1.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
2.
Argentine Navy
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The Navy of the Argentine Republic or Argentine Navy is the navy of Argentina. It is one of the three branches of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic, together with the Army and the Air Force, each ship of the Argentine Navy is designated with the prefix ARA before its name. The Argentine Navy day is celebrated on May 17, anniversary of the victory achieved in 1814 in the Battle of Montevideo over the Spanish fleet during the war of Independence. The Argentine Navy was created in the aftermath of the May Revolution of May 25,1810, the navy was first created to support Manuel Belgrano in the Paraguay campaign, but it was sunk by ships from Montevideo, and did not take part in that conflict. Renewed conflicts with Montevideo led to the creation of a second fleet, as Buenos Aires had little maritime history, most men in the navy were from other nations, such as the Irish-born admiral William Brown, who directed the operation. As the cost of maintaining a navy was too high, most of the Argentine naval forces were composed of privateers, Brown led the Argentine navy in further naval conflicts at the War with Brazil and the Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata. In the 1870s the Argentine Navy began modernizing itself, the most powerful ships at this time included the Italian-built Garibaldi and her sister ships, General Belgrano, Pueyrredón, and San Martín, each at over 6,000 tons. Three older ironclads, Almirante Brown, Independencia, and Libertad dated from the 1880s, the navys ships were built primarily in Italy, Britain, France, and Spain and were operated by over 600 officers and 7760 seamen. These were supported by a battalion of marines and an artillery battery, Argentina remained neutral in both world wars. In 1940, Argentinas navy was ranked the eighth most powerful in the world, a ten-year building programme costing $60 million had produced a force of 14,500 sailors and over a thousand officers. A naval air force was also in operation, in the postwar period, Naval Aviation and Marine Corps units were put under direct Navy command. With Brazil, Argentina is one of two South American countries to have operated two aircraft carriers, the ARA Independencia and ARA Veinticinco de Mayo, the Navy also took part in all military coups through the 20th century. During the last dictatorship, Navy personnel were involved in the Dirty War of the late 1970s in which thousands of people were kidnapped, tortured and killed by the forces of the Military Junta, the Naval Mechanics School, known as ESMA, was a notorious centre for torture. Among their more well-known victims were the Swedish teenager Dagmar Hagelin and French nuns, Alice Domon and this fleet was supported by several ELMA tankers and transports as well as two ice breakers/polar ships. New German MEKO class destroyers, corvettes and Thyssen-Nordseewerke submarines were still under construction at the time, despite leading the invasion of the Falkland Islands, in both strategic and tactical aspects the Argentine fleet played only a small part in the subsequent conflict with the Royal Navy. The ARA San Luis submarine also played a role, nearly sinking the frigate HMS Arrow on 10 May. The submarine ARA Santa Fe, after a resupply mission, was attacked and disabled off South Georgia. She was later scuttled by the British, also, the submarine force greatly reinforced their assets with the introduction of the Thyssen-Nordseewerke class
3.
Naval aviation
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Naval aviation is the application of military air power by navies, whether from warships that embark aircraft, or land bases. In contrast, maritime aviation is the operation of aircraft in a maritime role, an exception to this is the United States Coast Guard, which is considered part of U. S. naval aviation. S. Naval aviation, whether based afloat or ashore, Naval aviation is typically projected to a position nearer the target by way of an aircraft carrier. Carrier-based aircraft must be enough to withstand demanding carrier operations. Early experiments on the use of kites for naval reconnaissance took place in 1903 at Woolwich Common for the Admiralty, in 1908 Prime Minister H. H. Asquith approved the formation of an Aerial Sub-Committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence to investigate the potential for naval aviation. This resulted in the construction of Mayfly in 1909, the first air component of the navy to become operational, and the genesis of modern naval aviation. Two hundred applications were received, and four were accepted, Lieutenant C R Samson, Lieutenant A M Longmore, Lieutenant A Gregory and Captain E L Gerrard, RMLI. The French also established an aviation capability in 1910 with the establishment of the Service Aeronautique. U. S. naval aviation began with pioneer aviator Glenn Curtiss who contracted with the Navy to demonstrate that airplanes could take off from, one of his pilots, Eugene Ely, took off from the USS Birmingham anchored off the Virginia coast in November 1910. Two months later Ely landed aboard another cruiser, USS Pennsylvania, in San Francisco Bay, however, the platforms erected on those vessels were temporary measures. The U. S. Navy and Glenn Curtiss experienced two firsts during January 1911, $25,000 was appropriated for the Bureau of Navigation to purchase three airplanes and in the spring of 1911 four additional officers were trained as pilots by the Wright brothers and Curtiss. A camp with a landing field was established on the Severn River at Greenbury Point, near Annapolis. Mustin successfully tested the concept of the launch in August 1912. The first permanent naval air station was established at Pensacola, Florida, in January 1912, the British battleship HMS Africa took part in aircraft experiments at Sheerness. Africa then transferred her flight equipment to her sister ship Hibernia, in May 1912, with Commander Samson again flying the S.38, the first ever instance of an aircraft to take off from a ship which was underway occurred. Hibernia steamed at 10.5 knots at the Royal Fleet Review in Weymouth Bay, Hibernia then transferred her aviation equipment to battleship London. The first aircraft participation in naval manoeuvres took place in 1913 with the cruiser Hermes converted into a seaplane carrier, in 1914, naval aviation was split again, and became the Royal Naval Air Service. However, shipboard naval aviation had begun in the Royal Navy, other early operators of seaplanes were Germany, within its Marine-Fliegerabteiling naval aviation units within the Kaiserliche Marine, and Russia
4.
Falklands War
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It began on Friday,2 April 1982, when Argentina invaded and occupied the Falkland Islands in an attempt to establish the sovereignty it had claimed over them. On 5 April, the British government dispatched a naval force to engage the Argentine Navy. The conflict lasted 74 days and ended with the Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982, in total,649 Argentine military personnel,255 British military personnel, and three Falkland Islanders died during the hostilities. The conflict was an episode in the protracted confrontation over the territories sovereignty. Argentina asserted that the islands are Argentine territory, and the Argentine government thus characterised its military action as the reclamation of its own territory, the British government regarded the action as an invasion of a territory that had been a Crown colony since 1841. Falkland Islanders, who have inhabited the islands since the early 19th century, are descendants of British settlers. The conflict has had an effect in both countries and has been the subject of various books, articles, films, and songs. Patriotic sentiment ran high in Argentina, but the outcome prompted large protests against the military government. In the United Kingdom, the Conservative Party government, bolstered by the outcome, was re-elected the following year. The cultural and political weight of the conflict has had less effect in Britain than in Argentina, diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentina were restored in 1989 following a meeting in Madrid, Spain, at which the two governments issued a joint statement. No change in either countrys position regarding the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands was made explicit, in 1994, Argentinas claim to the territories was added to its constitution. In December 1981 there was a change in the Argentine military regime, bringing to office a new junta headed by General Leopoldo Galtieri, Brigadier Basilio Lami Dozo. Anaya was the architect and supporter of a military solution for the long-standing claim over the islands. Such action would also bolster its dwindling legitimacy, the newspaper La Prensa speculated in a step-by-step plan beginning with cutting off supplies to the islands, ending in direct actions late in 1982, if the UN talks were fruitless. The Royal Navy ice patrol vessel HMS Endurance was dispatched from Stanley to South Georgia in response, the Argentine military junta, suspecting that the UK would reinforce its South Atlantic Forces, ordered the invasion of the Falkland Islands to be brought forward to 2 April. Britain was initially taken by surprise by the Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands, despite repeated warnings by Royal Navy captain Nicholas Barker, on 2 April 1982, Argentine forces mounted amphibious landings off the Falkland Islands. The invasion was met with a defence organised by the Falkland Islands Governor Sir Rex Hunt. Word of the invasion first reached Britain from Argentine sources, a Ministry of Defence operative in London had a short telex conversation with Governor Hunts telex operator, who confirmed that Argentines were on the island and in control
5.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
6.
Gulf War
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
7.
President of Argentina
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The President of the Argentine Nation, usually known as the President of Argentina, is both head of state and head of government of Argentina. Under the national Constitution, the President is also the executive of the federal government. Through Argentine history, the office of the Head of State has undergone many changes, current President Mauricio Macri was sworn into office on 10 December 2015. The Constitution of Argentina, along with constitutional amendments, establishes the requirements, powers, and responsibilities of the president and term of office. The origins of Argentina as a nation can be traced to 1776, the Head of State continued to be the King, but he was represented locally by the Viceroy. These Viceroys were seldom natives of the country, by the May Revolution of May 25,1810, the first Argentine autonomous government, known as the Primera Junta, was formed in Buenos Aires. It was later known as the Junta Grande when representatives from the provinces joined and this power was vested in one man when the position of Supreme Director was created by the 1813 National Assembly. The Supreme Directors became Heads of State after Independence was declared on 9 July 1816, in 1819, Congress declared Independence and composed a Constitution. This established a figure, named Supreme Director, who was vested with presidential powers. This constitution gave the Supreme Director the power of appointing Governors of the provinces, due to political circumstances, this constitution never came into force, and the central power was dissolved, leaving the country as a federation of provinces. A new constitution was drafted in 1826 and this constitution was the first to create a President, although this office retained the powers described in the 1819 constitution. This constitution did come into force, resulting in the election of the first President, because of the Cisplatine War, Rivadavia resigned after a short time, and the office was dissolved shortly after. A civil war between unitarios and federales ensued in the following decades, in this time, there was no central authority, and the closest to that was the Chairman of Foreign Relations, typically the Governor of the Province of Buenos Aires. The last to bear this title was Juan Manuel de Rosas, in 1852, Rosas was deposed, and a constitutional convention was summoned. This constitution, still in force, established a federal government. The term was fixed as six years, with no possibility of reelection, the first elected President under the constitution was Justo José de Urquiza, but Buenos Aires seceded from the Argentine Confederation as the State of Buenos Aires. Bartolomé Mitre was the first president of the country, when Buenos Aires rejoined the Confederation. In 1930, and again in 1943,1955,1962,1966 and 1976, in 1966 and 1976, federal government was undertaken by a military junta, where power was shared by the chiefs of the armed forces
8.
Brazilian Navy
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The Brazilian Navy is the naval service branch of the Brazilian Armed Forces, responsible for conducting naval operations. The Brazilian Navy is the largest navy in South America and in Latin America, the navy was involved in Brazils war of independence from Portugal. Most of Portugals naval forces and bases in South America were transferred to the independent country. By the 1880s the Brazilian Imperial Navy was the most powerful in South America, the Brazilian Navy participated in both World War I and World War II, engaging in anti-submarine patrols in the Atlantic. Other roles include, Conducting national maritime policy Implementing and enforcing laws and regulations with respect to the sea, the origins of the Brazilian Navy date back to the Portuguese naval forces based in Brazil. The transfer of the Portuguese monarchy to Brazil in 1808 during the Napoleonic wars also resulted in the transfer of a part of the structure, personnel. These became the core of the Navy of Brazil, the Brazilian Navy came into being with the independence of the country. The Brazilian-born Captain Luís da Cunha Moreira was chosen as the first minister of the Navy on October 28,1822, british naval officer Lord Thomas Alexander Cochrane was made the commander of the Brazilian Navy and received the rank of First Admiral. At that time, the fleet was composed of one ship of the line, four frigates, the Secretary of Treasury Martim Francisco Ribeiro de Andrada created a national subscription to generate capital in order to increase the size of the fleet. Contributions were sent from all over Brazil, even Emperor Pedro I acquired a merchant brig at his own expense and donated it to the Navy. The navy fought in the north and also south of Brazil where it had a role in the independence of the country. After the suppression of the revolt in Pernambuco in 1824 and prior to the Cisplatine War, starting with 38 ships in 1822, eventually the navy had 96 modern warships of various types with over 690 cannons. Brazil lost the war and in 1828 had to accept the independence of Uruguay, during the 58-year reign of Pedro II the Brazilian Navy achieved its greatest strength in relation to navies around the world. The Arsenal, Navy department, and the Naval Jail were improved, Brazil quickly modernized its fleet acquiring ships from foreign sources while also constructing ships locally. Brazils Navy substituted the old smoothbore cannons for new ones with rifled barrels, improvements were also made in the Arsenals and naval bases, which were equipped with new workshops. Ships were constructed in the Naval Arsenal of Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Recife, Santos, Niterói, during the 1850s the State Secretary, the Accounting Department of the Navy, the Headquarters of the Navy and the Naval Academy were reorganized and improved. New ships were purchased and the ports administrations were better equipped, the Imperial Mariner Corps was definitively regularized and the Marine Corps was created, taking the place of the Naval Artillery. The Service of Assistance for Invalids was also established, along with schools for sailors
9.
Aircraft carrier
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An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the ship of a fleet, as it allows a naval force to project air power worldwide without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations. Aircraft carriers are expensive to build and are critical assets, there is no single definition of an aircraft carrier, and modern navies use several variants of the type. These variants are sometimes categorized as sub-types of aircraft carriers, Aircraft carriers may be classified according to the type of aircraft they carry and their operational assignments. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, former head of the Royal Navy, has said, To put it simply, as of April 2017, there are 37 active aircraft carriers in the world within twelve navies. The United States Navy has 10 large nuclear-powered fleet carriers, the largest carriers in the world, the Royal Navy of Great Britain is building two 280-m / 920-ft carriers, the Queen Elizabeth, and the Prince of Wales scheduled to go into service in 2020-2023. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds, by comparison, escort carriers were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried, most were built from mercantile hulls or, in the case of merchant aircraft carriers, were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. Light aircraft carriers were fast enough to operate with the main fleet, three nations currently operate carriers of this type, ten by the United States, and one each by France and Brazil for a total of twelve in service. Short take-off but arrested-recovery, these carriers are generally limited to carrying lighter fixed-wing aircraft with more limited payloads, currently, Russia, China, and India possess commissioned carriers of this type. Short take-off vertical-landing, limited to carrying STOVL aircraft and this type of aircraft carrier is currently in service with Italy. Some also count the nine US amphibious assault ships in their secondary light carrier role boosting the total to thirteen. Helicopter carrier, Helicopter carriers have an appearance to other aircraft carriers. Some are designed for addition of, or may include, a ski jump ramp allowing for STOVL operations or may have a ski jump installed before retirement of STOVL aircraft. In the past, some conventional carriers were converted and called commando carriers by the Royal Navy, some helicopter carriers with a resistant flight surface can operate STOVL jets. Currently the majority of carriers, but not all, are classified as amphibious assault ships. The US has nine of this type, France and Japan three, Australia two, the UK one, the Republic of Korea one and Spain one, the US and Spains amphibious assault ships operate STOVL jets in normal deployment. Supercarrier Fleet carrier Light aircraft carrier Escort carrier Several systems of identification symbol for aircraft carriers, two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss pusher airplane on a platform on the armored cruiser USS Pennsylvania anchored in San Francisco Bay
10.
La Plata
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La Plata is the capital city of the Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina, and of the partido La Plata. According to the 2001 census, it has a population of 765,378, La Plata was planned and developed to serve as the provincial capital after the city of Buenos Aires was federalized in 1880. It was officially founded by Governor Dardo Rocha on 19 November 1882 and its construction is fully documented in photographs by Tomás Bradley Sutton. La Plata was renamed Eva Perón City between 1952 and 1955, the city is home to two important first division football teams, Estudiantes de La Plata and Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata. Rocha decided to erect a new city to host the provincial government institutions, urban planner Pedro Benoit designed a city layout based on a rationalist conception of urban centers. The city has the shape of a square with a central park, in addition, there are numerous other shorter diagonal streets. This design is copied in a manner in small blocks of six by six blocks in length. For every six blocks, there is a park or square. Other than the streets, all streets are on a rectangular grid and are numbered consecutively. Thus, La Plata is nicknamed la ciudad de las diagonales and it is also called la ciudad de los tilos, because of the large number of linden trees lining the many streets and squares. Palms and subtropical evergreen trees thrive, but are comparatively infrequent. The city design and its buildings are noted to possess a strong Freemason symbolism and this is said to be a consequence of both Rocha and Benoit being Freemasons. The designs for the government buildings were chosen in an architectural competition. Thus, the Governor Palace was designed by Italians, the City Hall by Germans, electric street lighting was installed in 1884, and was the first of its kind in Latin America. The neo-Gothic cathedral of La Plata is the largest church in Argentina, the Curutchet House is one of the two buildings by Le Corbusier built in the Americas. The Teatro Argentino de La Plata is one of the most important opera houses in Argentina, the theatre was built on the square block between 9th and 10th Street and 51st and 53rd Avenue. It was opened on November 19,1890 and it was designed by Leopoldo Rochi in Renaissance style. The work was funded by the first inhabitants of La Plata, in the foyer, entering through the majestic doors, there was a beautiful white Carrara marble staircase
11.
Naval Air Station Pensacola
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Naval Air Station Pensacola or NAS Pensacola, The Cradle of Naval Aviation, is a United States Navy base located next to Warrington, Florida, a community southwest of the Pensacola city limits. Because of contamination by metals and other hazardous materials during this history. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps and U. S. Coast Guard, the NATTC facility at NAS Pensacola is also home to the USAF Detachment 1, a GSU whose home unit is the 359th TRS located at Eglin AFB. Detachment 1 trains over 800 Airmen annually in three structural maintenance disciplines, Low Observable, Non-Destructive Inspection, and Aircraft Structural Maintenance. TRAWING SIX consists of the Training Squadron 4 Warbucks, Training Squadron 10 Wildcats and Training Squadron 86 Sabrehawks, flying the T-45C Goshawk, the 479 FTG is a tenant activity at NAS Pensacola and a geographically separated unit of the 12th Flying Training Wing at Randolph AFB, Texas. The 479 FTG operates USAF T-6A Texan II and T-1A Jayhawk aircraft, a total of 131 aircraft operate out of Sherman Field, generating 110,000 flight operations each year. The site now occupied by NAS Pensacola has been controlled by varying nations, in 1559, Spanish explorer Don Tristan de Luna founded a colony on Santa Rosa Island, considered the first European settlement of the Pensacola area. The Spanish built the wooden Fort San Carlos de Austria on this bluff in 1697-1698, although besieged by Indians in 1707, the fort was not taken. Spain was competing in North America with the French, who settled lower Louisiana, the French destroyed this fort when they captured Pensacola in 1719. After Great Britain defeated the French in the Seven Years War and exchanging some territory with Spain, British colonists took over this site, in 1781, as an ally of the American rebels during the American Revolutionary War, the Spanish captured Pensacola. Britain ceded West Florida to Spain following the war, the Spanish completed the fort San Carlos de Barrancas in 1797. Barranca is a Spanish word for bluff, the natural feature that makes this location ideal for the fortress. Pensacola was taken by General Andrew Jackson in November 1814 during the War of 1812 between Great Britain and the United States, British forces destroyed Fort San Carlos as they swept through the area. The Spanish remained in control of the region until 1821, when the Adams-Onís Treaty confirmed the purchase of Spanish Florida by the United States, in 1825, the US designated this area for the Pensacola Navy Yard was designated and Congress appropriated $6,000 for a lighthouse. Operational that year, it is said to be haunted by a light keeper murdered by his wife, Fort Barrancas was rebuilt, 1839-1844, the U. S. Army deactivating it on 15 April 1947. Designated a National Historic Site in 1960, control of the site was transferred to the National Park Service in 1971, after extensive restoration during 1971-1980, Fort Barrancas was opened to the public. Navy captains William Bainbridge, Lewis Warrington, and James Biddle selected the site on Pensacola Bay, Construction began in April 1826, and the Pensacola Navy Yard, also known as the Warrington Navy Yard, became one of the best equipped naval stations in the country. Pensacola Navy Yard was built with enslaved labor, Captain Lewis Warrington The first Commandant of the Pensacola Navy Yard complained to the Board of Navy Commissioners “neither laborers nor mechanics are to be obtained here
12.
North American T-6 Texan
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Designed by North American Aviation, the T-6 is known by a variety of designations depending on the model and operating air force. Starting in 1948, the new United States Air Force designated it the T-6 and it remains a popular warbird aircraft used for airshow demonstrations and static displays. It has also used many times to simulate various Japanese aircraft. The Texan originated from the North American NA-16 prototype which, modified as the NA-26, was submitted as an entry for a USAAC Basic Combat aircraft competition in March,1937. The first model went into production and 180 were supplied to the USAAC as the BC-1 and 400 to the RAF as the Harvard I, the US Navy received 16 modified aircraft, designated the SNJ-1, and a further 61 as the SNJ-2 with a different engine. Three BC-2 aircraft were built before the shift to the advanced trainer designation, AT-6, the differences between the AT-6 and the BC-1 were new outer wing panels with a swept-forward trailing edge, squared-off wingtips, and a triangular rudder, producing the canonical Texan silhouette. Next came the AT-6A which was based on the NA-77 design and was powered by the Pratt & Whitney R-1340-49 Wasp radial engine, the USAAF received 1,549 and the US Navy 270. The AT-6B was built for training and could mount a.30 in machine gun on the forward fuselage. It used the R-1340-AN-1 engine, which was to become the standard for the remaining T-6 production, in late 1937, Mitsubushi purchased two NA-16s as technology demonstrators and possibly a licence to build more. However, the aircraft developed by Watanabe/Kyushu as the K10W1 bore no more than a superficial resemblance to the North American design and it was used in very small numbers by the Imperial Japanese Navy from 1942 onwards. After the war, the Japanese Air Self Defense Force operated Texans, the NA-88 design resulted in 2,970 AT-6C Texans and 2,400 as the SNJ-4. The RAF received 726 of the AT-6C as the Harvard IIA, modifications to the electrical system produced the AT-6D and SNJ-5. The AT-6D, redesignated the Harvard III, was supplied to the RAF, the AT-6G involved major advancements including a full-time hydraulic system and a steerable tailwheel and persisted into the 1950s as the USAF advanced trainer. Subsequently, the NA-121 design with a completely clear rearmost section on the canopy, gave rise to 25 AT-6F Texans for the USAAF and 931, as the SNJ-6 for the US Navy. The ultimate version, the Harvard 4, was produced by Canada Car and Foundry during the 1950s, a total of 15,495 T-6s of all variants were built. They also engaged in combat on a number of occasions. The Israeli Air Force bought 17 Harvards, and operated nine of them in the stages of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, against the Egyptian ground forces. In the Sinai Campaign, IAF Harvards attacked Egyptian ground forces in Sinai Peninsula with two losses, communist guerillas called these aircraft O Galatas, because they saw them flying very early in the morning
13.
Beechcraft Model 18
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The Beechcraft Model 18 is a 6- to 11-seat, twin-engined, low-wing, tailwheel light aircraft manufactured by the Beech Aircraft Corporation of Wichita, Kansas. Continuously produced from 1937 to November 1969, over 9,000 were produced, sold worldwide as a civilian executive, utility, cargo aircraft, and passenger airliner on tailwheels, nosewheels, skis or floats, it was also used as a military aircraft. In World War II, over 90% of USAAF bombardiers and navigators trained in these aircraft, in the early postwar era, the Beech 18 was the pre-eminent business aircraft and feeder airliner. Many are now owned, around the world, with over 300 in the U. S. still on the FAA Aircraft Registry in December 2014. The design was conventional for the time, including twin radial engines, all-metal semimonocoque construction with fabric-covered control surfaces. Less conventional was the twin-tailfin configuration, the Model 18 can be mistaken for the larger Lockheed Electra series of airliners which closely resemble it. Early production aircraft were powered either by two 330-hp Jacobs L-6s or 350-hp Wright R-760Es, the 450-hp Pratt & Whitney R-985 became the definitive engine from the prewar C18S onwards. The Beech 18 prototype first flew on January 15,1937, prior to the Pearl Harbor attack, the Beech 18 was outsold by the Lockheed 12 by two-to-one. However, war priorities forced Lockheed to concentrate on its heavier aircraft, the aircraft has used a variety of engines and has had a number of airframe modifications to increase gross weight and speed. At least one aircraft was modified to a 600-hp Pratt & Whitney R-1340 powerplant configuration, nearly every airframe component has been modified. In 1955, deliveries of the Model E18S commenced, the E18S featured a fuselage that was extended 6 in higher for more headroom in the passenger cabin, all later Beech 18s featured this taller fuselage, and some earlier models have been modified to this larger fuselage. The Model H18, introduced in 1963, featured optional tricycle undercarriage, unusually, the undercarriage was developed for earlier-model aircraft under an STC by Volpar, and installed in H18s at the factory during manufacture. A total of 109 H18s were built with tricycle undercarriage, construction of the Beechcraft Model 18 ended in 1970 with a final Model H18 going to Japan Airlines. Through the years,32 variations of the design had flown, over 200 improvement modification kits were developed. In one case, the aircraft was modified to a tail, trigear, humpbacked configuration. Another distinctive conversion was carried out by PacAero as the Tradewind and this featured a lengthened nose to accommodate the tricycle nosewheel, and the Model 18s twin tailfins were replaced by a single fin. Work began in earnest on a variant specifically for training pilots, bombardiers. The effort resulted in the Army AT-7 and Navy SNB, further development led to the AT-11 and SNB-2 navigation trainers and the C-45 military transport
14.
Consolidated PBY Catalina
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The Consolidated PBY Catalina, also known as the Canso in Canadian service, was an American flying boat, and later an amphibious aircraft of the 1930s and 1940s produced by Consolidated Aircraft. It was one of the most widely used seaplanes of World War II, Catalinas served with every branch of the United States Armed Forces and in the air forces and navies of many other nations. During World War II, PBYs were used in warfare, patrol bombing, convoy escorts, search and rescue missions. The PBY was the most numerous aircraft of its kind and the last active military PBYs were not retired from service until the 1980s. In 2014, nearly 80 years after its first flight, the continues to fly as a waterbomber in aerial firefighting operations all over the world. In accordance with contemporary British naming practice of naming seaplanes after coastal towns, Royal Canadian Air Force examples were named Canso. The Royal Air Force used the name Catalina and the US Navy adopted this name in 1942, the United States Army Air Forces and later the United States Air Force used the designation OA-10. US Navy Catalinas used in the Pacific against the Japanese for night operations were painted black overall, and as a result were sometimes referred to locally as Black Cats. The PBY was originally designed to be a bomber, an aircraft with a long operational range intended to locate. Flying boats had the advantage of not requiring runways, in effect having the entire ocean available, several different flying boats were adopted by the Navy, but the PBY was the most widely used and produced. Although slow and ungainly, Catalinas distinguished themselves in World War II, Allied forces used them successfully in a wide variety of roles for which the aircraft was never intended. They are remembered for their role, in which they saved the lives of thousands of aircrew downed over water. Catalina airmen called their aircraft the Cat on combat missions and Dumbo in air-sea rescue service, Naval doctrine of the 1930s and 1940s used flying boats in a wide variety of roles that today are handled by multiple special-purpose aircraft. The U. S. Navy had adopted the Consolidated P2Y and Martin P3M models for this role in 1931, Consolidated and Douglas both delivered single prototypes of their new designs, the XP3Y-1 and XP3D-1, respectively. Although the Douglas aircraft was a design, the Navy opted for Consolidateds because the projected cost was only $90,000 per aircraft. Consolidateds XP3Y-1 design had a wing with external bracing struts. Wingtip stabilizing floats were retractable in flight to form streamlined wingtips and had licensed from the Saunders-Roe company. The two-step hull design was similar to that of the P2Y, cleaner aerodynamics gave the Model 28 better performance than earlier designs
15.
Sikorsky H-5
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The Sikorsky H-5, was a helicopter built by Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation. It was used by the United States Air Force, and its predecessor and it was also used by the United States Post Office Department. By the time production ceased in 1951, more than 300 examples of all types of the H-5 had been built, the H-5 was originally built by Sikorsky as its model S-48, designated as the R-5 by the United States Army Air Forces. It was designed to provide a helicopter having greater useful load, endurance, speed, the R-5 differed from the R-4 by having an increased rotor diameter and a new, longer fuselage for two persons in tandem, though it retained the R-4s tailwheel-type landing gear. Larger than the R-4 or the later R-6, the R-5 was fitted with a more powerful Wasp Junior 450-hp radial engine, the first XR-5 of four ordered made its initial flight on 18 August 1943. In March 1944, the Army Air Forces ordered 26 YR-5As for service testing, and in February 1945 and this order was followed by a production contract for 100 R-5s, outfitted with racks for two litters, but only 34 were actually delivered. Of these, fourteen were the R-5A, basically identical with the YR-5A, five of the service-test YR-5As were later converted into dual-control YR-5Es. The United States Navy evaluated three R-5As as the HO2S-1, with room for three passengers plus pilot, the S-51 was initially intended to appeal to civilian as well as military operators, and was the first helicopter to be sold to a commercial user. Eleven S-51s were ordered by the USAF and designated the R-5F, while ninety went to the Navy as the HO3S-1, commonly referred to as the Horse. In Britain, Westland Aircraft began production in 1946 of the Westland-Sikorsky S-51 Dragonfly for the Royal Navy and this gave an improved top speed of 103 mph and a service ceiling of 14,000 ft. In total,133 Westland-Sikorsky Dragonfly helicopters were built, a considerably modified version was also developed by Westland as the Westland Widgeon, but the type was never adopted for service. The U. S. Navy ordered four S-51s off-the-shelf from Sikorsky in late 1946 for use in the Antarctic and Operation Highjump, placing them into naval inventory as the HO3S-1. Carried aboard the seaplane tender USS Pine Island, on Christmas Day 1946 an HO3S-1 of VX-3 piloted by Lieutenant Commander Walter M. Sessums became the first helicopter to fly in the Antarctic. Having proved its capabilities, the initial naval HO3S-1 order was followed by subsequent purchases of an additional 42 aircraft in 1948, the Navy equipped several warship classes with HO3S-1 utility helos, including aircraft carriers, seaplane tenders, icebreakers, Des Moines-class cruisers, and Iowa-class battleships. By February 1948, the Marine Corps had equipped HMX-1, its first regular Marine Helicopter Transport Squadron, eventually, the U. S. Navy would acquire a total of 88 HO3S-1 helicopters. Thirty-nine additional specialized rescue helicopters were built, as the H-5G, in 1948, several H-5Hs were converted in 1949 to a unique medical-evacuation role, with casualty stretchers loaded sideways through blister-hatches on the side of the fuselage. The back stretcher station was located just forward of the tail boom, very little information is known about the operational use of this modification by the USAF, this being abandoned shortly after tests in 1950. The R-5 had been designated under the United States Army Air Forces system, in 1947 with the start of the United States Air Force, there was a new system, and many aircraft, but not all, were redesignated
16.
Bombing of Plaza de Mayo
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The Bombing of Plaza de Mayo was a massacre which took place in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 16 June 1955. The attack targeted the adjacent Casa Rosada, the seat of government. The action was to be the first step in an aborted coup détat. The number of identified bodies was put at 308 —including six children— plus a number of victims that couldn´t be identified. The absolute disregard for life and the violence with which the act was carried out. At 12,40 pm, thirty Argentine Naval Aviation airplanes, consisting of 22 North American AT-6, five Beechcraft AT-11 and three Consolidated PBY Catalina flying boats, took off from Morón Air Base. Perón had been warned of the movements beforehand by the Minister of War, Franklin Lucero, the surprise factor was crucial in the number of civilian casualties, as it was a Thursday. Among the first recorded victims were occupants of public transport vehicles, the first bomb to be dropped fell upon a trolley packed with children, killing everyone on board. The rebel troops of the 4th Battalion were deployed around the Casa Rosada with the intention of capturing it. The defense of the Casa Rosada consisted of two 12.7 mm Browning M2 machine guns located on the roof, while defenders in the floors used various small arms. Loyalist troops were accompanied by Peronist civilians who took up arms, moreover, union officials were already mobilizing workers from factories around Buenos Aires towards the city center. Perón ordered his adjutant, major Cialceta, to inform Di Pietro that a clash strictly between soldiers was taking place and that no man was to be in Plaza de Mayo. Historian Joseph Page claimed, citing a report originating from the US Embassy as his source, the rebel ground offensive started to lose steam by 3,00 pm. The marines from the esplanade of the casa Rosada came under fire from army artillery units positioned in a building located at the corner of Leandro N. Alem. Olivieri contacted the Navy Petty-Officers School of Mechanics in an effort to gain reinforcements, the 4th Infantry Battalion fought its way in disarray towards the premises of the Ministry of the Navy, where they were besieged by loyal Army units. Lucero ordered the use of machine guns against the rebels. The attack destroyed two floors of the wing of the building, killing a soldier and a general. A Sherman tank fired on the floor of the Ministry of the Navy
17.
Argentine Air Force
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The Argentine Air Force is the national aviation branch of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic. In 2010 it had 14,600 military personnel and 6,900 civilian personnel, the Air Forces history begins with the establishment of the Army Aviation Services Escuela de Aviación Militar on 10 August 1912. Several military officers were amongst the pioneers of Argentine aviation, including Jorge Newbery, the school began to turn out military pilots who participated in milestone events in Argentine aviation, such as the crossing of the Andes mountains. In 1927 the Dirección General de Aeronáutica was created to coordinate the military aviation. In that same year the Fábrica Militar de Aviones, which would become the heart of the aviation industry, was founded in Córdoba. By 1938–39 Argentinas air power had about 3,200 staff, about 150 of these were operated by the army and included Dewoitine D. In addition, a number of Avro Lincoln and Avro Lancaster bombers were acquired, also locally developed aircraft, like the I. Ae. 22 DL trainer and the I. Ae,24 Calquin tactical bomber, were added to the inventory. In the 1960s new aircraft were incorporated, including the F-86 Sabre fighter, during the 1970s the Air Force re-equipped itself with modern aircraft, including Mirage III interceptors, IAI Dagger multi-role fighters, and C-130 Hercules cargo planes. A counter-insurgency airplane, the Pucará, was used in substantial numbers. The Falklands War, took a toll on the Air Force. After the war, due to the economic situation, international opposition and political distrust of the military. This, coupled with diminishing budgets, led to a period of reduced activity, other equipment was bought,23 US Army surplus OV-1 Mohawks,22 Ex-Israeli IAI Dagger,2 C-130B and 1 Lockheed L-100-30. The FAA has been involved in United Nations peacekeeping missions around the world and they sent a Boeing 707 to the 1991 Gulf War. Since 1994 the UN Air contingent in Cyprus under UNFICYP mandate is provided by the FAA, the FAA has also since 2005 deployed Bell 212 helicopters to Haiti under MINUSTAH mandate. The possibility of purchasing surplus French Air Force Mirage 2000C fighters, since the 1990s the FAA has established good relations with its neighbours, the Brazilian and Chilean Air Forces. They annually meet, on a basis, in the joint exercises Cruzex in Brazil, Ceibo in Argentina. In 2007 an FAA FMA IA58 Pucará was converted to use a modified engine operating on soy-derived bio-jet fuel, the project, financed and directed by the Argentine Government, made Argentina the second nation in the world to propel an aircraft with biojet fuel
18.
Gloster Meteor
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The Gloster Meteor was the first British jet fighter and the Allies only operational jet aircraft during the Second World War. The Meteors development was heavily reliant on its ground-breaking turbojet engines, pioneered by Sir Frank Whittle and his company, development of the aircraft began in 1940, although work on the engines had been under way since 1936. The Meteor first flew in 1943 and commenced operations on 27 July 1944 with No.616 Squadron RAF, nicknamed the Meatbox, the Meteor was not a sophisticated aircraft in its aerodynamics, but proved to be a successful combat fighter. Glosters 1946 civil Meteor F.4 demonstrator G-AIDC was the first civilian-registered jet aircraft in the world, several major variants of the Meteor incorporated technological advances during the 1940s and 1950s. Thousands of Meteors were built to fly with the RAF and other air forces, the Meteor saw limited action in the Second World War. Meteors of the Royal Australian Air Force fought in the Korean War, several other operators such as Argentina, Egypt and Israel flew Meteors in later regional conflicts. Specialised variants of the Meteor were developed for use in aerial reconnaissance. The Meteor was also used for research and development purposes and to several aviation records. On 7 November 1945, the first official air speed record by a jet aircraft was set by a Meteor F.3 of 606 miles per hour, in 1946, this record was broken when a Meteor F.4 reached a speed of 616 mph. Other performance-related records were broken in categories including flight time endurance, rate of climb, on 20 September 1945, a heavily modified Meteor I, powered by two Rolls-Royce Trent turbine engines driving propellers, became the first turboprop aircraft to fly. On 10 February 1954, a specially adapted Meteor F.8, the Meteor Prone Pilot, as of 2013, two Meteors, WL419 and WA638, remain in active service with the Martin-Baker company as ejection seat testbeds. Two further aircraft in the UK remain airworthy, as another in Australia. Securing funding was a persistently worrying issue throughout the development of the engine. On 28 April 1939, Whittle made a visit to the premises of the Gloster Aircraft Company, Power Jets and Gloster quickly formed a mutual understanding around mid-1939. The success of the smaller E. 28/39 proved the viability of jet propulsion, due to the limited thrust available from early jet engines, it was decided that subsequent production aircraft would be powered by a pair of turbojet engines.2 and axial engine designs. In August 1940, Carter presented Glosters initial proposals for a jet fighter with a nosewheel undercarriage. On 7 February 1941, Gloster received an order for twelve prototypes under Specification F9/40, test locations and other key project information was similarly obscured. Gloster continued development work on the Meteor and the order was overturned in favour of the construction of six F9/40 prototypes alongside three E. 1/44 prototypes
19.
Grumman J2F Duck
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The Grumman J2F Duck was an American single-engine amphibious biplane. It was used by each branch of the U. S. armed forces from the mid-1930s until just after World War II, primarily for utility. It was also used by the Argentine Navy, who took delivery of their first Duck in 1937, after the war, J2F Ducks saw service with independent civilian operators, as well as the armed forces of Colombia and Mexico. The J2F was a version of the earlier JF Duck. The J2F-1 Duck first flew on 2 April 1936, powered by a 750 hp Wright R-1820 Cyclone, the J2F-2 had a Wright Cyclone engine which was boosted to 790 hp. Twenty J2F-3 variants were built in 1939 for use by the Navy as executive transports with plush interiors, due to pressure of work following the United States entry into the war in 1941, production of the J2F Duck was transferred to the Columbia Aircraft Corp of New York. They produced 330 aircraft for the Navy and U. S. Coast Guard, if standard Navy nomenclature practice had been followed, these would have been designated JL-1s, but it was not, and all Columbia-produced airframes were delivered as J2F-6s. Several surplus Navy Ducks were converted for use by the United States Air Force in the rescue role as the OA-12 in 1948. The aircraft had strut-mounted stabilizer floats beneath each lower wing, a crew of two or three were carried in tandem cockpits, forward for the pilot and rear for an observer with room for a radio operator if required. It had a cabin in the fuselage for two passengers or a stretcher, the Ducks main pontoon was blended into the fuselage, making it almost a flying boat despite its similarity to a conventional landplane which has been float-equipped. This configuration was shared with the earlier Loening OL, Grumman having acquired the rights to Loenings hull, float, like the F4F Wildcat, its narrow-tracked landing gear was hand-cranked. The J2F was used by the U. S. Navy, Marines, Army Air Forces, j2Fs of the utility squadron of US Patrol Wing 10 were destroyed at Mariveles Bay, Philippines, by a Japanese air raid on 5 January 1942. Among its passengers was Carlos P. Romulo, who recounted the flight in his 1942 best-selling book I Saw the Fall of the Philippines, J2F-1 Initial production version with 750 hp R-1820-20 engines,29 built. J2F-2 United States Marine Corps version with nose and dorsal guns, j2F-2A As J2F-2 with minor changes for use in the United States Virgin Islands, nine built. J2F-3 J2F-2 but powered by an 850 hp R-1820-26 engine,20 built, j2F-4 J2F-2 but powered by an 850 hp R-1820-30 engine and fitted with target towing equipment,32 built. J2F-5 J2F-2 but powered by a 1,050 hp R-1820-54 engine,144 built, J2F-6 Columbia Aircraft built version of the J2F-5 with a 1,050 hp R-1820-64 engine in a long-chord cowling, fitted with underwing bomb racks and provision for target towing gear,330 built. OA-12 Air-sea rescue conversion for the United States Army Air Forces, argentina Argentine Naval Aviation received four new-build Grumman G-15s in 1939, to supplement the eight Grumman G-20s received in 1937. In 1946–1947,32 ex-US Navy Ducks were acquired, with the last examples remaining in use until 1958, two Coast Guard airmen were lost along with a rescued U. S. Army Air Forces passenger from a downed B-17 searching for a downed C-53 with five on board
20.
Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic
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The Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic, in Spanish, Fuerzas Armadas de la República Argentina, are controlled by the Commander-in-Chief and a civilian Minister of Defense. The Argentine military, as has been the tendency in other Latin American countries, were more influential in former times. Starting in 1930 and throughout the 20th century, democratic governments were more often than not interrupted by military coups, the terrible consequences of the last dictatorship destroyed the military image as the moral reserve of the nation and opened the way to transform them to into todays armed forces. After the Revolución Libertadora coup that deposed president Juan Domingo Perón in 1955, the fight would end in 1963 with military clashes and the defeat of the reds who were opposed to Perón. In 1965, the Argentine military conducted land military maneuvers on Antarctica under then-Colonel Jorge E. Leal, nicknamed Operación 90, this was undertaken ten years before the Antarctic Treaty came into being and was conducted to cement Argentinas claims to a portion of those territories. The last military dictatorship, the National Reorganization Process, lasted from 1976 to 1983, during much of the 19th and the 20th century, relations between neighbour Chile chilled due to disputes over Patagonia, though in recent years relations have improved dramatically. Such action would also bolster its dwindling legitimacy, after short but fierce naval and air battles, the British landed on 21 May, and a land campaign followed until the Argentine forces surrendered on 14 June. 649 Argentines and 255 British died during the war, the political effects of the war were strong and prompted even larger protests against the dictatorship, which hastened its downfall. Far-right sectors of the Army rebelled in the Carapintadas movement, to contain the rebellions, Alfonsín promoted the Full stop law and the Law of due obedience. The following president, Carlos Menem, gave the presidential pardon to the military found guilty in the Trial of the Juntas and it would not be until 1990, when the last military uprising in Argentine history was crushed, that the political conflict within the Army finally subsided. In January 1989, during the attack on La Tablada. The success of Operación Alfil as it was known, with more than 700 interceptions and 25,000 miles sailed on the operations theatre helped to overcome the so-called Malvinas syndrome. From 1990 to 1992, the Baradero-class patrol boats were deployed under UN mandate ONUCA to the Gulf of Fonseca in Central America, in 1994, the three Drummond-class corvettes participated on Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti. Also, in the 1990s, Argentine Armed Forces began a defense cooperation and friendship policy with neighbors Brazil and Chile. The Argentine military have been reduced both in number and budget, but became more professional, especially after conscription was abolished by president Menem. The British embargo due to the Falklands War was officially eliminated, democratic governments since 1983 straightened the military budget and did not approve any large scale equipment purchases. Argentina military spending is one of the lowest of South America and as of 2010, the Mercosur served, for example, to discourage the Paraguayan military from an attempted coup in early 2000. On 2007 an agreement for cooperation in peace operations was signed with France, Argentina created with Chile a combined force for future United Nations mandates
21.
1963 Argentine Navy revolt
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The 1963 Argentine Navy revolt was a failed coup attempted by elements of the Argentine military that lasted from 21 September 1962 to 5 April 1963. The revolt failed to gain support in the Army and Air Force. The Argentine elections of 1963 proceeded as planned in July and the Navy saw a reduction of its influence, in 1955, the once popular government of Juan Peron was overthrown in a military coup known as the Revolución Libertadora. The subsequent military-backed government banned the participation of Peronist politicians, however, the Azules faction, led by Army General Juan Carlos Onganía, agreed to hold presidential elections in 1963 that permitted former-Peronist candidates. An attempted coup by the Colorados in 21 September 1962 was suppressed following a bombardment in San Antonio de Padua. Sporadic clashes were extended for the six months. The conspirators agreed to launch the coup on 2 April and went about recruiting officers to their cause. On the day of the coup, the commanders of Argentinas key naval bases declared their support for the coup, including those of Puerto Belgrano, Mar Del Plata, Rio Santiago Shipyard and Punta Indio. The Naval Headquarters and Navy Mechanics School, as well as a station in Buenos Aires were immediately seized. Around Puerto Belgrano, base commander Admiral Jorge Palma used the threat of the numerically superior force under his command to compel the surrender of the Armys 5th Infantry Regiment. Support in the Air Force for the coup was limited to 13 active-duty officers in the bases at Aeroparque, Reconquista, the rebel-held radio station in Buenos Aires was promptly bombed by loyalist MS.760 aircraft. Loyal army troops stationed in Campo de Mayo were quickly mobilized to seize the station, Naval Headquarters. The leaders of the revolt, accompanied by infantry, fled by ship to Puerto Belgrano. On 3 April, Army units moved onto retake the naval installations at La Plata and Rio Santiago, the heaviest fighting occurred when the Armys 8th Tank Regiment, commanded by Colonel Alcides López Aufranc, was mobilized to seize the naval base at Punta Indio. Under the orders of base commander Captain Santiago Sabarots, Argentine Navy F9F Panthers, AT-6 Texans and F4U Corsairs bombed the advancing column, nine soldiers were killed and 22 were wounded, for the loss of three aircraft. At 8 am on 3 April, the Air Force retaliated, a squad of F-86 Sabres, Gloster Meteors and MS. 760s launched air strikes against the naval base, destroying five Navy aircraft on the ground. The 8th Tank Regiment subsequently occupied Punta Indio only to find it abandoned, its personal having fled to Uruguay, leaving behind five seamen, meanwhile, the army had encircled the remaining rebel stronghold of Puerto Belgrano with rapidly mobilized troops from the 6th Mountain Infantry Division. This was agreed to by the Secretaries of the Army and Air Force, and the newly appointed secretary of the navy, Admiral Eladio Vazquez, the final terms of the agreement ending the rebellion were reached on 5 April
22.
Grumman F9F Panther
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The Grumman F9F Panther was the manufacturers first jet fighter and one of the United States Navys first successful carrier-based jet fighters. A single-engined, straight-winged day fighter, it was fitted with an armament of four 20 mm cannons, the Panther was used extensively by the U. S. Navy and the United States Marine Corps in the Korean War. It was also the first jet used by the Blue Angels flight team. The aircraft was exported to Argentina and was the first jet used by the Argentine Naval Aviation, the design evolved into the swept wing Grumman F-9 Cougar. Development studies at the Grumman company for jet-powered fighter aircraft began near the end of World War II as the first jet engines emerged, Grumman soon realized the G-75 was a losing design but had been working on a completely different, single-engine day fighter known as the Grumman G-79. Due to some interesting bureaucracy, BuAer did not cancel the G-75 contract, the G-79 became the Grumman F9F Panther. The prototype Panther, piloted by test pilot Corky Meyer, first flew on 21 November 1947. of thrust, production aircraft would have a Nene engine built under license by Pratt & Whitney as the J42. It was cleared for flight from aircraft carriers in September 1949, during the development phase, Grumman decided to change the Panthers engine, selecting the Pratt & Whitney J48-P-2, a license built version of the Rolls-Royce RB.44 Tay. The other engine that had been tested was the Allison J33-A-16, the armament was a quartet of 20 mm guns, the Navy having already switched to this caliber. As well, the Panther soon was armed with underwing air-to-ground rockets, the Grumman Panther was the primary U. S. Navy and USMC jet fighter and ground-attack aircraft in the Korean War. F9F-2s, F9F-3s and F9F-5s, as rugged attack aircraft, were able to sustain operations, the pilots also appreciated the air conditioned cockpit, which was a welcome change from the humid environment of piston-powered aircraft. Despite their relative slow speed, Panthers also managed to shoot down two Yak-9s and seven Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s for the loss of two F9Fs. On 3 July 1950, Lieutenant, junior grade Leonard H. Plog of U. S. Navys VF-51 flying an F9F-3 scored the first U. S. Navy air victory of the war by shooting down a Yak-9. The first MiG-15 was downed on 9 November 1950 by Lieutenant Commander William Amen of VF-111 Sundowners flying an F9F-2B, two more MiG-15s were downed on 18 November 1950. The final four MiG-15s were downed on 18 November 1952 by Lt. Williams victories were notable because all four were flown by Soviet Naval Aviation pilots, in 1992, Russian authorities admitted that Captains Belyakov and Vandalov, and Lieutenants Pakhomkin and Tarshinov were lost on 18 November 1952. No other fighter pilot ever scored four MiG-15s in a single combat, future astronaut Neil Armstrong flew the F9F extensively during the war, even ejecting from one of the aircraft when it was brought down by a wire strung across a valley, in 1951. Future astronaut John Glenn and Boston Red Sox all-star baseball player Ted Williams also flew the F9F as Marine Corps pilots. Panthers were withdrawn from service in 1956, but remained in training roles and with U. S. Naval Air Reserve
23.
Vought F4U Corsair
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The Vought F4U Corsair is an American fighter aircraft that saw service primarily in World War II and the Korean War. The Corsair thus came to and retained prominence in its area of greatest deployment, the Corsair served to a lesser degree in the U. S. Navy. In addition to its use by the U. S. and British, the Corsair was also used by the Royal New Zealand Air Force, the French Navy Aéronavale and other, smaller, air forces until the 1960s. Some Japanese pilots regarded it as the most formidable American fighter of World War II, after the carrier landing issues had been tackled, it quickly became the most capable carrier-based fighter-bomber of World War II. The Corsair served almost exclusively as a fighter-bomber throughout the Korean War and during the French colonial wars in Indochina, in February 1938 the U. S. Navy Bureau of Aeronautics published two requests for proposal for twin-engined and single-engined fighters. For the single-engined fighter the Navy requested the maximum speed. A range of 1,000 miles was specified, the fighter had to carry four guns, or three with increased ammunition. Provision had to be made for anti-aircraft bombs to be carried in the wing and these small bombs would, according to thinking in the 1930s, be dropped on enemy aircraft formations. In June 1938, the U. S. Navy signed a contract with Vought for a prototype bearing the factory designation V-166B, the Corsair design team was headed up by Rex Beisel. When the prototype was completed it had the biggest and most powerful engine, largest propeller, the first flight of the XF4U-1 was made on 29 May 1940, with Lyman A. Bullard, Jr. at the controls. The maiden flight proceeded normally until a landing was made when the elevator trim tabs failed because of flutter. The USAACs twin-engine Lockheed P-38 Lightning had flown over 400 mph in January–February 1939, the XF4U-1 also had an excellent rate of climb but testing revealed that some requirements would have to be rewritten. In full-power dive tests, speeds of up to 550 miles per hour were achieved but not without damage to the surfaces and access panels and, in one case. The spin recovery standards also had to be relaxed as recovery from the required two-turn spin proved impossible without resorting to an anti-spin chute, the problems clearly meant delays in getting the design into production. Reports coming back from the war in Europe indicated that an armament of two.30 in synchronized engine cowling-mount machine guns, and two.50 in machine guns was insufficient, the U. S. Navys November 1940 production proposals specified heavier armament. The increased armament consisted of three.50 caliber machine guns mounted in each wing panel and this improvement greatly increased the ability of the Corsair to effectively shoot down enemy aircraft. Formal U. S. Navy acceptance trials for the XF4U-1 began in February 1941, the first production F4U-1 performed its initial flight a year later, on 24 June 1942. It was an achievement for Vought, compared to land-based counterparts, carrier aircraft are overbuilt and heavier
24.
HMS Warrior (R31)
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In the effort to get bigger, the RCN returned the escort carriers currently on loan, Puncher and Nabob in exchange for the loan of two light fleet carriers. The acquisition of two ships, Warrior and Magnificent, was completed in January 1945 with the option to purchase them outright at a later date, negotiations were completed in May, however the war ended before the ships were completed. Construction and serviceWarrior was launched on 20 May 1944 and completed on 24 January 1946 and she was loaned to the RCN, commissioned as HMCS Warrior and placed under the command of Captain Frank Houghton. She entered Halifax harbour on 31 March 1946, a week after leaving Portsmouth and she was escorted by the destroyer HMCS Micmac and the minesweeper HMCS Middlesex. Initially, Warrior was equipped with Seafires of 803 Squadron and Fireflies of 825 Squadron, the RCN experienced problems with the unheated equipment during operations in cold North Atlantic waters off eastern Canada during 1947. The ship was transferred west to Esquimalt in November 1947, the RCN deemed her unfit for service and, rather than retrofit her with equipment heaters and with reduced defence spending, the RCN could not afford two aircraft carriers. Warrior was then returned to the Royal Navy in exchange for Magnificent in February 1948, HMCS Warrior returned to the United Kingdom and was recommissioned as HMS Warrior on 23 March 1948. She went into reserve in September 1949, and was recommissioned in June 1950 as a transport for troops, the ship underwent refit during most of 1952 and 1953 at Devonport Dockyard. During 1954 Warrior was deployed to the Far East, patrolling off the coast of recently pacified Korea, after returning to England another refit was carried out in 1955. This time Warrior received a slightly angled flight deck for trials. After the operation was completed the Avengers were catapulted into the sea as they were contaminated with radioactivity, considered surplus to requirements by the late 1950s, the Royal Navy decommissioned Warrior in February 1958 and offered her for sale. The return voyage from the Grapple tests was via Argentina, with visits and demonstrations to the Argentine Navy. The anti-aircraft armament was reduced to twelve 40 mm guns. In May 1962 the ship was provided with one quadruple. They were only embarked during their voyage from the United States to Argentina. The ship also used the North American T-28 Trojan trainer, in the armed version Fennec built in France, after the carrier ARA Veinticinco de Mayo entered service in 1969, Independencia moved to the reserves. List of aircraft carriers List of ships of the Argentine Navy Arbuckle, the Illustrated Guide to Aircraft Carriers of the World. A History Canadian Naval Aviation, 1918-1962, ottawa, Naval Historical Section of the Canadian Forces Headquarters, Department of National Defence
25.
Grumman S-2 Tracker
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The Grumman S-2 Tracker was the first purpose-built, single airframe anti-submarine warfare aircraft to enter service with the U. S. Navy. Designed and initially built by Grumman, the Tracker was of conventional design with twin reciprocating propeller engines, the type was exported to a number of navies around the world. Argentina and Brazil are the last countries to use the Tracker. The Tracker combined both functions in one aircraft, grummans design was for a large high-wing monoplane with twin Wright Cyclone R-1820 nine cylinder radial engines, a yoke type arrestor hook and a crew of four. Both the two prototypes XS2F-1 and 15 production aircraft, S2F-1 were ordered at the time, on 30 June 1950. The first flight was conducted on 4 December 1952, and production aircraft entered service with VS-26, follow-on versions included the WF Tracer and TF Trader, which became the Grumman E-1 Tracer and Grumman C-1 Trader in the tri-service designation standardization of 1962. The S-2 carried the nickname Stoof throughout its career. At least 99 and possibly 100 aircraft carrying the CS2F designation were manufactured in Canada under license by de Havilland Canada, U. S. -built versions of the Tracker were sold to various nations, including Australia, Japan, Turkey and Taiwan. The Tracker carried an internal torpedo bay capable of carrying two torpedoes or one nuclear depth charge. There were six underwing hard points for rocket pods and conventional depth charges or up to four additional torpedoes, a ventrally mounted retractable radome for AN/APS-38 radar and a Magnetic Anomaly Detector AN/ASQ-8 mounted on an extendable rear mounted boom were also fitted. Early model Trackers had an Electronic Surveillance Measures pod mounted dorsally just aft of the front seat overhead hatches and were fitted with a smoke particle detector or sniffer. Later S-2s had the sniffer removed and had the ESM antennae moved to four rounded extensions on the wingtips, a 70 million candlepower searchlight was mounted on the starboard wing. The engine nacelles carried JEZEBEL sonobouys in the rear, smoke dispensers were mounted on the port ventral surface of the nacelles in groups of three each. The Tracker was eventually superseded in U. S. military service by the Lockheed S-3 Viking, the last Navy S-2 was withdrawn from service on 29 August 1976. For many years the TS-2A version of the Tracker was used by U. S, a number of Trackers live on as firefighting aircraft while the design also continued to provide excellent service with the naval forces of other countries for years after the U. S. retired them. For example, the Royal Australian Navy continued to use Trackers as front line ASW assets until the mid-1980s, the Argentine Naval Aviation received seven S-2A in 1962, six S-2E in 1978 and three S-2G in the 1990s. They were used both aircraft carriers, ARA Independencia and ARA Veinticinco de Mayo and used in the COD, Maritime Patrol. In the 1990s, six remaining airframes where refurbished by Israel Aerospace Industries with turboprop engines as S-2T Turbo Trackers, between 1967 and 1984 the Royal Australian Navy operated two Squadrons of S-2E and S-2G variants, based at NAS Nowra
26.
Grumman F-9 Cougar
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The Grumman F9F/F-9 Cougar was an aircraft carrier-based fighter aircraft for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps. Based on Grummans earlier F9F Panther, the Cougar replaced the Panthers straight wing with a more modern swept wing, the Navy considered the Cougar an updated version of the Panther, despite having a different official name, and thus Cougars started off from F9F-6 upward. Rumors that the Soviet Union had produced a swept-wing fighter had been circulating since 1948, despite the level of activity taking place with swept-wing aircraft, the Navy was initially not heavily focused on the development of such aircraft. Nonetheless the Navy appreciated the importance of getting a capable carrier-based swept-wing jet fighter, Grumman was awarded a contract for the development of a swept-wing fighter jet in 1951. The arrival of the Mig 15, which easily outclassed straight-wing fighters in the air war over North Korea was a contributing factor. Prototypes were quickly produced by modifying Panthers, and the first flew on 20 September 1951. The aircraft was still subsonic, but the critical Mach number was increased from 0.79 to 0.86 at sea level and to 0.895 at 35,000 ft, improving performance markedly over the Panther. Instead of using conventional ailerons for roll control, the F9F-6 uses spoilers on the surfaces of the wing. Wing fences were added and the spoilers extended from the fences to the tips of the wing. The rudder pedals controlled the part of the rudder below the tail surface. This allowed the Cougar to fly safely and easily without the portion of the tail. Initial production was the F9F-6, delivered from mid-1952 through July 1954, the F9F-6 first flew on September 20,1951, seven months after Grumman signed a contract with the Navy for swept-wing fighter. The first 30 production aircraft used the same J42 P-6 engine used in the F9F-5, Armament was four 20 mm It had AN/M3 cannons in the nose and provisions for two 1,000 lb bombs or 150 US gal drop tanks under the wings. Most were fitted with a UHF homing antenna under the nose, the F9F-6 used an Aero 5D-1 weapons sight with an APG-30A gun-ranging radar. The F9F-6 was later designated F-9F in 1962, sixty were built as F9F-6P reconnaissance aircraft with cameras instead of the nose cannon. The F9F/F-9 Cougar is one of few aircraft which do not have ailerons, after withdrawal from active service, many F9F-6s were used as unmanned drones for combat training, designated F9F-6D, or as drone controllers, designated F9F-6K. The F9F-6K and the F9F-6D were redesignated the QF-9F and DF-9F, the F9F-7 referred to the next batch of Cougars that were given the Allison J33 also found in the F9F-4, instead of the Pratt & Whitney J48. A total of 168 were built, but the J33 proved both powerful and less reliable than the J48
27.
North American T-28 Trojan
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The North American Aviation T-28 Trojan is a piston-engined military trainer aircraft used by the United States Air Force and United States Navy beginning in the 1950s. Besides its use as a trainer, the T-28 was successfully employed as a counter-insurgency aircraft and it has continued in civilian use as an aerobatics and Warbird performer. On September 24,1949, the XT-28 was flown for the first time, found satisfactory, a contract was issued and between 1950 and 1957, a total of 1,948 were built. Following the T-28s withdrawal from U. S. military service, the first refurbished machines, designated T-28R-1 were similar to the standard T-28s they were adapted from, and were supplied to the Brazilian Navy. Later, an ambitious conversion was undertaken as the T-28R-2. The largest single concentration of aircraft was employed by the U. S. Navy at Naval Air Station Whiting Field in Milton, Florida. The T-28s service career in the U. S. military ended with the completion of the phase-in of the T-34C turboprop trainer. The last U. S. Navy training squadron to fly the T-28 was VT-27 “Boomers”, based at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi, Texas, flying the last T-28 training flight in early 1984. The last T-28 in the Training Command, BuNo 137796, departed for Naval District Washington on 14 March 1984 to be displayed permanently at Naval Support Facility Anacostia, D. C. In 1963, a Royal Lao Air Force T-28 piloted by Lieutenant Chert Saibory, Saibory was immediately imprisoned and his aircraft was impounded. Within six months the T-28 was refurbished and commissioned into the North Vietnamese Air Force as its first fighter aircraft. T-28s were supplied to the South Vietnamese Air Force in support of ARVN ground operations, seeing service during the Vietnam War in VNAF hands. A T-28 Trojan was the first US fixed wing aircraft lost in South Vietnam. Capt. Robert L. Simpson, USAF, Detachment 2A, lst Air Commando Group, the USAF lost 23 T-28s to all causes during the war, with the last two losses occurring in 1968. T-28s were used by the CIA in the former Belgian Congo during the 1960s, frances Armée de lAir used locally re-manufactured Trojans for close support missions in Algeria. The Philippines utilized T-28s during the 1989 Philippine coup attempt, the aircraft were often deployed as dive bombers by rebel forces. SDSM&T is currently planning to replace it with another modified, but more modern, former military aircraft, many retired T-28s were subsequently sold to private civil operators, and due to their reasonable operating costs are often found flying or displayed as warbirds today. The Trojan Phlyers are a two ship formation flying team from the Dallas, Texas area using T-28 Trojan aircraft and they have been performing at air shows since 1995 and the aircraft bear the markings of the US Air Force and the US Marine Corps
28.
Beechcraft T-34 Mentor
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The Beechcraft T-34 Mentor is an American propeller-driven, single-engined, military trainer aircraft derived from the Beechcraft Model 35 Bonanza. The earlier versions of the T-34, dating from around the late 1940s to the 1950s, were piston-engined and these were eventually succeeded by the upgraded T-34C Turbo-Mentor, powered by a turboprop engine. The T-34 remains in more than six decades after it was first designed. The T-34 was the brainchild of Walter Beech, who developed it as the Beechcraft Model 45 private venture at a time there was no defense budget for a new trainer model. Beech hoped to sell it as an alternative to the North American T-6/SNJ Texan. Production did not begin until 1953, when Beechcraft began delivering T-34As to the United States Air Force, production of the T-34B for the United States Navy began in 1955, this version featuring a number of changes reflecting the different requirements of the two services. T-34A production was completed in 1956, with T-34Bs being built until October 1957 and licensed B45 versions built in Canada, Japan, Beechcraft delivered the last Model B45s in 1959. Total production of the Continental-engined versions in the US and abroad was 1,904 aircraft, in 1955 Beechcraft developed a jet-engined derivative, again as a private venture, and again in the hope of winning a contract from the US military. The first flight of the Model 73, registered N134B, was on 18 December 1955, the Model 73 was evaluated by the USAF, which ordered the Cessna T-37, and the USN, which decided upon the Temco TT Pinto. The Beechcraft Model 73 was not put into production and the prototype is displayed at the Kansas Aviation Museum. After a production hiatus of almost 15 years, the T-34C Turbo-Mentor powered by a Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-25 turboprop engine was developed in 1973, development proceeded at the behest of the USN, which supplied two T-34Bs for conversion. After re-engining with the PT6, the two aircraft were redesignated as YT-34Cs, the first of these flying with turboprop power for the first time on 21 September 1973. Mentor production restarted in 1975 for deliveries of T-34Cs to the USN and of the T-34C-1 armed version for export customers in 1977, the last Turbo-Mentor rolled off the production line in 1990. With over 35 years of service, the T-34C has been replaced by the T-6 Texan II. The first flight of the Model 45 was on 2 December 1948, in 1950, the USAF ordered three Model A45T test aircraft, which were given the military designation YT-34. A long competition followed to determine a new trainer, and in 1953 the Air Force put the Model 45 into service as the T-34A Mentor, after extensive testing, the USAF ordered the Mentor into production as the T-34A in early 1953. The first production T-34A was delivered to Edwards Air Force Base, California, in October 1953 for evaluation, the T-34A commenced service as USAFs initial primary flight trainer at contract pilot training air bases across the southern United States, replacing extant North American AT-6 Texan trainers. Following training in the T-34A, USAF pilot trainees would advance to the North American T-28A Trojan for intermediate training, the T-34A Mentor remained the standard USAF primary trainer until the introduction of the Cessna T-37 Tweet jet trainer in the late 1950s, replacing both the T-34A and T-28A
29.
Aermacchi MB-326
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The Aermacchi or Macchi MB-326 is a light military jet aircraft designed in Italy. Originally conceived as a trainer, there have also been single. It is one of the most commercially successful aircraft of its type, being bought by more than 10 countries and produced under licence in Australia, Brazil and it set many category records, including an altitude record of 56,807 ft on 18 March 1966. In the 1950s, a number of countries were operating small jet trainers with a performance to their operational aircraft. At this time, several nations commenced development of aircraft for the role, such as the Fouga Magister, the T-37, the Jet Provost. The MB-326 was designed by Ermanno Bazzocchi at Macchi, Bazzocchi considered many configurations before it was chosen to proceed with a single-engined design. The airframe was a robust and light structure, all-metal, simple and cheap, powered by an efficient engine and this engine was designed as a short-life unit originally destined for target drones, but showed itself to be far more reliable. This airframe and engine combination led, in 1953, to the MB-326 project, the Italian Air Force was quite interested, and so the MB-326 took part in the contest. There were several modifications to the MB-326 project, the tail surfaces lost their negative dihedral angle. In 1956 the AMI approved the project and requested two prototypes and one airframe for static tests, No weaponry or pressurization was needed, but Bazzocchi introduced them. The first prototype made its flight on 10 December 1957, flown by Chief Test Pilot Guido Carestiato. The plane showed very good characteristics, but the affected the weight. The original Viper 8 engine produced 7.8 kN of thrust, so the Viper 9 was adopted, I-MAKI, the prototype, was first demonstrated in France. The second prototype first flew on 22 September 1958 and it had a new Viper engine, the 11 model, updated to produce 11.1 kN thrust. On 15 December 1958, the AMI placed an order for 15 pre-series examples, in 1960, an order for 100 aircraft was placed, establishing Aermacchis supremacy in jet trainers. Direct competition came from the Fiat G.80, being powerful and the first real Italian jet, having flown five years earlier. It lost the contest, remaining without a market, the MB-326 was a low-wing monoplane with an all-metal structure. Powered by a Rolls-Royce Viper non-afterburning turbojet with low air-intakes in the wing roots, each wing had 22 ribs and two spars
30.
Aermacchi MB-339
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The Aermacchi MB-339 is an Italian military trainer and light attack aircraft. It was developed as a replacement for the earlier MB-326, the MB-339 is of conventional configuration and all-metal construction, and shares much of the 326s airframe. It has a low, un-swept wing with tip tanks and jet intakes in the roots, tricycle undercarriage, the most significant revision was a redesign of the forward fuselage to raise the instructors seat to allow visibility over and past the student pilots head. The aircraft was fitted with a fin and powerplant for the initial versions was the same Rolls-Royce Viper 632-43, producing 4,000 lbf. The first flight took place on 12 August 1976 and deliveries to the Italian Air Force commenced in 1979 and it was still in production in 2004 in an enhanced version with a much-modernised cockpit. Over 200 MB-339s have been built, with half of them going to the Italian Air Force. The Lockheed-Aermacchi MB-339 T-Bird II was a contender in the USAs Joint Primary Aircraft Training System aircraft selection. Among the seven to enter, the Raytheon/Pilatus entry won, which became the T-6 Texan II, according to an article posted on the Italian website Il Porto Franci, called Armi e finanziamenti nel corno dAfrica, Eritrea paid about $US50 million for six MB-339 CEs in 1997. This is the original MB-339 with more advanced avionics for the attack role, RWR, uprated Viper 680-43 engine. It is capable of carrying Sidewinder AAMs, AGM-65 Maverick AGMs, unit price of the MB-339C would have to be somewhere around $US8.3 million dollars in 1997. The Argentine Naval Aviation was the first foreign user of the forerunner MB-326GB, in 1980, the COAN ordered ten MB-339As advanced trainer and light attack aircraft. These were delivered in 1981 and were operated by the III Escuadra Naval s 1 Escuadrilla de Ataque, during the Falklands War, late in April 1982, six of them were located at Port Stanley Airport, renamed Base Aérea Militar Malvinas. Other Aermacchis operated from three bases, at Almirante Zar, Bahía Blanca and Río Grande, Tierra del Fuego naval air station. On 3 May 1982 Lt Benitez crashed into high ground with approaching the airport at Port Stanley, on 21 May during a routine reconnaissance flight and flown by Lieutenant Owen Crippa, a MB-339A was the first one to attack the Royal Navy amphibious force. The Aermacchi hit the frigate HMS Argonaut, causing light damage, on 27 May, a MB-339A was shot down by a Blowpipe missile during the Battle for Goose Green, while attempting to attack British ships and landed troops. The Pilot, Teniente Miguel, was killed, three MB-339 airframes were captured by the British. One of these airframes is preserved at the South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum, in 1996, the Eritreans ordered six Aermacchi MB-339CEs, with which the first combat unit of the ERAF was founded in 1997. They have proved their worth as training aircraft and even during the fighting in 1998
31.
Douglas C-47 Skytrain
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The Douglas C-47 Skytrain or Dakota is a military transport aircraft developed from the civilian Douglas DC-3 airliner. It was used extensively by the Allies during World War II, the specialized C-53 Skytrooper troop transport started production in October 1941 at Douglas Aircrafts Santa Monica, California plant. It lacked the cargo door, hoist attachment and reinforced floor of the C-47, only a total of 380 aircraft were produced in all because the C-47 was found to be more versatile. During World War II, the forces of many countries used the C-47 and modified DC-3s for the transport of troops, cargo. The U. S. Naval designation was R4D, more than 10,000 aircraft were produced in Long Beach and Santa Monica, California and Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Between March 1943 and August 1945 the Oklahoma City plant produced 5,354 C-47s, additionally, C-47s were used to airlift supplies to the embattled American forces during the Battle of Bastogne. Possibly its most influential role in aviation, however, was flying The Hump from India into China. The expertise gained flying The Hump was later be used in the Berlin Airlift, in which the C-47 played a major role, until the aircraft were replaced by Douglas C-54 Skymasters. A C-47 flown by the China National Airways Corporation pilot Moon Chin, Moon Chin was tasked with flying from Chungking to Myitkyina, a military base in Burma. His aircraft was jumped by Japanese fighters and, after landing at a small airstrip to wait for his pursuers to give up the game. When Chins DC-3 arrived at Myitkyina, he found that the base had, indeed, been severely bombed by the Japanese, eventually, Chin would carry sixty-eight passengers and a crew of four on the final leg to India. After arriving in India, the tattered American approached Captain Chin, believe me, Chin, he began, if I had had any idea that you were going to jam that many people into this old crate I would have gone home the way I came. Chin inquired as to how that might have been and the American replied I flew in, the short, balding, bedraggled American was none other than Lt Col Jimmy Doolittle returning from the historic raid on Tokyo. In Europe, the C-47 and a specialised paratroop variant, the C-53 Skytrooper, were used in vast numbers in the stages of the war, particularly to tow gliders. During the invasion of Sicily in July 1943, C-47s dropped 4,381 Allied paratroops, more than 50,000 paratroops were dropped by C-47s during the first few days of the invasion of Normandy, France, in June 1944. In the Pacific War, with use of the island landing strips of the Pacific Ocean. About 2,000 C-47s in British and Commonwealth service took the name Dakota, the C-47 also earned the informal nickname gooney bird in the European theatre of operations. The United States Air Forces Strategic Air Command had Skytrains in service from 1946 through 1967, the US Air Forces 6th Special Operations Squadron was flying the C-47 until 2008
32.
Argentine Antarctica
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Administratively, Argentine Antarctica is a department of the province of Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica, and South Atlantic Islands. The provincial authorities reside in Ushuaia and the Governor annually designates his or her delegate for the Antarctica region, the civil power of any of the administrators extends no further than that nations own bases. The South Orkney Islands are part of Islas del Atlántico Sur Departament, the Argentine exploration of the continent started early in the 20th century. José María Sobral was the first Argentine to set foot on Antarctica in 1902, shortly afterwards, in 1904, the Orcadas permanent base was already fully operational. Years later other bases would be created, some permanent and others seasonal, the first Argentine expedition to reach the South Pole was the 1965 Operación 90. Argentine activities in Antarctica are coordinated by the Instituto Antártico Argentino, the estimated Argentine Antarctica area is 1,461,597 km2, of which 965,597 km2 is land. The ice in the shell has a thickness of 2 km on average. Temperatures range from 0 °C in summer and -60 °C in winter although in certain points may drop to approximately -82 °C, time zone UTC-3 is used as in the South American continent. Argentina has six permanent Antarctic Stations and seven Summer Stations with a total of 13, in 1815 Guillermo Brown, an Irish Marine Commodore in the service of the United Provinces of Río de la Plata, launched a campaign to harass the Spanish fleet in the Pacific Ocean. When rounding Cape Horn aboard the Hercules and Trinidad, strong winds pushed them to parallel 65 S, in the petition that was presented Aguirre, he has requested authorization for installation of an establishment for seal hunting in some of the existing islands off the South Pole. The fact that these sealers were directed to the islands with fixed course is regarded as proof that they were previously known. In 1848 Luis Piedrabuena traveled to Antarctica as a boy of William Smiley. This Argentine receive support in exchange for incorporating an Argentine Navy to dispatch and deliver scientific data, on their way through Buenos Aires lieutenant Jose Maria Sobral boarded the ship Antarctic on 21 December 1901. The expedition built a hut on Snow Hill Island in 1902, the Argentine Navy took possession of the hut in 1954 and named it Refugio Suecia. Currently it is an Argentine historical monument and historical site and monument as appointed by the Antarctic Treaty, the 1902 expedition built another hut in Hope Bay, it is also Argentine and an Antarctic monument under the control of Esperanza Station. In it an observatory, where he also worked a post office was installed. Civil Hugo Alberto Acuna accounted hoist for the first time in a way the flag of Argentina on the Argentine Antarctic sector. Such an observatory became the Orcadas Base the oldest existing today across the Antarctic territory permanent human settlement, thanks to Argentine collaboration with his expedition, Charcot named an insular group as Argentine Islands
33.
South Pole
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The South Pole, also known as the Geographic South Pole or Terrestrial South Pole, is one of the two points where the Earths axis of rotation intersects its surface. It is the southernmost point on the surface of the Earth, situated on the continent of Antarctica, it is the site of the United States Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, which was established in 1956 and has been permanently staffed since that year. The Geographic South Pole should not be confused with the South Magnetic Pole, the South Pole is at the center of the Southern Hemisphere. For most purposes, the Geographic South Pole is defined as the point of the two points where the Earths axis of rotation intersects its surface. However, the Earths axis of rotation is actually subject to very small wobbles, the geographic coordinates of the South Pole are usually given simply as 90°S, since its longitude is geometrically undefined and irrelevant. When a longitude is desired, it may be given as 0°, at the South Pole, all directions face north. For this reason, directions at the Pole are given relative to grid north, along tight latitude circles, clockwise is east, and counterclockwise is west, opposite to the North Pole. The Geographic South Pole is located on the continent of Antarctica. It sits atop a featureless, barren, windswept and icy plateau at an altitude of 2,835 metres above sea level, and is located about 1,300 km from the nearest open sea at Bay of Whales. The ice is estimated to be about 2,700 metres thick at the Pole, the polar ice sheet is moving at a rate of roughly 10 metres per year in a direction between 37° and 40° west of grid north, down towards the Weddell Sea. Therefore, the position of the station and other artificial features relative to the geographic pole gradually shift over time. The Geographic South Pole is marked by a stake in the ice alongside a small sign, these are repositioned each year in a ceremony on New Years Day to compensate for the movement of the ice. The sign records the respective dates that Roald Amundsen and Robert F. Scott reached the Pole, followed by a quotation from each man. A new marker stake is designed and fabricated each year by staff at the site, the Ceremonial South Pole is an area set aside for photo opportunities at the South Pole Station. It is located around 180 metres from the Geographic South Pole, Amundsens Tent, The tent was erected by the Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen on its arrival on 14 December 1911. It is currently buried beneath the snow and ice in the vicinity of the Pole and it has been designated a Historic Site or Monument, following a proposal by Norway to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. In 1820, several expeditions claimed to have been the first to have sighted Antarctica, with the very first being the Russian expedition led by Faddey Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. The first landing was probably just over a year later when American Captain John Davis, the basic geography of the Antarctic coastline was not understood until the mid-to-late 19th century
34.
Ellsworth Station
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Ellsworth Scientific Station was a permanent, all year-round originally American, then Argentine Antarctic scientific research station named after American polar explorer Lincoln Ellsworth. It was located on Gould Bay, on the Filchner Ice Shelf and it was shut down in 1962 over safety concerns due to it being built on increasingly unstable ice, which produced fast deterioration of its superstructures and endangered both personnel and equipment. It was agreed that scientists of countries would work together at the place in technical studies and scientific research. On 6 January 1962 then Frigate Captain Hermes Quijada of the Argentine Naval Aviation, leading a two-Douglas C-47 flight and he became the first pilot that having taken off from the Americas landed at Earths southernmost point. Feasibility of the station came into question when structural problems caused by the ice had the base half-sunk during most of the spring. To protect personnel and equipment, Ellsworth was closed and all of its staff and equipment were evacuated on 30 December 1962 and it continued to be inspected periodically by Argentine exploration teams, it was eventually covered by snow and ice. The Filchner Shelf sector where it was located split as a giant iceberg and drifted through the Southern Ocean, the original facilities at Ellsworth Station could house over 40 people. There was also active research involving glaciology at the Filchner Ice Shelf, some of these patrols reached the West Crevice on the huge barrier, completing the Ellsworth–Belgrano triangulation. The area is a passage of weather fronts directed towards the north, although they do not precipitate, Argentine Antarctica Citations Articles Papers and Proceedings. Slicing the Silence, Voyaging to Antarctica, dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Fundaciòn Marambio – Base Ellsworth Dirección Nacional del Antártico
35.
Sikorsky S-55
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The Sikorsky H-19 Chickasaw, was a multi-purpose helicopter used by the United States Army and United States Air Force. It was also license-built by Westland Aircraft as the Westland Whirlwind in the United Kingdom, United States Navy and United States Coast Guard models were designated HO4S, while those of the U. S. Marine Corps were designated HRS. In 1962, the U. S. Navy, U. S. Coast Guard and U. S. Marine Corps versions were all redesignated as H-19s like their U. S. Army, development of the H-19 was initiated privately by Sikorsky without government sponsorship. The helicopter was designed as a testbed for several novel design concepts intended to provide greater load-carrying ability in combination with easy maintenance. Under the leadership of designer Edward F. Katzenberger, a mockup was designed and fabricated in less one year. The first customer was the United States Air Force, which ordered five YH-19 aircraft for evaluation, the YH-19s first flight was on 10 November 1949, less than a year after the program start date. This was followed by delivery of the first YH-19 to the U. S. Air Force on 16 April 1950 and delivery of the first HO4S-1 helicopter to the U. S. Navy on 31 August 1950. A U. S. Air Force YH-19 was sent to Korea for service trials in March 1951, where it was joined by a second YH-19 in September 1951. On 27 April 1951, the first HRS-1 was delivered to the U. S. Marine Corps, and on 2 May 1951,1,281 of the helicopters were manufactured by Sikorsky in the United States. An additional 447 were manufactured by licensees of the helicopter including Westland Aircraft, the helicopter was widely exported, used by many other nations, including Portugal, Greece, Israel, Chile, South Africa, Denmark and Turkey. Enough fuel was provided for seven minutes of operation, although tests of the system were considered successful, it was never adopted operationally. These features yielded an aircraft that was far more capable in a role than previous Sikorsky designs. The impetus for this choice was the recent rejection of the Sikorsky XHJS by the U. S. The YH-19 prototypes featured a blunt aft fuselage and a single starboard-mounted horizontal tailplane with a vertical fin at its outboard end. Initial production models added a large fillet-like fin behind the fuselage and under the tailboom, the H-19 underwent live service tests in the hands of the 6th Transportation Company, during the Korean War beginning in 1951 as an unarmed transport helicopter. The U. S. Air Force ordered 50 H-19As for rescue duties in 1951 and these aircraft were the primary rescue and medical evacuation helicopters for the USAF during the Korean War. The Air Force continued to use the H-19 through the 1960s, in Indochina, a small number of Hiller H-23s and Sikorsky H-19s were available for casualty evacuation. In 1956, the French Air Force experimented with arming the H-19, then being superseded in service by the more capable Piasecki H-21 and Sikorsky H-34 helicopters
36.
Lockheed P-2 Neptune
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The Lockheed P-2 Neptune was a Maritime patrol and anti-submarine warfare aircraft. It was developed for the US Navy by Lockheed to replace the Lockheed PV-1 Ventura and PV-2 Harpoon, the type was successful in export and saw service with several armed forces. Development of a new land-based patrol bomber began early in World War II, at first, the new design was considered a low priority compared to other aircraft in development at the time, with Vega also developing and producing the PV-2 Harpoon patrol bomber. On 19 February 1943, the U. S. Navy signed a letter of intent for two prototpe XP2Vs, which was confirmed by a contract on 4 April 1944 with a further 15 aircraft being ordered 10 days later. It was not until 1944 that the program went into full swing, a major factor in the design was ease of manufacture and maintenance, and this may have been a major factor in the types long life and worldwide success. The first aircraft flew in May 1945, production began in 1946, and the aircraft was accepted into service in 1947. Beginning with the P2V-5F model, the Neptune became one of the first aircraft in service to be fitted with both piston and jet engines. The Convair B-36, several Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter, Fairchild C-123 Provider, to save the weight and complexity of two separate fuel systems, the Westinghouse J34 jet engines on the P2Vs did not burn jet fuel- they burned the same fuel as the piston engines, 115–145 Avgas. In normal U. S. Navy operations, the jet engines were run at full power to expedite and assure all takeoffs, there was also a hatch in the floor of the aft fuselage, near the sonobuoy chutes. The AN/ASQ-8 Magnetic Anomaly Detector was fitted in an extended tail, unmarked charts were not classified, but those with annotations were classified as secret. A belly-mounted AN/APS-20 surface-search radar enabled detection of surfaced and snorkeling submarines at considerable distances. S, at the end of World War II, the US Navy felt the need to acquire a nuclear strike capability to maintain its political influence. In the short term, carrier-based aircraft were the best solution, nuclear munitions at that time were bulky and required a large aircraft to carry them. The U. S. Navy improvised a carrier-based nuclear strike aircraft by modifying the P2V Neptune for carrier takeoff using jet assisted takeoff rocket boosters, with initial takeoff tests in 1948. However, the Neptune could not land on a carrier, therefore the crew had to make their way to a friendly land base after a strike. Test flights were made by aircraft at Edwards AFB from 1955 to 1956, all the aircraft painted with dark sea blue color. In 1957 one P2V-7U was sent to Eglin AFB for testing aircraft performance at low level, the initial two aircraft were sent to Europe, based at Wiesbaden, West Germany, but were later withdrawn in 1959 when the CIA reduced its covert aircraft assets in Europe. The P2V-7U/RB-69A flew with ROCAF/Taiwan Black Bat Squadron over China from 1957 to November 1966, all five original aircraft were lost with all hands on board. In January 1967, two remaining RB-69As flew back to NAS Alameda, California, and were converted back to regular US Navy P2H/P2V-7 ASW aircraft configurations
37.
ARA Veinticinco de Mayo (V-2)
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ARA Veinticinco de Mayo was an aircraft carrier in the Argentine Navy from 1969 to 1997. The English translation of the name is Twenty-fifth of May, which is the date of Argentinas May Revolution in 1810, the ship previously served in the Royal Navy as HMS Venerable and the Royal Netherlands Navy as HNLMS Karel Doorman. The ship was built by Cammell Laird in Birkenhead, England during the Second World War for the Royal Navy, as a Colossus-class aircraft carrier, she was named HMS Venerable and saw service in the British Pacific Fleet. Venerable only served three years in the Royal Navy before being sold to the Netherlands as HNLMS Karel Doorman, after a boiler room fire, the carrier was rebuilt, and sold to Argentina. The Argentines already operated a carrier, ARA Independencia, also a former Royal Navy Colossus-class, after Independencia was decommissioned in 1970, Veinticinco de Mayo was the sole remaining carrier in the Argentine fleet. She could carry up to 24 aircraft, during the 1970s the ship was refitted and updated several times, though in each case the duration of each repair period was never more than 3–5 months, allowing her to be available to deploy. Therefore, her strike airwing was limited to the A-4Q Skyhawks, see Operation Soberania During the Operation Soberania Veinticinco de Mayo was planned to support the invasion of the Picton, Nueva and Lennox islands. Her aircraft were not used during the invasion, later in defence of the occupation she was deployed in a task force north of the Falkland Islands, with ARA General Belgrano to the south. The British had assigned HMS Splendid, a submarine, to track down Veinticinco de Mayo. After hostilities broke out on 1 May 1982, the Argentine carrier attempted to launch a wave of A-4Q Skyhawk jets against the Royal Navy Task Force after her S-2 Trackers detected the British fleet. What would have been the first battle between aircraft carriers since World War II did not take place, as light winds prevented the heavily loaded jets from being launched, after the British nuclear-powered submarine HMS Conqueror sank General Belgrano, Veinticinco de Mayo returned to port for safety. Splendid never tracked down the carrier, the naval A-4Q Skyhawks flew the rest of the war from the airbase in Río Grande, Tierra del Fuego, and had some success against the Royal Navy, sinking HMS Ardent. Three Skyhawks were shot down by Sea Harriers, the Argentine Navy could not procure the funds for a modernization and new engines, leading to decommissioning by 1997. Finally in 2000, she was towed to Alang, India for scrapping, although Minas Gerais was offered to the Argentine Navy as a replacement in 2000 she was rejected due to her poor condition and high restoration and maintenance costs. The Illustrated Guide to Aircraft Carriers of the World, london, Anness Publishing Limited, Hermes House. London, Summertime Publishing Ltd. p.83, buenos Aires, Argentina, Ayer y Hoy Ediciones. Historical Pictorial Google Video of Super Etendards practicing touch & go on ARA25 de Mayo Google Video of A-4 Skyhawks on ARA25 de Mayo Naval-History. net HMS Venerable
38.
Hawker Siddeley
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Hawker Siddeley was a group of British manufacturing companies engaged in aircraft production. Hawker Siddeley combined the legacies of several British aircraft manufacturers, emerging through a series of mergers, in 1977, Hawker Siddeley became a founding component of the nationalised British Aerospace. Hawker Siddeley also operated in other markets, such as locomotive building. The Company was once a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, at this time, Hawker Siddeley also acquired A. V. Roe & Company, Gloster Aircraft Company and Air Training Services, the constituent companies continued to produce their own aircraft designs under their own name as well as sharing manufacturing work throughout the group. During this campaign, Hurricanes outnumbered all other British fighters, combined, in 1945, the Hawker Siddeley purchased Victory Aircraft of Malton, Ontario, Canada from the Canadian government, renaming the company A. V. Roe Canada, commonly known as Avro Canada, initially a wholly owned subsidiary of Hawker Siddeley, during its operation, Avro Canada aircraft included the C102 Jetliner, CF-100 Canuck, CF-105 Arrow and VZ-9- AV Avrocar. Only the CF-100 fighter entered full-scale production, other design projects included supersonic transport passenger aircraft, a mach-2 VTOL fighter, hovercraft, a jet engine-powered tank, and the hypersonic Space Threshold Vehicle. After the cancellation of the Arrow, the company began to unravel, roe Canada was dissolved and the remaining assets were transferred to the now defunct Hawker Siddeley Canada. In 1948, the name was changed to Hawker Siddeley Group. The aircraft division would become Hawker Siddeley Aviation and the guided missile, in 1959, the aero engine business, Armstrong Siddeley was merged with that of the Bristol Aero Engines to form Bristol Siddeley. Out of this decision, came the order that all future contracts being offered had to include agreements to merge companies, in 1959, Folland Aircraft was acquired, followed by de Havilland Aircraft Company and Blackburn Aircraft in 1960. In 1963, the names of the constituent companies were dropped, in this period, the company developed the first operational, and, by far, the most successful VTOL jet aircraft, the Harrier family. This aircraft remained in production into the 1990s and remains in service, in 1957, Hawker Siddeley purchased the Brush group of companies that included Brush Electrical Machines, and Brush Traction, which manufactures electromotive equipment and railway locomotives. The Brush prototype locomotives Falcon, and the futuristic but over-weight HS4000 Kestrel, were produced there, other railway engineering assets were acquired, including Westinghouse Brake & Signal and the engine builder Mirrlees Blackstone, which came with the Brush businesses. In the early 1970s Hawker Siddeleys Canada Car and Foundry subsidiary began to build rapid transit vehicles for the North American market, later Hawker Siddeley would sell the same general design to the MBTA in Boston for their Blue and Orange Lines. 7048 cars were delivered to the Blue Line in 1978–80 and 12065 cars were delivered to the Orange Line in 1980–81, Hawker Siddeley also manufactured much of the Toronto subway systems older rolling stock, the H5 and H6 models. The heavy rail manufacturing business, based in Mississauga and Thunder Bay, MBTA also bought a number of commuter rail coaches from the German firm Messerschmitt, thereby teaming Hawker Siddeley with its old World War II rival under the same organisation
39.
Hawker Siddeley Harrier
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The Hawker Siddeley Harrier, developed in the 1960s, was the first of the Harrier Jump Jet series of aircraft. The Harrier was developed directly from the Hawker Siddeley Kestrel prototype aircraft, following the cancellation of an advanced supersonic aircraft. The British Royal Air Force ordered the Harrier GR.1 and it was exported to the United States as the AV-8A, for use by the US Marine Corps, in the 1970s. The USMC used their Harriers primarily for air support, operating from amphibious assault ships. Harrier squadrons saw several deployments overseas, the Harriers ability to operate with minimal ground facilities and very short runways allowed it to be used at locations unavailable to other fixed-wing aircraft. The Harrier received criticism for having an accident rate and for a time-consuming maintenance process. In the 1970s the British Aerospace Sea Harrier was developed from the Harrier for use by the Royal Navy on Invincible-class aircraft carriers, the Sea Harrier and the Harrier fought in the 1982 Falklands War, in which the aircraft proved to be crucial and versatile. The RN Sea Harriers provided fixed-wing air defence while the RAF Harriers focused on ground-attack missions in support of the advancing British land force, the Harrier was also extensively redesigned as the AV-8B Harrier II and British Aerospace Harrier II by the team of McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace. The innovative Harrier family and its Rolls-Royce Pegasus engines with thrust vectoring nozzles have generated long-term interest in V/STOL aircraft, similar V/STOL operational aircraft include the contemporary Soviet Yakovlev Yak-38. The F-35B V/STOL variant of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is under development, the Harriers design was derived from the Hawker P.1127. Prior to developing the P.1127 Hawker Aircraft had been working on a replacement for the Hawker Hunter, the P.1121 was cancelled after the release of the British Governments 1957 Defence White Paper, which advocated a policy shift away from manned aircraft and towards missiles. This policy resulted in the termination of the majority of development projects then underway for the British military. Hawker sought to move on to a new project and became interested in Vertical Take Off/Landing aircraft. Design work on the P.1127 was formally started in 1957 by Sir Sydney Camm, Ralph Hooper of Hawker Aircraft, rather than using rotors or a direct jet thrust, the P.1127 had an innovative vectored thrust turbofan engine, the Pegasus. The Pegasus I was rated at 9,000 pounds of thrust and first ran in September 1959, a contract for two development prototypes was signed in June 1960 and the first flight followed in October 1960. Of the six prototypes built three crashed—including one during an air display at the 1963 Paris Air Show. In 1961 the United Kingdom, United States and West Germany jointly agreed to nine aircraft developed from the P.1127, for the evaluation of the performance. These aircraft were built by Hawker Siddeley and were designated Kestrel FGA.1 by the UK
40.
Douglas A-4 Skyhawk
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The Douglas A-4 Skyhawk is a single seat subsonic carrier-capable attack aircraft developed for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps in the early 1950s. The delta winged, single turbojet engined Skyhawk was designed and produced by Douglas Aircraft Company and it was originally designated A4D under the U. S. Navys pre-1962 designation system. The Skyhawk is a lightweight aircraft with a maximum takeoff weight of 24,500 pounds and has a top speed of more than 670 miles per hour. The aircrafts five hardpoints support a variety of missiles, bombs, the A-4 was originally powered by the Wright J65 turbojet engine, from the A-4E onwards, the Pratt & Whitney J52 was used. Skyhawks played key roles in the Vietnam War, the Yom Kippur War, the Skyhawk was designed by Douglas Aircrafts Ed Heinemann in response to a U. S. Navy call for a jet-powered attack aircraft to replace the older Douglas AD Skyraider. Heinemann opted for a design that would minimize its size, weight, the result was an aircraft that weighed only half of the Navys weight specification. It had a wing so compact that it did not need to be folded for carrier stowage, the diminutive Skyhawk soon received the nicknames Scooter, Kiddiecar, Bantam Bomber, Tinker Toy Bomber, and, on account of its nimble performance, Heinemanns Hot-Rod. The tail is of cruciform design, with the horizontal stabilizer mounted above the fuselage, the choice of a delta wing combined speed and maneuverability with a large fuel capacity and small overall size, thus not requiring folding wings, albeit at the expense of cruising efficiency. The leading edge slats were designed to drop automatically at the speed by gravity and air pressure, saving weight and space by omitting actuation motors. The wing structure itself could be lighter with the overall strength. The turbojet engine was accessed for service or replacement by removing the aft section of the fuselage and this obviated the need for access doors with their hinges and latches, further reducing aircraft weight and complexity. The A-4 pioneered the concept of buddy air-to-air refueling and this allows the aircraft to supply others of the same type, eliminating the need for dedicated tanker aircraft—a particular advantage for small air arms or when operating in remote locations. A designated supply A-4 would mount a center-mounted buddy store, an external fuel tank with a hose reel in the aft section. This aircraft was fueled up without armament and launched first, Attack aircraft would be armed to the maximum and given as much fuel as was allowable by maximum takeoff weight limits, far less than a full tank. Once airborne, they would proceed to top off their fuel tanks from the tanker using the A-4s fixed refueling probe on the starboard side of the aircraft nose. They could then sortie with both full armament and fuel loads, while the capability of the A-4 was rarely used in U. S. service after the KA-3 Skywarrior became available as a tanker from the larger deck carriers. The versatility of the capability and the retirement of the Skywarrior meant that the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet now includes this capability. The A-4 was also designed to be able to make a landing, in the event of a hydraulic failure
41.
Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King
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The Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King is an American twin-engined anti-submarine warfare helicopter designed and built by Sikorsky Aircraft. A landmark design, it was the worlds first amphibious helicopter, introduced in 1961, it served in the United States Navy as a key ASW and utility asset for several decades before being replaced by the non-amphibious Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk in the 1990s. The type also proved popular in service and with foreign military customers. As of 2015, many remain in service in nations around the world, the Sea King has been built under license by Agusta in Italy, Mitsubishi in Japan, and by Westland in the United Kingdom as the Westland Sea King. The major civil versions are the S-61L and S-61N, during the Cold War, the Soviet Navy built up a large and varied fleet of submarines which at one point was in excess of 200 operational submarines. The US Navy decided to counter this threat perusing the improvement and development of various anti-submarine warfare capabilities, during the late 1950s, the US Navy was keen to take advantage of newly made progress upon turboshaft engines by commissioning a sizable navalised helicopter for their purposes. In 1957, Sikorsky was awarded a contract to produce an all-weather amphibious helicopter for the U. S. Navy, as such, the navigation suite for the rotorcraft was developed jointly by Sikorsky and the US Navy. The designation HSS-2 was applied to imply a level of commonality to the earlier HSS-1, a total of ten prototypes were produced to support the development program. In March 1959, the first prototype conducted its maiden flight, shortly after the competition of suitability trials, the US Navy formally accepted delivery of the first HSS-2 rotorcraft, which would be subsequently re-designated as the SH-3A, in September 1961. In late 1961 and early 1962, a modified U. S. Navy HSS-2 Sea King was used to break the FAI3 km,100 km,500 km and 1000 km helicopter speed records. This series of flights culminated on 5 February 1962 with the HSS-2 setting an absolute speed record of 210.6 mph. This record was broken by a modified French Sud-Aviation Super Frelon helicopter on 23 July 1963 with a speed of 217.7 mph, One of the major variants of the Sea King to be produced was a model for civil operators, which was designated as the Sikorsky S-61L. The first operator of the S-61L was Los Angeles Airways, who introduced the type to service on 11 March 1962. S, Air Force and the U. S. Coast Guard. It was also common for Sea Kings to be converted for non-ASW activities, these roles included minesweeping, combat search and rescue, and as a cargo/passenger utility transport. The Royal Canadian Navy became an operator of the type. One notable innovation in Canadian operations, which was adopted by several other nations, was the use of a winch hauldown landing method. This device considerably increased the ability of Sea Kings to land in difficult conditions, in addition to aircraft manufactured by Sikorsky, several license agreements were issued to other firms to produce the type, such as Mitsubishi in Japan and Agusta in Italy. Another licensee in the United Kingdom, Westland Helicopters, would modify the Sea King, producing the Westland Sea King
42.
Fokker F28 Fellowship
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The Fokker F28 Fellowship is a short range jet airliner designed and built by Dutch aircraft manufacturer Fokker. Announced by Fokker in April 1962, production was a collaboration between a number of European companies, namely Fokker, MBB of West Germany, Fokker-VFW, and Short Brothers of Northern Ireland. There was also government money invested in the project, with the Dutch government providing 50% of Fokkers stake, projected at first to transport 50 passengers to 1,650 km, the plane was later designed to have 60–65 seats. On the design sheet, the F28 was originally to mount Bristol Siddeley BS.75 turbofans, but the prototype flew with the lighter Rolls-Royce Spey Junior, a simplified version of the Rolls-Royce Spey. The F28 was similar in design to the British Aircraft Corporation BAC One-Eleven and Douglas DC-9, as it had a T-tail and engines mounted at the rear of the fuselage. The aircraft had wings with a slight crescent angle of sweep with ailerons at the tip, simple flaps and these were employed rather than reverse thrust as the designers felt that doing so not only reduced weight, but maintenance also. Having no reversers also meant that on unpaved airstrips there was chance of the engines ingesting debris. The leading edge was fixed and was anti-iced by bleed air from the engines, the tail cone could split and be hydraulically opened to the sides to act as a variable air brake – also used on the contemporaneous Blackburn Buccaneer. This design was used on the HS-146, which became the BAe-146. This means the engines respond faster if needed for sudden speed increases or go-arounds on the approach to landing, the Fellowship had a retractable tricycle landing gear which used large low pressure tyres enabling the use of unpaved airstrips. Large wheel brakes also helped in shortening the landing run, final assembly of the Fokker F28 was at Schiphol Airport in the Netherlands. The F28-1000 prototype, registered PH-JHG, first flew on 9 May 1967, flown by Chief Test Pilot Jas Moll, Test Pilot Abe van der Schraaf, German certification was achieved on 24 February 1969. The first order was from German airline LTU, but the first revenue-earning flight was by Braathens on 28 March 1969, the F28 with an extended fuselage was named F28-2000 and could seat up to 79 passengers instead of the 65 seats on the F28-1000. The prototype for this model was a converted F28-1000 prototype, the models F28-6000 and F28-5000 were modified F28-2000 and F28-1000 respectively, with slats, greater wingspan, and more powerful and quieter engines as the main features. The F28-6000 and F28-5000 were not a success, only two F28-6000 and no F28-5000 were built. After being used by Fokker for a time, the F28-6000 were sold to Air Mauritanie, the most successful F28 was the F28-4000, which debuted on 20 October 1976 with one of the worlds largest Fokker operators, Linjeflyg. The F28-3000, the successor to the F28-1000, featured the improvements as the F28-4000. This was also the worlds longest twin-jet route at the time, mMAa F28s also had the highest utilisation rates at the time, flying over 8 hours per day
43.
Lockheed L-188 Electra
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The Lockheed L-188 Electra is an American turboprop airliner built by Lockheed. First flown in 1957, it was the first large turboprop airliner built in the United States, Initial sales were good, but after two fatal crashes that led to expensive modifications to fix a design defect, no more were ordered. Jet airliners soon supplanted turboprops for many purposes, and many Electras were modified as freighters, some Electras are still being used in various roles into the 21st century. The air-frame was also used as the basis for the more successful Lockheed P-3 Orion maritime patrol aircraft. Lockheed had established a position in commercial airliner production with its piston-engine Constellation series. Further development brought turboprop engines to the Constellation airframe with the Lockheed L-1249 Super Constellation, subsequently, Capital Airlines went on to order 60 British Vickers Viscounts. In 1954, as a result of American Airlines interest in developing a twin engine aircraft, the idea resurfaced and this newer design was a high-wing type and would allow for 60 to 70 passengers. This design was shelved for lack of interest from other carriers. The following year, American Airlines revised its requirement to a design for 75 passengers with 2,000 miles range. Lockheed proposed a new design, the CL-310 with a low wing, the CL-310 design met the American Airlines requirement, but failed to meet another interested carrier, Eastern Air Lines. Its requirements were for a range, a minimum cruising speed of 350 miles per hour. Lockheed redesigned the CL-310 to use the Allison 501-D13, a version of the T56 developed for the Lockheed C-130 Hercules military transport. The airframe was stretched to allow for more seats and handle the increased performance and this design was launched as the Model 188 with an order for 35 by American Airlines on June 8,1955. This was followed by Eastern Air Lines with an order for 40 on September 27,1955, the first aircraft took 26 months to complete and by that time Lockheed had orders for 129. The prototype, a Model 188A, was completed and first flew on December 6,1957, Lockheed was awarded a type certificate by the Civil Aeronautics Administration on 22 August 1958. The first delivery – to Eastern Air Lines – was on October 8,1958, in 1957 the United States Navy issued a requirement for an advanced maritime patrol aircraft. The Model 188 Electra is a cantilever monoplane powered by four wing-mounted Allison 501-D13 turboprops. It has a tricycle landing gear and a conventional tail
44.
Type 42 destroyer
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The Type 42 or Sheffield class, was a class of fourteen light guided missile destroyers that served in the Royal Navy. A further two ships of class were built for and served with the Argentine Navy. The first ship of the class was ordered in 1968 and launched in 1971, two of the class were sunk in action during the Falklands War of 1982. The Royal Navy used this class of destroyer for 38 years between 1975 and 2013, no ships of this class remain active in the Royal Navy and just one remains in the Argentine Navy. The Royal Navy has replaced them with Type 45 destroyers, the class was designed in the late 1960s to provide fleet area air-defence. In total fourteen vessels were constructed in three batches, in addition to the Royal Navy ships, two more ships were built to the same specifications as the Batch 1 vessels for the Argentine Navy. Hércules was built in the UK and Santísima Trinidad in the AFNE Rio Santiago shipyard in Buenos Aires, Sheffield and Coventry were lost in the Falklands War to enemy action. The final ship of the class decommissioned on 6 June 2013, one Argentine Navy ship remains in service, the other vessel sank whilst alongside in Puerto Belgrano Naval Base in early 2013. The class is fitted with the GWS30 Sea Dart surface-to-air missile first deployed on the sole Type 82 destroyer, the design was budgeted with a ceiling of £19 million per hull, but soon ran over-budget. The original proposed design was similar to the lengthened Batch 3 Type 42s, to cut costs, the first two batches had 47 feet removed from the bow sections forward of the bridge, and the beam-to-length ratio was proportionally reduced. These early, batch 1 Type 42s performed poorly during the sea trials particularly in heavy seas. Batch 2 vessels embodied better sensors fits, and slight layout modifications, the ninth hull, Manchester, was lengthened in build, as part of an extensive design review. This proved a better hull form at sea and later hulls were built to specification, although minor equipment. Strengthening girders were later designed into the deck structure in the batch 1 and 2 ships. As this provided a prominent target for the new infrared homing missiles, only Sheffield, all subsequent Olympus and Tyne uptakes were fitted with cheese graters which mixed machinery space vent air with the engine exhaust to reduce infrared signatures. The surviving Argentine Type 42, Hércules, is based at Puerto Belgrano, Argentina and has converted into an amphibious command ship through the addition of a new aft superstructure. It was fitted with Exocet missile launchers, but as of today there are no Exocet launchers aboard, in December 2015, she was refloated and placed in drydock for a cosmetic restoration. Once complete, she will be put in a dry berth on display as a museum ship, prior to her demise, Santísima Trinidad was extensively cannibalised for spare parts for her more active sister ship
45.
Westland Lynx
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The Westland Lynx is a British multi-purpose military helicopter designed and built by Westland Helicopters at its factory in Yeovil. Originally intended as a utility craft for both civil and naval usage, military interest led to the development of both battlefield and naval variants, the Lynx has the distinction of being the worlds first fully aerobatic helicopter with the ability to perform loops and rolls. In 1986, a specially modified Lynx set the current Fédération Aéronautique Internationales official airspeed record for helicopters at 400.87 km/h, in addition to a wide number of land and naval variants of the Lynx, several major derivatives have been produced. The Westland 30 was produced as a utility helicopter, it did not become a commercial success. The Lynx remains in production by AgustaWestland, the successor to Westland Helicopters, the initial design was started in the mid-1960s as a replacement for the Westland Scout and Wasp, and a more advanced alternative to the UH-1 Iroquois. The design was to be powered by a pair of Bristol Siddeley BS.360 turboshaft engines, in October 1969, the French Army cancelled its requirement for the Lynx, thus development work of the dedicated armed attack variant was terminated early on. The first Lynx prototype took its flight on 21 March 1971. In 1972, a Lynx broke the speed record over 15 and 25 km by flying at 321.74 km/h. It also set a new 100 km closed circuit record shortly afterwards, in 1986, the former company demonstrator Lynx, registered G-LYNX, was specially modified with Gem 60 engines and British Experimental Rotor Programme rotor blades. At this speed, it had a ratio of 2. Deliveries of production began in 1977. An improved Lynx AH.1 with Gem 41-1 or Gem 42 engines, the AH.5 led to the Lynx AH.7, which added a new tail rotor derived from the Westland 30, a reinforced airframe, improved avionics and defensive aids. An improved Lynx for the Royal Navy, the Lynx HAS.3, had Gem 42-1 Mark 204 engines, a transmission, a new flotation system. The Lynx HAS.3 also received various updates in service. A similar upgrade to the French Lynx was known as the Lynx Mk.4, in September 1974, the British and Egyptian governments initiated talks to establish a new Egyptian helicopter manufacturer. A separate agreement was formalised with Rolls-Royce to license manufacture the Lynxs Gem engines at the Helwan facility, however, this plan was ultimately aborted due to a lack of funds that had resulted from the collapse of the Arab Organization for Industrialization. Both Army and Naval variants were proposed, however, the project was ended in 1987 due to insufficient orders being placed. Only one Army Lynx-3 prototype was built, a development of the Lynx AH.7 with the wheeled undercarriage of the Lynx-3 was marketed by Westland as the Battlefield Lynx in the late 1980s
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