1.
Architectural design competition
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An architectural design competition is a type of competition in which an organization that intends on constructing a new building invites architects to submit design proposals. The winning design is chosen by an independent panel of design professionals. This procedure is used to generate new ideas for building design, to stimulate public debate, generate publicity for the project. Winning first prize in a competition is not a guarantee that the project will be constructed, the commissioning body often has the right to veto the winning design, and both requirements and finances may change, thwarting the original intention. Architecture competitions have a more than 2, 500-year-old history, the Acropolis in Athens was a result of an architectural competition in 448 B. C. as were several cathedrals in the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance, many initiated by the church have been decided through design competition. Examples are the Spanish Stairs in Rome or in 1419, a competition was held to design the dome of the Florence Cathedral, open competitions were held in the late 18th century in several countries including the United States, Great Britain, Ireland, France and Sweden. In 19th century England and Ireland there have been over 2,500 competitions in five decades, the Institute of British Architects drafted a first set of rules in 1839, and a set of formal regulations in 1872. The German Regulations were introduced in 1867, in the same period in the Netherlands an association for the advancement of architecture started organising conceptual competitions with the aim of stimulating architects creativity. Project competitions or ideas competitions, depending on the intention of building the project or generating new ideas, single-stage or two-stage competitions, dependending on the scale and complexity of the competition. Anonymous or cooperative procedures, anonymity supports greater objectivity during the evaluation, in cooperative procedures, the authors are invited to make in-person presentations to the jury in order to explain their design strategies and allow individual discussion. In France and Germany design competitions are compulsory for all public buildings exceeding a certain cost, most significant among architectural competitions are the ones which are internationally open, attract a large number of design submissions, and the winning design is built. Student competition Student competitions AB Student design competition Andersson E. Bloxham Zettersten, G. und Rönn, M. Architectural Competitions - Histories, stockholm, The Royal Institute of Technology and Rio Kulturkooperativ,2013
2.
World Trade Center site
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The World Trade Center site, formerly known as Ground Zero after the September 11 attacks, is a 14. 6-acre area in Lower Manhattan in New York City. The previous World Trade Center complex stood on the site until it was destroyed in the September 11 attacks, the site is bounded by Vesey Street to the north, the West Side Highway to the west, Liberty Street to the south, and Church Street to the east. The Port Authority owns the sites land, developer Larry Silverstein holds the lease to retail and office space in four of the sites buildings. While the PANYNJ is often identified as the owner of the WTC site and it is unclear who owns 2.5 acres of the site, being land where streets had been before the World Trade Center was built. The western portion of the World Trade Center site was originally under the Hudson River and they built the first European settlement in Manhattan. The remains of the ship were buried under landfill when the shoreline was extended starting in 1797, the remains of a ship from the eighteenth century were found in 2010 during excavation work at the site. The ship, believed to be a Hudson River sloop, was found just south of where the Twin Towers used to stand, the area that was cleared for construction of the original World Trade Center complex was previously occupied by various electronics stores in what was called Radio Row. These streets and stores were demolished in the 1960s to make way for the World Trade Center, the original World Trade Center was thought of as a North American cultural icon. At the time of their completion the Twin Towers, the original 1 World Trade Center, at 417 metres, the other buildings in the complex included the Marriott World Trade Center,4 WTC,5 WTC,6 WTC, and 7 WTC. All of these buildings were built between 1975 and 1985, with a construction cost of $400 million, the complex was located in New York Citys Financial District and contained 13,400,000 square feet of office space. The World Trade Center experienced a fire on February 13,1975, a bombing on February 26,1993 and a robbery on January 14,1998. In 1998, the Port Authority decided to privatize the World Trade Center, leasing the buildings to a company to manage. The towers collapsed within two hours of the collisions, after the collapse of the World Trade Center, hospital workers and law enforcement officers began referring to the World Trade Center site as Ground Zero. The collapse of the towers spread dust across New York City, to organize the cleanup and search for survivors and for human remains, the New York City Fire Department divided the disaster site into four sectors, each headed by its own chief. Early estimates suggested that debris removal would take a year, but cleanup ended in May 2002, under budget, three years later, in February 2005, the New York City Medical Examiners office ended its process of identifying human remains at the site. According to NIST, when WTC1 collapsed, falling debris struck 7 World Trade Center, the uncontrolled fires ultimately led to the progressive collapse of the structure. Portions of the South Tower also damaged the nearby Deutsche Bank Building, by 2002, Deutsche Bank determined that its building was unsalvageable and it was scheduled for demolition. Cleanup workers trucked most of the materials and debris from Ground Zero to Fresh Kills Landfill in Staten Island
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Daniel Libeskind
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Daniel Libeskind is a Polish-American architect, artist, professor and set designer of Polish Jewish descent. Libeskind founded Studio Daniel Libeskind in 1989 with his wife, Nina and his portfolio also includes several residential projects. Libeskinds work has exhibited in major museums and galleries around the world, including the Museum of Modern Art, the Bauhaus Archives, the Art Institute of Chicago. On February 27,2003, Libeskind won the competition to be the master architect for the reconstruction of the World Trade Center site in Lower Manhattan. Born in Łódź, Poland, Libeskind was the child of Dora and Nachman Libeskind. As a young child, Libeskind learned to play the accordion and quickly became a virtuoso and he won a prestigious America Israel Cultural Foundation scholarship in 1959 and played alongside a young Itzhak Perlman. Libeskind lived in Poland for 13 years and can speak, read. In 1957, the Libeskinds moved to Kibbutz Gvat, Israel, in his autobiography, Breaking Ground, An Immigrants Journey from Poland to Ground Zero, Libeskind spoke of how the kibbutz experience influenced his concern for green architecture. In the summer of 1959, the Libeskinds moved to New York City on one of the last immigrant boats to the United States, in New York, Libeskind lived in the Amalgamated Housing Cooperative in the northwest Bronx, a union-sponsored, middle-income cooperative development. He attended the Bronx High School of Science, the print shop where his father worked was on Stone Street in Lower Manhattan, and Libeskind watched the original World Trade Center being built in the 1960s. Libeskind became a United States citizen in 1965, Libeskind met Nina Lewis, his future wife and business partner, at the Bundist-run Camp Hemshekh in upstate New York in 1966. They married a few years later and, instead of a traditional honeymoon, Nina now serves as COO for Studio Daniel Libeskind. In 1968, Libeskind briefly worked as an apprentice to architect Richard Meier, the same year, he was hired to work at Peter Eisenmans New York Institute for Architecture and Urban Studies, but he quit almost immediately. Since 2007, Libeskind has been a professor at the Leuphana University Lüneburg in Lüneburg. He is both a U. S. and Israeli citizen, Nina and Daniel Libeskind have three children, Lev, Noam, and Rachel. Libeskind began his career as an architectural theorist and professor, holding positions at institutions around the world. Libeskind completed his first building at the age of 52, with the opening of the Felix Nussbaum Haus in 1998, prior to this, critics had dismissed his designs as unbuildable or unduly assertive. In 1987, Libeskind won his first design competition for housing in West Berlin, but the Berlin Wall fell shortly thereafter, Libeskind won the first four projects competitions he entered
4.
Acropolis of Athens
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The word acropolis comes from the Greek words ἄκρον and πόλις. Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is known as The Acropolis without qualification. The Acropolis is located on a rock that rises 150 m above sea level in the city of Athens. It was also known as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent-man, Cecrops, while the earliest artifacts date to the Middle Neolithic era, there have been documented habitations in Attica from the Early Neolithic. There is little doubt that a Mycenaean megaron stood upon the hill during the late Bronze Age, nothing of this megaron survives except, probably, a single limestone column-base and pieces of several sandstone steps. Soon after the palace was constructed, a Cyclopean massive circuit wall was built,760 meters long, up to 10 meters high and this wall would serve as the main defense for the acropolis until the 5th century. The wall consisted of two built with large stone blocks and cemented with an earth mortar called emplekton. There were two lesser approaches up the hill on its side, consisting of steep, narrow flights of steps cut in the rock. Homer is assumed to refer to this fortification when he mentions the strong-built House of Erechtheus, at some point before the 13th century BC, an earthquake caused a fissure near the northeastern edge of the Acropolis. This fissure extended some 35 meters to a bed of marl in which a well was dug. An elaborate set of stairs was built and the served as an invaluable. There is no evidence for the existence of a Mycenean palace on top of the Athenian Acropolis. However, if there was such a palace, it seems to have been supplanted by later building activity, not a lot is known about the architectural appearance of the Acropolis until the Archaic era. In the 7th and the 6th centuries BC, the site was taken over by Kylon during the failed Kylonian revolt, nevertheless, it seems that a nine-gate wall, the Enneapylon, had been built around the biggest water spring, the Clepsydra, at the northwestern foot. A temple to Athena Polias, the deity of the city, was erected around 570–550 BC. Whether this temple replaced an older one, or just a sacred precinct or altar, is not known, probably, the Hekatompedon was built where the Parthenon now stands. Between 529–520 BC yet another temple was built by the Peisistratids and this temple of Athena Polias was built upon the Doerpfeld foundations, between the Erechtheion and the still-standing Parthenon. Arkhaios Neōs was destroyed by the Persian invasion in 480 BC, however, the temple may have been burnt down in 406/405 BC as Xenophon mentions that the old temple of Athena was set on fire
5.
Florence Cathedral
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The Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore is the main church of Florence, Italy. The exterior of the basilica is faced with marble panels in various shades of green. The cathedral complex, located in Piazza del Duomo, includes the Baptistery and these three buildings are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site covering the historic centre of Florence and are a major attraction to tourists visiting Tuscany. The basilica is one of Italys largest churches, and until development of new materials in the modern era. It remains the largest brick dome ever constructed, the cathedral is the mother church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Florence, whose archbishop is currently Giuseppe Betori. Santa Maria del Fiore was built on the site of a cathedral dedicated to Saint Reparata. The new church was designed by Arnolfo di Cambio and approved by city council in 1294, di Cambio was also architect of the church of Santa Croce and the Palazzo Vecchio. He designed three wide naves ending under the dome, with the middle nave covering the area of Santa Reparata. The first stone was laid on September 9,1296, by Cardinal Valeriana, the building of this vast project was to last 140 years, Arnolfos plan for the eastern end, although maintained in concept, was greatly expanded in size. After Arnolfo died in 1310, work on the cathedral slowed for thirty years, when the relics of Saint Zenobius were discovered in 1330 in Santa Reparata, the project gained a new impetus. In 1331, the Arte della Lana, the guild of merchants, took over patronage for the construction of the cathedral. Assisted by Andrea Pisano, Giotto continued di Cambios design and his major accomplishment was the building of the campanile. When Giotto died in 1337, Andrea Pisano continued the building work was halted due to the Black Death in 1348. In 1359, Talenti was succeeded by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini who divided the nave in four square bays. Other architects were Alberto Arnoldi, Giovanni dAmbrogio, Neri di Fioravante, by 1375, the old church Santa Reparata was pulled down. The nave was finished by 1380, and by 1418, only the dome remained incomplete, on 18 August 1418, the Arte della Lana announced an architectural design competition for erecting Neris dome. The two main competitors were two master goldsmiths, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, the latter of whom was supported by Cosimo de Medici. Ghiberti had been the winner of a competition for a pair of doors for the Baptistery in 1401
6.
Filippo Brunelleschi
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Filippo Brunelleschi was an Italian designer and a key figure in architecture, recognised to be the first modern engineer, planner and sole construction supervisor. He was one of the fathers of the Renaissance. He is generally known for developing a technique for linear perspective in art. Heavily depending on mirrors and geometry, to reinforce Christian spiritual reality and it also had the most profound – and quite unanticipated – influence on the rise of modern science. His accomplishments also include other works, sculpture, mathematics, engineering. His principal surviving works are to be found in Florence, Italy, unfortunately, his two original linear perspective panels have been lost. Brunelleschi was born in Florence, Italy, little is known about his early life, the only sources being Antonio Manetti and Giorgio Vasari. According to these sources, Filippos father was Brunellesco di Lippo, a notary, Filippo was the middle of their three children. The young Filippo was given a literary and mathematical education intended to enable him to follow in the footsteps of his father, a civil servant. Being artistically inclined, however, Filippo enrolled in the Arte della Seta, the silk merchants Guild, which also included goldsmiths, metalworkers and he became a master goldsmith in 1398. It was thus not a coincidence that his first important building commission, in 1401, Brunelleschi entered a competition to design a new set of bronze doors for the Florence Baptistery. Seven competitors each produced a bronze panel, depicting the Sacrifice of Isaac. Brunelleschis entry, which, with that of Lorenzo Ghiberti, is one of two to have survived, made reference to the Greco-Roman Boy with Thorn. Brunelleschis panel consists of several pieces bolted to the back plate, Brunelleschi is considered a seminal figure of the Renaissance. Around 1400, there emerged a cultural interest in humanitas, or humanism, however, this interest was restricted to a few scholars, writers, and philosophers before it began to influence the visual arts. It was in period that Brunelleschi and his friend Donatello visited Rome to study its ancient ruins. Donatello, like Brunelleschi, was trained as a goldsmith, though he worked in the studio of contemporarily well-known painter Ghiberti. Although the glories of Ancient Rome were a matter of popular discourse at the time, it seems no one had studied the physical fabric of its ruins in any detail until Brunelleschi
7.
Royal Institute of British Architects
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After the grant of the royal charter it had become known as the Royal Institute of British Architects in London, eventually dropping the reference to London in 1892. In 1934, it moved to its current headquarters on Portland Place, with the building being opened by King George V and it was granted its Royal Charter in 1837 under King William IV. Supplemental Charters of 1887,1909 and 1925 were replaced by a single Charter in 1971, any revisions to the Charter or Byelaws require the Privy Councils approval. The design of the Institutes Mycenean lions medal and the motto ‘Usui civium, decori urbium has been attributed to Thomas Leverton Donaldson and it was again redesigned in 1931 by Eric Gill and in 1960 by Joan Hassall. His School, Liverpool, was one of the twenty schools named for the purpose of constituting the statutory Board of Architectural Education when the 1931 Act was passed. The RIBA Guide to its Archive and History has a section on the Statutory registration of architects with an extending from a draft bill of 1887 to one of 1969. This led to proposals for reconstituting ARCUK, eventually, in the 1990s, before proceeding, the government issued a consultation paper Reform of Architects Registration. RIBA Visiting Boards continue to assess courses for exemption from the RIBAs examinations in architecture, under arrangements made in 2011 the validation criteria are jointly held by the RIBA and the Architects Registration Board, but unlike the ARB, the RIBA also validates courses outside the UK. The RIBA is an organisation, with 44,000 members. Chartered Members are entitled to call themselves chartered architects and to append the post-nominals RIBA after their name, formerly, fellowships of the institute were granted, although no longer, those who continue to hold this title instead add FRIBA. Members gain access to all the services and receive its monthly magazine. The RIBA has been recognised as a business Superbrand since 2008, RIBA is based at 66 Portland Place, London—a 1930s Grade II* listed building designed by architect George Grey Wornum with sculptures by Edward Bainbridge Copnall and James Woodford. Parts of the London building are open to the public, including the Library and it has a large architectural bookshop, a café, restaurant and lecture theatres. Rooms are hired out for events, the Institute also maintains a dozen regional offices around the United Kingdom, it opened its first regional office for the East of England at Cambridge in 1966. It employs over 250 staff, approximately 180 of whom are based in Newcastle and its services include RIBA Insight, RIBA Appointments, and RIBA Publishing. It publishes the RIBA Product Selector and RIBA Journal, in Newcastle is the NBS, the National Building Specification, which has 130 staff and deals with the building regulations and the Construction Information Service. RIBA Bookshops, which operates online and at 66 Portland Place, is part of RIBA Enterprises. The British Architectural Library, sometimes referred to as the RIBA Library, was established in 1834 upon the founding of the institute with donations from members
8.
Peace Palace
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The Peace of Palace is an international law administrative building in The Hague, the Netherlands. It houses the International Court of Justice, the Permanent Court of Arbitration, the Hague Academy of International Law and the Peace Palace Library. The Palace officially opened on 28 August 1913, and was built to provide a home for the PCA. Andrew Dickson White, whose efforts were instrumental in creating the court, the European Heritage Label was awarded to the Peace Palace on 8 April 2014. The Peace Palace has been occupied at different times by a number of organisations, from 1901 until the opening of the Palace in 1913, the Permanent Court of Arbitration was housed at Prinsegracht 71 in The Hague. Permanent Court of International Justice and its successor the International Court of Justice, in 1922 the Permanent Court of International Justice of the League of Nations was added to the occupants. This meant the Library was forced to move to a building. In 1946, when the United Nations replaced the League of Nations, Peace Palace Library of International Law. Being the original vision of Carnegie, the library grew quickly to house the best collection of material on international law. Although this stature is well in the past, the still contains some original classical works, as the original copies of Hugo Grotius works on peace and law. The Carnegie Stichting The Hague Academy of International Law, established in 1914, strongly advocated by Tobias Michael Carel Asser. Funds for the Academy came from another project by Andrew Carnegie, namely the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. The idea of the Palace started from a discussion in 1900 between the Russian diplomat Friedrich Martens and American diplomat White over providing a home for the Permanent Court of Arbitration. Carnegie had his reservations, and at first was only interested in donating money for the establishment of a library of international law. White, however, was able to convince Carnegie, and in 1903 Carnegie agreed to donate the US$1.5 million needed to house the court as well as to endow it with a library of international law. Were such a fabric to be created, men would make pilgrimages from all parts of the world to see it. The main difficulty now is that the people of the nations do not really know what was done for them by the Conference. This foundation is responsible for these issues
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The Hague
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The Hague is a city on the western coast of the Netherlands, and the capital city of the province of South Holland. With a population of 520,704 inhabitants and more than one million including the suburbs, it is the third-largest city of the Netherlands. The Rotterdam The Hague Metropolitan Area, with a population of approximately 2.7 million, is the 12th-largest in the European Union and the most populous in the country. Located in the west of the Netherlands, The Hague is in the centre of the Haaglanden conurbation and lies at the southwest corner of the larger Randstad conurbation. The Hague is the seat of the Dutch government, parliament, the Supreme Court, and the Council of State, but the city is not the capital of the Netherlands, which constitutionally is Amsterdam. King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands plans to live at Huis ten Bosch and works at Noordeinde Palace in The Hague, the Hague is also home to the world headquarters of Royal Dutch Shell and numerous other major Dutch companies. The Hague originated around 1230, when Count Floris IV of Holland purchased land alongside a pond, in 1248, his son and successor William II, King of the Romans, decided to extend the residence to a palace, which would later be called the Binnenhof. He died in 1256 before this palace was completed but parts of it were finished by his son Floris V, of which the Ridderzaal and it is still used for political events, such as the annual speech from the throne by the Dutch monarch. From the 13th century onwards, the counts of Holland used The Hague as their administrative centre, the village that originated around the Binnenhof was first mentioned as Haga in a charter dating from 1242. In the 15th century, the smarter des Graven hage came into use, literally The Counts Wood, with connotations like The Counts Hedge, s-Gravenhage was officially used for the city from the 17th century onwards. Today, this name is used in some official documents like birth. The city itself uses Den Haag in all its communication and their seat was located in The Hague. At the beginning of the Eighty Years War, the absence of city walls proved disastrous, in 1575, the States of Holland even considered demolishing the city but this proposal was abandoned, after mediation by William of Orange. From 1588, The Hague also became the seat of the government of the Dutch Republic, in order for the administration to maintain control over city matters, The Hague never received official city status, although it did have many of the privileges normally granted only to cities. In modern administrative law, city rights have no place anymore, only in 1806, when the Kingdom of Holland was a puppet state of the First French Empire, was the settlement granted city rights by Louis Bonaparte. After the Napoleonic Wars, modern-day Belgium and the Netherlands were combined in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands to form a buffer against France, as a compromise, Brussels and Amsterdam alternated as capital every two years, with the government remaining in The Hague. After the separation of Belgium in 1830, Amsterdam remained the capital of the Netherlands, when the government started to play a more prominent role in Dutch society after 1850, The Hague quickly expanded. The growing city annexed the rural municipality of Loosduinen partly in 1903, the city sustained heavy damage during World War II
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Otto Wagner
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Otto Koloman Wagner was an Austrian architect and urban planner, known for his lasting impact on the appearance of his home town Vienna, to which he contributed many landmarks. Wagner was born in Penzing, a district in Vienna and he was the son of Suzanne and Rudolf Simeon Wagner, a notary to the Royal Hungarian Court. He studied architecture at the Viennese Polytechnic Institute and the Royal School of Architecture in Berlin, after completing his education, he returned to Vienna to work. In 1864, he started designing his first buildings in the historicist style, in the mid- and late-1880s, like many of his contemporaries in Germany, Switzerland and France, Wagner became a proponent of Architectural Realism. It was a position that enabled him to mitigate the reliance on historical forms. By the mid-1890s, he had designed several Jugendstil buildings. Wagner was very interested in urban planning — in 1890 he designed a new city plan for Vienna, but only his urban rail network, the Stadtbahn, was built. In 1896 he published a textbook entitled Modern Architecture in which he expressed his ideas about the role of the architect and his style incorporated the use of new materials and new forms to reflect the fact that society itself was changing. In his textbook, he stated that new tasks and views called for a change or reconstitution of existing forms. In pursuit of ideal, he designed and built structures that reflected their intended function. In 1897, he joined Gustav Klimt, Joseph Maria Olbrich, Josef Hoffmann, from the ideas of this group he developed a style that included quasi-symbolic references to the new forms of modernity. Wagner had a influence on his pupils at the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna. This Wagner School included Josef Hoffmann, Joseph Maria Olbrich, Karl Ehn, another student of Wagners was Rudolph Schindler, who said Modern Architecture began with Mackintosh in Scotland, Otto Wagner in Vienna, and Louis Sullivan in Chicago. Wagner died in Vienna in 1918, Modern Architecture, A Guidebook for His Students to This Field of Art. Santa Monica, Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities, Otto Wagner, Reflections on the Raiment of Modernity. Santa Monica, Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities, from Historicism to Architectural Realism, On Some of Wagners Sources. Otto Wagner, Reflections on the Raiment of Modernity, santa Monica, Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities. Otto Wagner, Das Werk des Architekten 1860-1918, Otto Wagner Und Die Wiener Stadtbahn
11.
Hendrik Petrus Berlage
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Hendrik Petrus Berlage was a prominent Dutch architect. He studied architecture at the Zurich Institute of Technology between 1875 and 1878 after which he traveled extensively for 3 years through Europe, in the 1880s he formed a partnership in the Netherlands with Theodore Sanders which produced a mixture of practical and utopian projects. A published author, Berlage held memberships in various architectural societies including CIAM I and this influence is visible in his design for the Amsterdam Commodities Exchange, for which he would also draw on the ideas of Viollet-le-Duc. The load-bearing bare brick walls and the notion of the primacy of space, a visit Berlage made to the U. S. in 1911 greatly affected his architecture. From then on the architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright would be a significant influence. Lectures he gave when returned to Europe would help to disseminate Wrights thoughts in Germany, a notable overseas commission was the 1916 Holland House, built as offices for a Dutch shipping company in Bury Street in the City of London. He received the British RIBA Royal Gold Medal in 1932, Berlage died at The Hague in 1934. In 1970, the IAU named the lunar crater Berlage after him. P, Berlage, Schriften zur Architektur, Birkhäuser Basel, ISBN 3-7643-2587-9 Singelenberg, Pieter, H. P
12.
Louis Marie Cordonnier
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Louis Marie Cordonnier was a French architect, born in Haubourdin and associated principally with Lille and the French Flanders region. Son of the architect Jean-Baptiste Cordonnier, Cordonnier studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris and he returned to Lille for his first major commission, the 1881 town hall of Loos. His chosen style was a strongly regional Flemish Renaissance Revival in brick, further civic commissions in the area culminated in Cordonniers best known work, the Peace Palace in The Hague, seat of the International Court of Justice. There his neo-Flemish entry won a competition against far more modern competitors like Hendrik Berlage. The jurys choice proved controversial enough to fuel lawsuits for seven years, Cordonnier alternated his regional Flemish style with occasional essays in the neo-classical Beaux-Arts style so prevalent in Paris during these years. Towards the end of his career he was joined in practice by his son, thérèse, Lisieux, the second-largest pilgrimage site in France, after Lourdes, 1923–1959 Church of St. Vaast, Béthune, 1924–1927 Church of St. Of the 23 such municipal towers within Nord-Pas-de-Calais and the Somme, Cordonnier designed those in Loos, Dunkirk, Comines, media related to Louis Marie Cordonnier at Wikimedia Commons
