize for religious tolerance as a result of its religious progressiveness, Agricultural enterprises of the kibbutz include a date orchard. The extract is sold around the world as a natural ingredient and pigment for use in cosmetics. Ketura is also a partner in the Arava Power Company, http, //www. aravapower. com/, there is one 4. 95MW field on the kibbutz, Ketura Sun, with a second 40MW field opened in 2015, then the largest in Israel. Economic cooperation with other kibbutzim in the area includes a regional date-packing plant, Ardom Computing Services, and Ardag, many members work outside the kibbutz in professional positions such as teachers, physical and occupational therapists, researchers, social workers, and more. Ketura also offers accounting and bookkeeping services, with members working in these positions. A number of work in the local NGO - The Arava Institute for Environmental Studies Ketura is part of the Green Kibbutz movement. In addition to promoting awareness, recycling and opening a second store, Ketura planted a community garden. Members of Ketura founded the Arava Institute for Environmental Studies, which is located at Ketura, the institute promotes regional environmental cooperation between Israelis, Palestinians and residents of neighbouring Arab countries in environmental matters, with a focus on the desert ecosystem. The only surviving example of the Judean Date Palm, artificially germinated from 2, 000-year-old seeds discovered in excavations, was planted in Ketura. Solar power in Israel Agricultural research in Israel Official website Ketura Kibbutz Program Center Hadassah Medical Organization Arava Institute for Environmental Studies
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Grofit
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Grofit is a kibbutz in southern Israel. Located near Eilat in the Arabah region, it falls under the jurisdiction of Hevel Eilot Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 262. The community was founded in 1963 as a Nahal settlement and is named after the Arabic name of the nearby Grofit Creek, in 1966 the kibbutz was settled by adults who had been members of the HaNoar HaOved VeHaLomed youth movement. Moshe Yaalon, Chief of Staff of the IDF from 2002 to 2005
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Yotvata
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Yotvat is also the Hebrew name for Tiran Island. Yotvata is a kibbutz in southern Israel, located on the Arabah road in the southern Negev, it falls under the jurisdiction of Hevel Eilot Regional Council. In 2015 it had a population of 657, the Arabah valley is an arid desert where the average annual rainfall is less than 30 mm and temperatures often exceed 40 °C in summer, and 21 °C in winter. Located approximately 40 km north of the Red Sea, Yotvata is the first, biggest, Yotvata started in 1951 as a Nahal settlement named Ein Radian. In 1957 it was established as the first kibbutz in the southern Arabah region by Ihud HaKvutzot VeHaKibbutzim. The kibbutz is named after an Israelite encampment mentioned in Numbers 33,34 and Deuteronomy 10,7, …from there they went to Gudgodah, and then to Jotbatha, a land of streaming water. Althme debates over the location of the biblical Yotvata, the idea of a desert oasis for Israelis was in the founders mind. The founders, a group of men and women 20 years of age and just out of the military service, decided to pursue a life of pioneering. They had massive challenges presented by the desert, the burning sun and they started making all kinds of agricultural trials growing grapes, pomegranates and vegetables, they raised cattle and chickens - all with little success. The dates plantation proved more suitable to the arid conditions, and then came the initiative to found a dairy that would provide milk to Eilat, which was expected to grow rapidly. Breeding milking cows in the desert was considered an impossible mission, in 1962 the dairy was founded, with four cows, the member who led the vision and the operation was Ori Horazo. The members tried to get funds from the Jewish Agency, eventually, they received funding from the Israeli Trade and Industry Minister, Pinhas Sapir. In the first year, the dairy produced 500,000 liters of milk, by 2008, it was producing 62 million liters a year and controlled 63% of the Israeli dairy beverages market, and 49% of the fortified milk market. It employed 130 workers and had 700 cows, the dairies of Kibbutz Yahel, Lotan, and Ketura provide milk for Yotvata. East of the kibbutz lies an ancient Arab resting fortress with towers in its corners, dating from the Nabataeans era, on a hill west of the kibbutz, there is an ancient fort dating from the Iron age. The fort overlooks the wellspring, and is considered to have served the Egyptians copper miners, east of the kibbutz to the north and to the south there is a wells-chain connected with an underground tunnel that leads the aquifer water to the surface. Fugaras is an ancient but sophisticated irrigation system, north of the kibbutz are found two ancient leopard traps. Leopards are known to have inhabited this area, Yotvata is a cooperative community, where most adult residents work on the kibbutz in production, services or education
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Samar, Israel
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Samar is a kibbutz in the Arabah valley in the far south of Israel. Located near Eilat, it falls under the jurisdiction of Hevel Eilot Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 274. The kibbutz was founded in 1976 by garin from other kibbutzim who wanted to form a different kind of community, the name Samar is borrowed from a plant that grows in the Arabah and near the Dead Sea. Samar is one of the few kibbutzim that continues to maintain a consistent with the original socialist ideals of the kibbutz movement. Kibbutz Samar is primarily engaged in growing and exporting organic dates, dates from Kibbutz Samar and other kibbutzim in the Ardom Co-op can be purchased in the United States at Mrs. Greens Natural Market. Most of Samars electricity is set to be provided by a 30 m solar tower that provided 100 kilowatts of energy. The tower was built by the company AORA, sits on 2 dunams, and includes 30 mirrors
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Elifaz, Israel
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Elifaz is a kibbutz in the Arava valley, near Eilat, in the far south of Israel. It is under the jurisdiction of the Hevel Eilot Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 129. Elifaz was founded in January 1983 by a group of Nahal members from Jerusalem, Bat Yam, Haifa, the kibbutz is affiliated with the Kibbutz HaArtzi movement. The name Elifaz was inspired by Eliphaz in the Book of Job, in 2014, the solar energy developer Arava Power Company inaugurated six solar fields in the Arava and Negev, generating a total of 36 megawatts of electricity. One of these fields is in Kibbutz Elifaz. Solar energy in Israel Official website
