1.
Karl Bodmer
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Johann Carl Bodmer was a Swiss-French printmaker, etcher, lithographer, zinc engraver, draughtsman, painter, illustrator and hunter. Known as Karl Bodmer in literature and paintings, as a Swiss and French citizen, his name was recorded as Johann Karl Bodmer and Jean-Charles Bodmer, respectively. After 1843, likely as a result of the birth of his son Charles-Henry Barbizon, Karl Bodmer was well known in Germany for his watercolours, drawings and aquatints of cities and landscapes of the Rhine, Mosel and Lahn rivers. After he moved to France following his return from an expedition in the American West, he became a member of the Barbizon School and he created many oil paintings with animal and landscape motifs, as well as wood engravings, drawings, and book illustrations. For his work, Bodmer was made a Knight in the French Legion of Honour in 1877 and he is best known in the United States as a painter who captured the American West of the 19th century. He painted extremely accurate works of its inhabitants and landscape and he accompanied the German explorer Prince Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied from 1832 through 1834 on his Missouri River expedition. Bodmer had 81 aquatints made from his work to illustrate Prince Maximilians book entitled Maximilian Prince of Wieds Travels in the Interior of North America, Johann Carl Bodmer was born on 11 February 1809 in Zurich, Switzerland. When he was thirteen, his mother’s brother, Johann Jakob Meier, Meier was an artist, having studied under the well-known artists Heinrich Füssli and Gabriel Lory. Young Bodmer and his brother, Rudolf, joined their uncle on artistic travels throughout their home country. By 1828, Bodmer had left his native Switzerland to work as a painter and engraver in the German city of Koblenz and it was there that he and his work came to the attention of Prinz Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied. This German aristocrat had successfully led an expedition to Brazil in 1815–1817. He decided to embark on another venture, this time to North America. He hired Bodmer to accompany his expedition and make a record of the places and peoples encountered, through painting, drawings. The aristocrat was known popularly to naturalists then and now as Prince Max, after delays, Bodmer, in the company of Prince Max and David Dreidoppel, a huntsman and taxidermist, sailed for North America on 17 May 1832. He makes no demands, and in diligence he is never lacking, arriving in Boston, Massachusetts, on 4 July, the three encountered hardships and delays caused largely by a cholera epidemic in the eastern states. It swept across the northern tier to Michigan via travelers on the waterways, the three men finally reached Pittsburgh, and started from there October 8 to travel west along the Ohio River. They arrived in Mt. Vernon, Indiana about midnight on 18 October, the next morning, the party made their way to New Harmony, Indiana. Prince Max had planned to only a few days in New Harmony
2.
North Dakota
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North Dakota is the 39th state of the United States, having been admitted to the union on November 2,1889. The state capital is Bismarck, and the largest city is Fargo, North Dakota is the 19th most extensive but the 4th least populous and the 4th least densely populated of the 50 United States. The development has driven strong job and population growth, and low unemployment, North Dakota is located in the U. S. region known as the Great Plains. The state shares the Red River of the North with Minnesota on the east, South Dakota is to the south, Montana is to the west, and the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba are to the north. North Dakota is situated near the middle of North America with a marker in Rugby. With an area of 70,762 square miles, North Dakota is the 19th largest state, the western half of the state consists of the hilly Great Plains as well as the northern part of the Badlands, which are to the west of the Missouri River. The states high point, White Butte at 3,506 feet, the region is abundant in fossil fuels including natural gas, crude oil and lignite coal. The Missouri River forms Lake Sakakawea, the third largest man-made lake in the United States, the central region of the state is divided into the Drift Prairie and the Missouri Plateau. The eastern part of the consists of the flat Red River Valley. Its fertile soil, drained by the meandering Red River flowing northward into Lake Winnipeg, Devils Lake, the largest natural lake in the state, is also found in the east. Eastern North Dakota is overall flat, however, there are significant hills, most of the state is covered in grassland, crops cover most of eastern North Dakota but become increasingly sparse in the center and farther west. This diverse terrain supports nearly 2,000 species of plants, the state of North Dakota is home to the geographical center of North America located near Rugby, North Dakota North Dakota has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. The temperature differences are rather extreme because of its far inland position and being in the center of the Northern Hemisphere, with equal distances to the North Pole. As such, summers are almost subtropical in nature, but winters are cold enough to plant hardiness is very low. Native American peoples lived in what is now North Dakota for thousands of years before the coming of Europeans and their tribes included the Mandan people, the Dakota people and the Yanktonai, the latter two from the Lakota peoples. The first European to reach the area was the French-Canadian trader Pierre Gaultier, sieur de La Vérendrye, in 1762 the region became part of Spanish Louisiana until 1802. Dakota Territory was settled sparsely by European Americans until the late 19th century, with the advantage of grants of land, they vigorously marketed their properties, extolling the region as ideal for agriculture. An omnibus bill for statehood for North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and his successor, Benjamin Harrison, signed the proclamations formally admitting North Dakota and South Dakota to the Union on November 2,1889
3.
Arikara language
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Arikara is a Caddoan language spoken by the Arikara Native Americans who reside primarily at Fort Berthold Reservation in North Dakota. Arikara is very close to the Pawnee language, but they are not mutually intelligible, the Arikara were apparently a group met by Lewis and Clark in 1804, their population of 30,000 was reduced to 6,000 by smallpox. For several hundred years, the Arikara lived as a people on the Great Plains in present-day United States of America. They are believed to have separated as a people from the Pawnee in about the 15th century, during the sedentary seasons, the Arikara lived primarily in villages of earth lodges. While traveling or during the seasonal hunts, they erected portable tipis as temporary shelter. They were primarily a society, whose women cultivated varieties of corn. The crop was such an important staple of their society that it was referred to as Mother Corn, traditionally an Arikara family owned 30–40 dogs. The people used them for hunting and as sentries, but most importantly for transportation in the centuries before the Plains tribes adopted the use of horses in the 1600s, many of the Plains tribes had used the travois, a lightweight transportation device pulled by dogs. Women also used dogs to pull travois to haul firewood or infants, the travois were used to carry meat harvested during the seasonal hunts, a single dog could pull a quarter of a bison. In the late 18th century, the tribe suffered a high rate of fatalities from smallpox epidemics, due to their reduced numbers, the Arikara started to live closer to the Mandan and Hidatsa tribes in the same area for mutual protection. They migrated gradually from present-day Nebraska and South Dakota into North Dakota in response to pressure from other tribes, especially the Sioux, during the Black Hills War, in 1876 some Arikara served as scouts for Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer in the Little Bighorn Campaign. The three tribes are settled on the Fort Berthold reservation in North Dakota, whenever a sonorant precedes a devoiced vowel, that sonorant devoices as well. čiíRA hello = táWIt three = NAhaáU his or her child = Arikara also has the vowel phonemes, Arikara is now spoken in North Dakota by a very few elders. One of the last fluent speakers, Maude Starr, died on January 20,2010 and she was a certified language teacher who participated in Arikara language education programs. As of 2014, speakers are centered on White Shield, North Dakota, the language is taught at Fort Berthold Community College, White Shield School, and at the Arikara Cultural Center. Arikara is extensively documented, with volumes of interlinear texts of Arikara stories, a learners introductory text. As of 2014, iPhone and iPad Arikara language apps are available, the language is used in the 2015 film The Revenant starring Leonardo di Caprio as Hugh Glass, a mountain man who interacted with Arikara people and learned the language in the 19th century. American Indian languages, The Historical Linguistics of Native America, New York, the Languages of Native North America, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
4.
Native American Church
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The religion originated in the U. S. State of Oklahoma in the late nineteenth century after peyote was introduced to the southern Great Plains from Mexico. Today it is the most widespread religion among Native Americans in the United States, Canada. Many denominations of mainstream Christianity made attempts to convert Native Americans to Christianity in Indian Country and these efforts were successful for many Native American tribes reflect Christian creed, including the Native American Church. Although conversion to Christianity was a process, the tenets of the Native American Church were readily accepted. Originally formed in the state of Oklahoma, the Native American Church is a monotheism, believing in a supreme being, the tenets of the Native American Church regard “peyote” as a sacred and holy sacrament and use it as a means to communicate with the Great Spirit. Followers of the Native American Church have differing ceremonies, celebrations, for example, among the Teton, the Cross Fire group uses the Bible for sermons, which are rejected by the Half Moon followers, though they each teach a similar Christian morality. Ceremonies commonly last all night, beginning Saturday evening and ending early Sunday morning, scripture reading, prayer, singing, dancing, and drumming are often included. In general, the Native American Church believes in one supreme God, ceremonies are generally held in a tipi and require a priest, pastor, or elder to conduct the service. The conductor is referred to as the Roadman, the Roadman is assisted by a Fireman, whose task is to care for the holy fireplace, being sure that it burns consistently all night. The Roadman may use a staff, a beaded and feathered gourd, a small drum, cedar. “The Roadmans wife or other female relative prepares seven sacramental foods and her part takes place very early, between 4,30 and 5,00 in the morning. The seven sacramental foods are water, shredded beef, corn mush, rice, strawberries, cookies, to counterbalance the bitterness of the peyote consumed during the services, the sweet foods were added later. The second breakfast is like any other breakfast and it generally includes boiled eggs, toast, hash brown potatoes, coffee, and juice. This meal is served well after sunrise and just prior to the closing of the church services, Church services are not regular Sunday occurrences but are held in accordance with special requests by a family for celebrating a birthday, or for a memorial or funeral service. Services begin at sundown on either a Friday or Saturday evening, thus, a participant sits up all night, giving up a full nights rest as part of a small sacrifice to the Great and Holy Spirit and his Son. The church services culminate in a feast for the community the following day. Because peyote is a stimulant, all of the members are wide awake, so they, too. The need for sleep is generally felt in the late afternoon, particularly after the feast
5.
Caddo
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The Caddo Nation is a confederacy of several Southeastern Native American tribes. Their ancestors historically inhabited much of what is now East Texas, Louisiana, in the early 19th century, Caddo people were forced to a reservation in Texas, then removed to Indian Territory in 1859. Today, the Caddo Nation of Oklahoma is a recognized tribe with its capital at Binger. Descendants of the historic Caddo tribes with documentation of at least 1/16 ancestry are eligible to enroll as members in the Caddo Nation, the several Caddo languages have converged into a single language. The Caddo Nation was previously known as the Caddo Tribe of Oklahoma, the tribal constitution provides for election of an eight-person council, with a chairperson, based in Binger, Oklahoma. The tribe operates its own housing authority and issues its own vehicle tags. It operates a center, dance grounds, several community centers, the Caddo Nation Heritage Museum. As of 2012,5,757 people are enrolled in the nation, the tribe has several programs to invigorate Caddo culture. It sponsors a summer camp for children. The Hasinai Society and Caddo Culture Club both teach and perform Caddo songs and dances to keep the tradition alive and passed on to the next generations, the Kiwat Hasinay Foundation is dedicated to preserving and increasing use of the Caddo language. The Wichita and Pawnee are related to the Caddo, as both tribes speak Caddoan languages, by 800 CE, this society had begun to coalesce into the Caddoan Mississippian culture. Some villages began to gain prominence as ritual centers, where major earthworks were built, serving as temple mounds, the mounds were arranged around leveled, large, open plazas, which were usually kept swept clean and were often used for ceremonial occasions. As complex religious and social ideas developed, some people and family gained prominence over others. By 1000 CE, a society that is defined by archaeologists as Caddoan had emerged, in these villages, artisans and craftsmen developed specialties. The artistic skills and earthwork mound-building of the Caddoan Mississippians flourished during the 12th and 13th centuries, the Spiro Mounds, near the Arkansas River in present-day southeastern Oklahoma, were some of the most elaborate mounds in the United States. They were made by Mississippian ancestors of the historic Caddo and Wichita tribes, the Caddo were farmers and enjoyed good growing conditions most of the time. Archeological evidence has confirmed that the continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present among these peoples. Their leader, named Moon, instructed the people not to look back, an old Caddo man carried with him a drum, a pipe, and fire, all of which continued to be important religious items to the people
6.
Pawnee people
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The Pawnee are a Plains Indian tribe who are headquartered in Pawnee, Oklahoma. Pawnee people are enrolled in the federally recognized Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma, historically, they lived in Nebraska and Kansas. In the Pawnee language, the Pawnee people refer to themselves as Chaticks si Chaticks or Men of Men, historically, the Pawnee lived in large earth lodge villages with adjacent farmlands. With the arrival of horses, the Pawnee retained their agricultural lifestyle, in the early 19th century, the Pawnee numbered over 10,000 people and were one of the largest and most powerful tribes in the west. They had suffered losses due to diseases brought by the expanding Europeans. By 1860, the Pawnee population was reduced to 4000 and it further decreased, because of disease, crop failure and warfare, to approximately 2400 by 1873, at which time they were forced to move to Indian Territory in Oklahoma. Many Pawnee warriors enlisted to serve as Indian scouts in the US Army to track, there are approximately 3200 enrolled Pawnee and nearly all reside in Oklahoma. Their tribal headquarters is in Pawnee, Oklahoma and their tribal area is in parts of Noble, Payne. The tribal constitution establishes the government of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma and this government consists of the Nasharo Council, the Pawnee Business Council, and the Supreme Court. Enrollment into the tribe requires a minimum blood quantum. The Nasharo Council, also known as the Chiefs Council consists of eight members, each band has two representatives on the Nasharo Council selected by the members of the tribal bands, Chaui, Kitkehahki, Pitahawirata and Skidi. Current Pawnee Business Council, Marshall R. Gover, President Bruce Pratt, Vice President Misty M. Nuttle, the Pawnee operate two gaming casinos, three smoke shops, two fuel stations, and one truck stop. Their estimated economic impact for 2010 was $10.5 million, increased revenues from the casinos have helped them provide for education and welfare of their citizens. They issue their own vehicle tags and operate their housing authority. The Pawnee were divided into two large groupings—the Skidi living in the north and the South Bands, while the Skidi were the most populous group of Pawnee, the Chaui of the South Bands were generally the politically leading group, although each band was autonomous. As was typical of many Native American tribes, each band saw to its own, in response to pressures from the Spanish, French and Americans, as well as neighboring tribes, the Pawnee began to draw closer together. Archeology studies of ancient sites have demonstrated the people lived in this pattern for nearly 700 years, the Pawnee generally settled close to the rivers and placed their lodges on the higher banks. They built earth lodges that by historical times tended to be oval in shape, at earlier stages and they constructed the frame, made of 10–15 posts set some 10 feet apart, which outlined the central room of the lodge
7.
Wichita people
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The Wichita people are a confederation of Midwestern Native Americans. Historically they spoke the Wichita language, a Caddoan language and they are indigenous to Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Today the four Wichita tribes — the Waco, Taovaya, Tawakoni, the Wichita tribe is headquartered in Anadarko, Oklahoma. Their tribal jurisdictional area is in Caddo County, Oklahoma, the Wichitas are a self-governance tribe, who operate their own housing authority and issue tribal vehicle tags. The current tribal administration is as follows and their annual economic impact in 2010 was $4.5 million. After the man and woman were made they dreamed that things were made for them, the woman was given an ear of corn. It was to be the food of the people that should exist in the future, to be used generation after generation. - Tawakoni Jim in The Mythology of the Wichita,1904 The ancestors of the Wichita have lived in the eastern Great Plains from the Red River north to Nebraska for at least 2,000 years, early Wichita people were hunters and gatherers who gradually adopted agriculture. Farming villages began to appear about 900 CE on terraces above the Washita and these 10th century communities cultivated maize, beans, squash, marsh elder, and tobacco. They also hunted deer, rabbits, turkey, and, increasingly, bison and these villagers lived in rectangular, thatched-roof houses. Archaeologists describe the Washita River Phase from 1250 to 1450, when populations grew. These farmers may have had contact with the Panhandle culture villages in the Oklahoma and Texas Panhandles, the Panhandle villagers showed signs of adopting cultural characteristics of the Pueblo peoples of the Rio Grande Valley. Structures called council circles were excavated in prehistoric Wichita sites, archaeological excavations have suggested they consist of a central patio surrounded by four semi-subterranean structures. The function of the circles is unclear. Archaeologist Waldo Wedel suggested in 1967 that they may be ceremonial structures, other archaeologists leave open the possibility that the council circle earthen works served a defensive role. In the late 15th century, most of these Washita River villages were abandoned for reasons not known today. Numerous archaeological sites in central Kansas near the Great Bend of the Arkansas River share common traits and are known as the Great Bend aspect. Radiocarbon dates from these sites range from 1450 to 1700 CE, Great Bend aspect sites are generally accepted as ancestral to the Wichita peoples described by Francisco Vásquez de Coronado and other early European explorers
8.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
9.
Mandan
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The Mandan are a Native American tribe residing in North Dakota. They are enrolled in the Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation, about half of the Mandan still reside in the area of the reservation, the rest reside around the United States and in Canada. The Mandan historically lived along the banks of the Missouri River, speakers of Mandan, a Siouan language, developed a settled, agrarian culture. They established permanent villages featuring large, round, earth lodges, some 40 feet in diameter, while the bison was key to the daily life of the Mandan, they also farmed and actively traded goods with other Great Plains tribes. The Mandan population was 3,600 in the early 18th century, in 1836, there were over 1,600 fullblood Mandans, but this number was estimated to have dropped to 125 by 1838. In the 1990s,6,000 people were enrolled in the Three Affiliated Tribes, in the 2010 Census,1,171 people reported Mandan ancestry. 365 of them were full-bloods, and 806 had partial ancestry, the English name Mandan is derived from the French-Canadian explorer Pierre Gaultier, Sieur de la Verendrye, who heard it as Mantannes from his Assiniboine guides in 1738. He had previously heard the earth lodge peoples referred to by the Cree as Ouachipouennes, nearby Siouan speakers had exonyms similar to Mantannes in their languages, for instance, Teton Miwátąni, Yanktonai Miwátani, Yankton Mawátani or Mąwátanį, Dakota Mawátąna or Mawátadą, etc. Later, this fell to disuse and instead two divisions names were used, Nuweta or Ruptare. Later, the term Rų́ʔeta was extended to refer to a tribal entity. The name Mi-ah´ta-nēs recorded by Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden in 1862, reportedly means people on the river bank, gloria Jahoda in Trail of Tears states that they also call themselves the Pheasant people. George Catlin states The Mandans The Mandan language belongs to the Siouan language family and it was initially thought to be closely related to the languages of the Hidatsa and the Crow. However, since the Mandan language has been in contact with Hidatsa and Crow for many years, for this reason, linguists classify Mandan most often as a separate branch of the Siouan family. Mandan has two dialects, Nuptare and Nuetare. Only the Nuptare variety survived into the 20th century, and all speakers were bilingual in Hidatsa, linguist Mauricio Mixco of the University of Utah has been involved in fieldwork with remaining speakers since 1993. As of 1999, there were only six fluent speakers of Mandan still alive, as of 2010, programs in local schools encourage students learning the language. The Mandan and their language received much attention from European Americans, in the 1830s, Prince Maximilian of Wied spent more time recording Mandan over all other Siouan languages and additionally prepared a comparison list of Mandan and Welsh words. The theory of the Mandan/Welsh connection, now discounted, was supported by George Catlin
10.
Hidatsa
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The Hidatsa are a Siouan people. Hidatsa are enrolled in the federally recognized Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation in North Dakota and their language is related to that of the Crow, and they are sometimes considered a parent tribe to the modern Crow in Montana. According to the tradition, the word hiraacá derives from the word willow, however, the etymology is not transparent. The present name Hidatsa was formerly borne by one of the three tribal villages, when the villages consolidated, the name was adopted for the tribe as a whole. For hundreds of years the Knife River area in present North Dakota was the home of the Hidatsa, the first villages dates back to the 13th century. Accounts of recorded history in the early 18th century identify three closely related village groups to which the term Hidatsa is applied, the Awaxawi or Amahami have a creation tradition similar to that of the Mandan, which describes their emergence long ago from the Earth, at Devils Lake. Later they moved westward to the Painted Woods and settled near a village of Mandan, the Awatixa originated not from the earth, but from the sky, led by Charred Body. According to their tradition, their first people lived near Painted Woods, after that they always lived between the Heart River and Knife River along the Middle Missouri River. The Hidatsa proper or Hiraacá / Hiratsa, largest of the three, were a confederation of numerous nomadic Hidatsa bands from the north, who separated from the Amahami in what is now western Minnesota, first they settled to the north, then later moved south to Devils Lake. In their travels they met the Mandans Indians and then moved westward and settled with these distant relatives north of the Knife River, later they moved to the mouth of Knife River. Their territory ranged upstream along the Missouri River, its tributary regions to the west, and they were initially part of those who would become the River Crow. The Hidatsa originally lived in Miri xopash / Miniwakan, the Devils Lake region of North Dakota, as they migrated west, the Hidatsa came across the Mandan at the mouth of the Heart River. The two groups formed an alliance, and settled into a division of territory along the areas rivers. Prior to the epidemic of 1782, they had few enemies, the Hidatsa hunted upstream from the earthlodge villages at and below the Knife River. Here, between the Knife and Yellowstone Rivers, they were enough to withstand attacks of the Assiniboine. A remarkable siege of the village Big Hidatsa by the Sioux around 1790 ended with a victory for the inhabitants. They killed 100 or more retreating Sioux in a counter attack, white traders from the north, like North West Company man David Thompson, began to visit the Hidatsa and Mandan villages during the 1790s. In 1800, a group of Hidatsa abducted Sacagawea and several girls in a battle that resulted in death among the Shoshone of four men, four women
11.
Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nation
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As a result of hardship, losses from infectious disease and forced relocations, these three peoples came together in the late 19th century. As of 1870 the nation is based at the Fort Berthold Reservation in northwestern North Dakota, the Tribe reported a total enrollment of 15,309 registered tribe members in March 2016. Nearly 6,000 live on the reservation, others live, in 2010 the tribe passed amendments specifying blood quantum, or minimum amounts of tribal ancestry to qualify individuals for membership and as candidates for public office. Individuals must have at least 1/8 Mandan, Hidatsa, or Arikara ancestry to become a member of the MHA Nation. Before the amendments passage on November 3,2010, membership was open to any individual with documented Lineal Descent, in the same election, the membership of the Three Affiliated Tribes voted on an amendment regarding the eligibility of individuals as candidates for public office of the tribe. As of November 3,2010, a person must have at least 1/4 Mandan, Hidatsa, the prior requirement to run for public office was open to any person who was a member of the Three Affiliated Tribes regardless of blood degree. On July 30,2013, the people of the Three Affiliated Tribes held a Secretarial Election on two proposed amendments to the Constitution. The first changed the composition of the Tribal Business Council from 1 to 2 representatives per segment, the Amendment passed by a vote of 303 to 205, out of 1,249 registered voters. The second amendment created a process for petition and voting for each segment to remove any councilman and this Amendment passed by a vote of 443 to 65. These Amendments were challenged on the grounds that the turnout was insufficient. In September 2013, the director of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Weldon Loudermilk. Another Secretarial Election was held on July 22,2016 to change the composition of the Tribal Business Council back to 1 per segment, the Amendment was approved by a vote of 470 for and 326 against out of 1,679 registered voters. The Tribal Business Council consists of six Segment Representatives and a Chairman, each members term lasts 4 years, and there are no term limits. The Tribal Business Council holds Regular Meetings on the second Thursday of each month, the Mandan are a Native American tribe currently part of the Three Affiliated Tribes of North Dakota. At the height of their culture, the Mandan were prosperous and peaceful farmers and traders, noted for their excellent maize cultivation. They built earth lodges, and made villages of considerable technical skill and they were a more sedentary people than other, more nomadic tribes of the Great Plains. Lewis and Clark stayed with the Mandan when they passed through the Upper Missouri region on their expedition to the Northwest, sakagawea, a Shoshone who had been kidnapped and adopted by the Hidatsa at an early age, joined the expedition as an interpreter and native guide. Because of her contributions, she was honored with an image on the U. S. dollar coin, on the return trip, the expedition brought a Mandan chief with them back to Washington, DC
12.
Caddoan languages
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The Caddoan languages are a family of Native American languages. They are spoken by Native Americans in parts of the Great Plains of the central United States, all of the other Caddoan languages are critically endangered, Caddo is now spoken by only 25 people, Pawnee by 20, and Arikara by three. The last native speaker of Wichita, Doris McLemore, died in 2016, Caddo and Pawnee are spoken in Oklahoma by small numbers of tribal elders. Arikara is spoken on the Fort Berthold Reservation in North Dakota, the Pawnee formerly lived along the Platte River in what is now Nebraska. Glottochronology is a method of reconstructing in broad detail the history of a language. In the case of proto-Caddoan it appears that it divided into two branches, Northern and Southern, more than 3,000 years ago, south Caddoan or Caddo proper evolved in north-eastern Texas and adjacent Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Louisiana. Other than Caddo, no daughter languages are known, although some probably existed in the 16th and 17th century but were not recorded, Northern Caddoan evolved into several different languages. The language that became Wichita branched off about 2,000 years ago, kitsai separated from the Northern Caddoan stem about 12 centuries ago and Pawnee and Arikara separated 300 to 500 years ago. Adai, a language known only from a 275-word list collected in 1804. The documentation is too scanty to determine with certainty, the language of the Ais, who lived adjacent to the Caddo, was a distinct language, but was probably related to Caddoan. Some linguists believe that the Caddoan, Iroquoian, and Siouan languages may be connected in a Macro-Siouan language family, but work is suggestive, similar attempts to find a connection with the Algonquian languages have been inconclusive. There is insufficient evidence for linguists to propose a hypothetical Macro-Algonquian/Iroquoian language family, American Indian languages, The historical linguistics of Native America. Chafe, Wallace L. Siouan, Iroquoian, and Caddoan, in T. Sebeok, Current trends in linguistics. Chafe, Wallace L. Siouan, Iroquoian, and Caddoan, in T. Sebeok, Native languages in the Americas. The Caddoan, Iroquioan, and Siouan languages, in L. Campbell & M. Mithun, The languages of Native America, Historical and comparative assessment. Chafe, Wallace L. Indian languages, Siouan–Caddoan, encyclopedia of the North American colonies. Composition of the Caddoan linguistic stock, melnar, Lynette R. Caddo Verb Morphology University of Nebraska Press, ISBN 978-0-8032-2088-1 Mithun, Marianne. The languages of Native North America, international Journal of American Linguistics,29, 113-131
13.
Pawnee language
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The Pawnee language is a Caddoan language spoken by some Pawnee Native Americans who now live in north-central Oklahoma. Their traditional historic lands were along the Platte River in what is now Nebraska, two important dialect divisions are evident in Pawnee, South Band and Skiri. The distinction between the two dialects rests on differences in their phonetic inventory and lexicon. Once the language of thousands of Pawnees, today Pawnee is spoken by a number of elderly speakers. As more young people learn English as their first language, the status of Pawnee declines towards extinction, however, as of 2007, the Pawnee Nation is developing teaching materials for the local high school and for adult language classes. Now, there are extensive documentary materials in the language archived at the American Indian Studies Research Institute, the following describes the South Bend dialect. Pawnee has eight consonant phonemes, and according to one analysis of medial- and final-position glottal stops, /ʔ/ is predictable when it occurs in the middle of words. However, since /ʔ/ is not completely predictable at the end of words, Pawnee has four short vowel phonemes and four long counterparts. Pawnee is both a language and an ergative-absolutive language. The Pawnee alphabet has 9 consonants and 8 vowels, the letters are relatively similar in pronunciation to their English counterparts. The languages of Native North America, taylor, Allan R. Language,54, 969-972. Pawnee Language Program, sponsored by the Pawnee Nation and Indiana University
14.
Skidi
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The Skidi or Skiri, also known as the Wolf Pawnee or the French Loup Pawnee are a band of Pawnee people. According to tradition in earlier times the Skidi were associated with the Arikara before the Arikara moved northward, the Skidi language was less related to the other Pawnee languages than the other three tribes languages were related to each other. In historic times the Skidi first lived on the Loup River in Nebraska, by the 1770s a group of the Skidi had broken off and moved towards Texas, where they allied with the Taovayas, the Tonkawa, Yojuanes and other Texas tribes. This group was referred to as the Panimaha, the Skidi are notable for their performance of a type of human sacrifice, known as the Morning Star ceremony, recorded for the last time in 1838. Today, the Skidi Pawnee are enrolled in the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma, handbook of North American Indians, Plains, Part 1 page 545 Access Genealogy Pawnee Tribe history
15.
Arzberger Site
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Arzberger Site, also known as 39HU6 is an archaeological site in Hughes County, South Dakota, near Pierre, South Dakota. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1964, the site covers some 70n acres with 24 bastions. Forty-four circular house rings have been noted, the village likely represents the Arikara Indians at the time they were differentiating from the Pawnee
16.
Pierre, South Dakota
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Pierre is the capital of the state of South Dakota and the county seat of Hughes County. The population was 13,646 at the 2010 census, making it the second state capital after Montpelier. Founded in 1880 on the east bank of the Missouri River opposite Fort Pierre, Pierre has been the capital since South Dakota gained statehood on November 2,1889. It was chosen for its location in the center of the state. Fort Pierre was named after Pierre Chouteau, Jr. a major American fur trader from St. Louis, Pierre is the principal city of the Pierre Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Hughes and Stanley counties. Pierre is located at 44°22′5″N 100°20′11″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 13.07 square miles, of which,13.06 square miles is land and 0.01 square miles is water. Pierre lies on rough river bluffs above the east bank of the Missouri River and it is a few miles away from Lake Oahe, one of the largest man-made lakes in the world. Developed for flood control and irrigation, the lake has become a popular fishing destination. The monthly daily average ranges from 19.9 °F in January to 75.4 °F. Snow primarily falls in light amounts, with the snowiest months being February and March, in addition, there are 20 nights per year with lows below 0 °F, and cold conditions are often intensified by the high winds of the Great Plains. Summers often see spikes in temperature, with 6.4 days of highs above 100 °F, the beginning of both May and October represent the last and first, respectively, freezing nights of the cooler season. Precipitation is much lighter in the winter months than it is in spring and summer. Extremes have ranged from −35 °F on February 9,1994 to 117 °F on July 15,2006, as of the census of 2010, there were 13,646 people,5,778 households, and 3,463 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,044.9 inhabitants per square mile, there were 6,159 housing units at an average density of 471.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 85. 1% White,0. 5% African American,10. 9% Native American,0. 6% Asian,0. 5% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 9% of the population. 35. 0% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.87. The median age in the city was 39.3 years. 22. 9% of residents were under the age of 18,7. 5% were between the ages of 18 and 24,26. 7% were from 25 to 44,28. 9% were from 45 to 64, and 13. 9% were 65 years of age or older
17.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
18.
Omaha people
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The Omaha are a federally recognized Midwestern Native American tribe that resides on the Omaha Reservation in northeastern Nebraska and western Iowa, United States. Its total land area is 796.355 km2 and a population of 5,194 was recorded in the 2000 census, the Omaha people migrated to the upper Missouri area and the Plains by the late 17th century from earlier locations in the Ohio River Valley. The Omaha speak a Siouan language of the Dhegihan branch, which is similar to that spoken by the Ponca. The latter were part of the Omaha before splitting off into a tribe in the mid-18th century. They were also related to the Siouan-speaking Osage, Quapaw, and Kansa peoples, after pushing out other tribes, the Iroquois kept control of the area as a hunting ground. About 1770, the Omaha became the first tribe on the Northern Plains to adopt equestrian culture, developing The Big Village about 1775 in current-day Dakota County in northeast Nebraska, the Omaha developed an extensive trading network with early European explorers and French Canadian voyageurs. They controlled the fur trade and access to other tribes on the Upper Missouri River, Omaha, Nebraska, the largest city in Nebraska, is named after them. Never known to take up arms against the U. S. the Omaha assisted the U. S. during the American Civil War, the Omaha tribe began as a larger Woodland tribe comprising both the Omaha and Quapaw tribes. This tribe coalesced and inhabited the area near the Ohio and Wabash rivers around year 1600, as the tribe migrated west, it split into what became the Omaha and the Quapaw tribes. The Quapaw settled in what is now Arkansas and the Omaha, another division happened, with the Ponca becoming an independent tribe, but they tended to settle near the Omaha. The first European journal reference to the Omaha tribe was made by Pierre-Charles Le Sueur in 1700, informed by reports, he described an Omaha village with 400 dwellings and a population of about 4,000 people. It was located on the Big Sioux River near its confluence with the Missouri, near present-day Sioux City, the French then called it The River of the Mahas. In 1718, the French cartographer Guillaume Delisle mapped the tribe as The Maha, French fur trappers found the Omaha on the eastern side of the Missouri River in the mid-18th century. The Omaha were believed to have ranged from the Cheyenne River in South Dakota to the Platte River in Nebraska, around 1734 the Omaha established their first village west of the Missouri River on Bow Creek in present-day Cedar County, Nebraska. Around 1775 the Omaha developed a new village, probably located near present-day Homer, ton won tonga, was the village of Chief Blackbird. At this time, the Omaha controlled the fur trade on the Missouri River, about 1795, the village had around 1,100 people. Around 1800 a smallpox epidemic, resulting from contact with Europeans, swept the area, Chief Blackbird was among those who died that year. Blackbird had established trade with the Spanish and French, and used trade as a security measure to protect his people, the Spanish built a fort nearby and traded regularly with the Omaha during this period
19.
Ponca
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The Ponca are a Midwestern Native American tribe of the Dhegihan branch of the Siouan language group. There are two federally recognized Ponca tribes, the Ponca Tribe of Nebraska and the Ponca Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma. Their traditions and historical accounts suggest they originated as a tribe east of the Mississippi River in the Ohio River valley area and migrated west for game, the term Ponca was the name of a clan among the Kansa, Osage, and Quapaws. The meaning of the name is Cut Throat, at first European contact, the Ponca lived around the mouth of the Niobrara River in northern Nebraska. According to tradition, they moved there from an area east of the Mississippi just before Columbus arrival in the Americas, siouan-speaking tribes such as the Omaha, Osage, Quapaw and Kaw also have traditions of having migrated to the West from east of the Mississippi River. The invasions of the Iroquois from their base in the north pushed those tribes out of the Ohio River area. Scholars are not able to determine precisely when the Dhegiha Siouan tribes migrated west, the Iroquois maintained the lands as hunting grounds. The Ponca appear on a 1701 map by Pierre-Charles Le Sueur, in 1789, fur trader Juan Baptiste Munier was given an exclusive license to trade with the Ponca at the mouth of the Niobrara River. He founded a trading post at its confluence with the Missouri, shortly after that, the tribe was hit by a devastating smallpox epidemic. In 1804, when they were visited by the Lewis and Clark Expedition, later in the 19th century, their number rose to about 700. Unlike most other Plains Indians, the Ponca grew maize and kept vegetable gardens and their last successful buffalo hunt was in 1855. In 1817 the tribe signed a treaty with the United States. By a second treaty in 1825, they regulated trade and tried to minimize intertribal clashes on the Northern Plains. In 1858 the Ponca signed a treaty by which gave up parts of their land to the United States in return for protection from hostile tribes. The Ponca signed their last treaty with the USA in 1865, in the 1868 US-Sioux Treaty of Fort Laramie the US mistakenly included all Ponca lands in the Great Sioux Reservation. Conflict between the Ponca and the Sioux/Lakota, who now claimed the land as their own by US law, when Congress decided to remove several northern tribes to Indian Territory in 1876, the Ponca were on the list. After inspecting the lands the US government offered for their new reservation and finding it unsuitable for agriculture, hence, when governmental officials came in early 1877 to move the Ponca to their new land, the chiefs refused, citing their earlier treaty. Most of the tribe refused and had to be moved by force, in their new location, the Ponca struggled with malaria, a shortage of food and the hot climate
20.
Iowa people
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The Iowa or Ioway, known as the Báxoǰe in their own language, are a Native American Siouan people. Today, they are enrolled in either of two federally recognized tribes, the Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma and the Iowa Tribe of Kansas, the Iowa, Missouria, and Otoe tribes were all once part of the Ho-Chunk people. They are all Chiwere language-speaking peoples and they left their ancestral homelands in Southern Wisconsin for Eastern Iowa, a state that bears their name. In 1837, the Iowa were moved from Iowa to reservations in Brown County, Kansas, bands of Iowa moved to Indian Territory in the late 19th century and settled south of Perkins, Oklahoma to become the Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma. Their name has been said to come from ayuhwa, early European explorers often adopted the names of tribes from the ethnonyms which other tribes gave them, not understanding that these differed from what the peoples called themselves. Thus, ayuhwa is not an Ioway word, the word Ioway comes from Dakotan ayuxbe via French aiouez. Their autonym is Báxoje, pronounced, which translates to grey snow, Báxoje has been incorrectly translated as dusted faces or dusty nose, since the Ioway words use different consonants. The state of Iowa, where they lived, was named after this tribe. Their name has applied to other locations, such as Iowa County, Iowa City. Their estimated 1760 population of 1,100 dropped to 800 by 1804 and their numbers were reduced to 500 by 1900. In 1960,100 Iowa lived in Kansas and 100 in Oklahoma, by 1980 their population had recovered to 1,000. In 1990 there were 1,700 people, the Iowa have had customs similar to those of the other Siouan-speaking tribes of the Great Plains, such as the Omaha, Ponca and Osage. They were a people who had adopted horses for hunting. They planted maize and manufactured alum pipes, which they traded along with furs with the French colonizers, a smoke hole enabled ventilation from a central hearth. During the hunting season or in warfare, they used the portable tipi, like the Osage or Kansa, Iowa men traditionally shaved their heads and decorated them with deer hide. Like Great Plains tribes, they valued three feats during a battle, in prehistoric times, the Iowa emigrated from the Great Lakes region to present-day Iowa. In the 16th century, they moved from the Mississippi River to the Great Plains, from the 15th to 18th centuries, they lived in the Red Pipestone Quarry region. In the early 19th century, the Iowa had reached the banks of the Platte River, there they engaged in trading with the French and local tribes, thanks to their advantageous situation regarding the alum deposits
21.
Nomad
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A nomad is a member of a community of people who live in different locations, moving from one place to another. Among the various ways nomads relate to their environment, one can distinguish the hunter-gatherer, as of 1995, there were an estimated 30–40 million nomads in the world. Nomadic hunting and gathering, following seasonally available wild plants and game, is by far the oldest human subsistence method, pastoralists raise herds, driving them, or moving with them, in patterns that normally avoid depleting pastures beyond their ability to recover. Nomadism is also a lifestyle adapted to regions such as steppe, tundra, or ice and sand. For example, many groups in the tundra are reindeer herders and are semi-nomadic and these nomads sometimes adapt the use of high technology such as solar photovoltaics to reduce their dependence on diesel fuel. These groups are known as peripatetic nomads, a nomad is a person with no settled home, moving from place to place as a way of obtaining food, finding pasture for livestock, or otherwise making a living. The word Nomad comes from a Greek word that one who wanders for pasture. Most nomadic groups follow an annual or seasonal pattern of movements and settlements. Nomadic peoples traditionally travel by animal or canoe or on foot, today, some nomads travel by motor vehicle. Most nomads live in tents or other portable shelters, Nomads keep moving for different reasons. Nomadic foragers move in search of game, edible plants, the Australian Aborigines, Negritos of Southeast Asia, and San of Africa, for example, traditionally move from camp to camp to hunt and to gather wild plants. Some tribes of the Americas followed this way of life, Pastoral nomads make their living raising livestock, such as camels, cattle, goats, horses, sheep, or yaks. These nomads travel to find more camels, goats, and sheep through the deserts of Arabia, the Fulani and their cattle travel through the grasslands of Niger in western Africa. Some nomadic peoples, especially herders, may move to raid settled communities or avoid enemies. Nomadic craftworkers and merchants travel to find and serve customers and they include the Lohar blacksmiths of India, the Romani traders, and the Irish Travellers. Most nomads travel in groups of families called bands or tribes and these groups are based on kinship and marriage ties or on formal agreements of cooperation. A council of adult males makes most of the decisions, though some tribes have chiefs, in the case of Mongolian nomads, a family moves twice a year. These two movements would generally occur during the summer and winter, the winter location is usually located near mountains in a valley and most families already have their fixed winter locations
22.
Great Plains
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The region is known for supporting extensive cattle ranching and dry farming. The Canadian portion of the Plains is known as the Prairies, some geographers include some territory of northern Mexico in the Plains, but many stop at the Rio Grande. The term Great Plains is used in the United States to describe a sub-section of the even more vast Interior Plains physiographic division and it also has currency as a region of human geography, referring to the Plains Indians or the Plains States. There is no region referred to as the Great Plains in The Atlas of Canada, in terms of human geography, the term prairie is more commonly used in Canada, and the region is known as the Prairie Provinces or simply the Prairies. The region is about 500 mi east to west and 2,000 mi north to south, much of the region was home to American bison herds until they were hunted to near extinction during the mid/late 19th century. It has an area of approximately 500,000 sq mi, current thinking regarding the geographic boundaries of the Great Plains is shown by this map at the Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska–Lincoln. The term Great Plains, for the region west of about the 96th or 98th meridian, nevin Fennemans 1916 study, Physiographic Subdivision of the United States, brought the term Great Plains into more widespread usage. Before that the region was almost invariably called the High Plains, today the term High Plains is used for a subregion of the Great Plains. The Great Plains are the westernmost portion of the vast North American Interior Plains, during the Cretaceous Period, the Great Plains were covered by a shallow inland sea called the Western Interior Seaway. However, during the Late Cretaceous to the Paleocene, the seaway had begun to recede, leaving thick marine deposits. During the Cenozoic era, specifically about 25 million years ago during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, existing forest biomes declined and grasslands became much more widespread. The grasslands provided a new niche for mammals, including many ungulates and glires, traditionally, the spread of grasslands and the development of grazers have been strongly linked. The vast majority of animals became extinct in North America at the end of the Pleistocene. In general, the Great Plains have a variety of weather through the year, with very cold and harsh winters and very hot. Wind speeds are very high, especially in winter. Grasslands are among the least protected biomes, humans have converted much of the prairies for agricultural purposes or to create pastures. The Great Plains have dust storms mostly every year or so, the 100th meridian roughly corresponds with the line that divides the Great Plains into an area that receive 20 in or more of rainfall per year and an area that receives less than 20 in. The region is subjected to extended periods of drought, high winds in the region may then generate devastating dust storms
23.
Earth lodge
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An earth lodge is a semi-subterranean building covered partially or completely with earth, best known from the Native American cultures of the Great Plains and Eastern Woodlands. Most earth lodges are circular in construction with a dome-like roof, earth lodges were typically constructed using the wattle and daub technique, with a thick coating of earth. The dome-like shape of the lodge was achieved by the use of angled tree trunks. During construction the workers would dig an area a few feet beneath the surface and they set posts into holes in the ground around the edges of the earth lodge, and made the tops meet in the middle. This construction technique is sturdy and can produce large buildings, in more than one family would live. Their size is limited by the length of tree trunks. Internal vertical support posts were used to give additional structural support to the roof rafters. After a strong layer of sticks was wrapped through and over the roof timbers. The structure was entirely covered in earth. The earth layer provided insulation against the extreme temperatures of the Plains, the structures consisted of a clay outer shell over an inner shell of long grasses and a woven willow ceiling. The middle of the lodge was used as a fire pit. This smoke hole was covered by a bullboat during inclement weather. Logs were gathered each spring as the ice receded and sheared them off, the most common wood used was cottonwood. Cottonwood was a wet, soft wood, this meant that lodges often required rebuilding every six to eight years, men only raised the large logs, the rest of the work was done by women. Therefore, a lodge was considered to be owned by the woman who built it, a vestibule of exposed logs marked the entrance and provided an entryway, these vestibules were often a minimum of 6 to 9 feet in length. A windbreak was built on the interior of the lodge, blocking the wind, earth lodges often also contained cache pits lined with willow and grasses, within which dried vegetables were stored. Earth lodges were built alongside tribal farm fields, alternating with tipis. A reconstructed earth lodge can be seen at the Glenwood, Iowas Lake Park, a village entirely made up of earth-lodges may be seen at New Town, North Dakota
24.
Tipi
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A tipi is a cone-shaped tent, traditionally made of animal skins upon wooden poles. A tipi is distinguished from other conical tents by the flaps at the top of the structure. Tipi lodges are still in use by these peoples, though now primarily for ceremonial purposes, tipis are stereotypically and incorrectly associated with all Native Americans in the United States and Aboriginal people in Canada, despite their usage being unique to the peoples of the Plains. Native American tribes and First Nation band governments from other regions have used other types of dwellings, the tipi is durable, provides warmth and comfort in winter, is cool in the heat of summer, and is dry during heavy rains. Tipis can be disassembled and packed away quickly when people need to relocate, historically, this portability was important to Plains Indians with their at-times nomadic lifestyle. The word tipi comes into English from the Lakota language, the Lakota word thípi means a dwelling or they dwell, from the verb thí, meaning to dwell. The wigwam or wickiup, a dome-shaped shelter typically made of bark layered on a pole-structure, was used by various tribes. The term wigwam has often been used to refer to a conical skin tipi. A typical family tipi is a conical, portable structure with two adjustable smoke flaps, multiple poles called lodge poles and they are then drawn apart at the large ends and adjusted upon the ground in the rim of a circle usually ten feet in diameter. A number of untanned and tanned buffalo skins, stitched together in a form adjustable to the frame, are drawn around it and lashed together, the lower edges are secured to the ground with tent-pins. At the top there is an extra skin adjusted as a collar, a low opening is left for a doorway, which is covered with an extra skin used as a drop. The fire-pit and arrangements for beds are the same as in the Ojibwa lodge, lodgepole pine is the preferred wood in the Northern and Central Plains and red cedar in the Southern Plains. Tipis have a cover over the structure. The cover has historically made of buffalo hide, an optional skin or cloth lining. Modern lodges are more often made of canvas, ropes and wooden pegs are required to bind the poles, close the cover, attach the lining and door, and anchor the resulting structure to the ground. Tipis were designed to be set up or taken down to allow camps to be moved to follow game migrations. When dismantled the tipi poles were used to construct a dog- or later horse-pulled travois on which additional poles, Tipi covers are made by sewing together strips of canvas or tanned hide and cutting out a semicircular shape from the resulting surface. Trimming this shape yields a door and the flaps that allow the dwellers to control the chimney effect to expel smoke from their fires
25.
Travois
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A travois is a historical frame structure that was used by indigenous peoples, notably the Plains Indians of North America, to drag loads over land. The basic construction consists of a platform or netting mounted on two poles, lashed in the shape of an elongated isosceles triangle, the frame was dragged with the sharply pointed end forward. Sometimes the blunt end of the frame was stabilized by a third pole bound across the two poles, the travois was dragged by hand, sometimes fitted with a shoulder harness for more efficient dragging, or dragged by dogs or horses. A travois could either be loaded by piling goods atop the bare frame and tying them in place, as such the travois was employed by coureurs des bois in New Frances fur trade with the Plains Tribes. It is possible for a person to transport more weight on a travois than can be carried on the back, the basic dog travois consists of two aspen or cottonwood poles notched and lashed together at one end with buffalo sinew, the other ends rest splayed apart. Cross-bars are lashed between the poles near the ends, and the finished frame looks like a large letter A with extra cross-bars. The apex of the A, wrapped in buffalo skin to prevent friction burns, rests on a dog’s shoulders, first Nations women both built the travois and managed the dogs, sometimes using toy travois to train the puppies. Buffalo meat and firewood were typical travois loads, the dog travois of pre-European times was small, capable of pulling not more than 20 to 30 kg. Travel by dog travois was slower in hot weather, which is tiring for dogs, the dog travois can be seen in the paintings of Karl Bodmer. By the mid-19th century, the dog travois had given way to the horse travois, when dogs were replaced by horses, the greater pulling power allowed tipis to increase in size and household goods to multiply. After horses were introduced to North America, many Plains Indian tribes began to make larger horse-drawn travois, instead of making specially constructed travois sleds, they would simply cross a pair of tepee poles across the horses back and attach a burden platform between the poles behind the horse. This served two purposes at once, as the horses could then carry the tepee poles and some additional baggage. Horses, of course, could pull greater weight than dogs. Children often rode in the back of horse travois, when traveling with a travois, it was traditional for Salish people to leave the tipi poles behind at the camp for use by the next tribe or family to camp there. A horse travois can be made with either A-frame or H-frame construction, remains of travois tracks can also be seen at the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site. Curtis Travois photographs, from Denver Public Library Imataa Manistsi, How to Make a Blackfoot Dog Travois, retrieved 2013-10-24
26.
Bison
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Bison are large, even-toed ungulates in the genus Bison within the subfamily Bovinae. Two extant and four species are recognized. Of the four species, three were North American endemics, Bison antiquus, B. latifrons, and B. occidentalis. The fourth, B. priscus, ranged across steppe environments from Western Europe, through Central Asia, East Asia including Japan, of the two surviving species, the American bison, B. bison, found only in North America, is the more numerous. Although sometimes referred to historically as a buffalo, it is distantly related to the true buffalo. The North American species is composed of two subspecies, the Plains bison, B. b. bison, and the Wood bison, B. b. athabascae, which is the namesake of Wood Buffalo National Park in Canada. A third subspecies, the Eastern Woodland Bison is no longer considered a valid taxon, references to Woods Bison or Wood Bison from the eastern United States confusingly refer to this subspecies, not B. b. athabascae, which was not found in the region. The European bison B. bonasus, or wisent, is found in Europe, while all bison species are classified in their own genus, they are sometimes bred with domestic cattle and produce fertile offspring called beefalo or zubron. The American bison and the European bison are the largest surviving terrestrial animals in North America, Bison are good swimmers and can cross rivers over half a mile wide. They are nomadic grazers and travel in herds, the bulls leave the herds of females at two or three years of age, and join a male herd, which are generally smaller than female herds. Towards the end of the summer, for the reproductive season, American bison are known for living in the Great Plains, but formerly had a much larger range including much of the eastern United States and parts of Mexico. The American Plains bison is no longer listed as endangered, genetically pure B. b. bison currently number only ~20,000, separated into fragmented herds - all of which require active conservation measures. Although superficially similar, physical and behavioural differences exist between the American and European bison, the American species has 15 ribs, while the European bison has 14. The American bison has four lumbar vertebrae, while the European has five, adult American bison are less slim in build and have shorter legs. American bison tend to more, and browse less than their European relatives. Their anatomies reflect this difference, the American bisons head hangs lower than the Europeans. The body of the American bison is hairier, though its tail has less hair than that of the European bison. American bison are more easily tamed than their European cousins, the bovine tribe split about 5 to 10 million years ago into the buffalos and a group leading to bison and taurine cattle
27.
Sioux
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The Sioux /ˈsuː/ are groups of Native American tribes and First Nations peoples in North America. The term can refer to any group within the Great Sioux Nation or to any of the nations many language dialects. The Sioux comprise three major divisions based on divisions, the Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota. The Santee Dakota reside in the extreme east of the Dakotas, Minnesota, the Yankton and Yanktonai Dakota, collectively also referred to by the endonym Wičhíyena, reside in the Minnesota River area. They are considered to be the middle Sioux, and have in the past been erroneously classified as Nakota, the actual Nakota are the Assiniboine and Stoney of Western Canada and Montana. The Lakota, also called Teton, are the westernmost Sioux, known for their hunting, the name Sioux was adopted in English by the 1760s from French. It is abbreviated from Nadouessioux, first attested by Jean Nicolet in 1640, the name is sometimes said to be derived from an Ojibwe exonym for the Sioux meaning little snakes. The spelling in -x is due to the French plural marker, the Proto-Algonquian form *na·towe·wa, meaning Northern Iroquoian, has reflexes in several daughter languages that refer to a small rattlesnake. An alternative explanation is derivation from an exonym na·towe·ssiw, from a verb meaning to speak a foreign language. The current Ojibwe term for the Sioux and related groups is Bwaanag, presumably, this refers to the style of cooking the Sioux used in the past. The alternative English spelling of Ogallala is considered improper, the historical Sioux referred to the Great Sioux Nation as the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, meaning Seven Council Fires. Each fire was a symbol of an oyate, the seven nations that comprise the Sioux are, Bdewákaŋthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpékhute, Sisíthuŋwaŋ, the Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ, Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna, and the Thítȟuŋwaŋ. The Seven Council Fires would assemble each summer to hold council, renew kinships, decide tribal matters, the seven divisions would select four leaders known as Wičháša Yatápika from among the leaders of each division. The last meeting of the Seven Council Fires was in 1850, today the Teton, Santee and the Minnesota Dakota, and Yankton/Yanktonai are usually known, respectively, as the Lakota, Eastern Dakota, or Western Dakota. In any of the three dialects, Lakota or Dakota translate to mean friend or ally, referring to the alliance that once bound the Great Sioux Nation. The Dakota are first recorded to have resided at the source of the Mississippi River during the seventeenth century, by 1700 some had migrated to present-day South Dakota. Late in the 17th century, the Dakota entered into an alliance with French merchants, the French were trying to gain advantage in the struggle for the North American fur trade against the English, who had recently established the Hudsons Bay Company. The first recorded encounter between the Sioux and the French occurred when Radisson and Groseilliers reached what is now Wisconsin during the winter of 1659–60
28.
Missouri River
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The Missouri River is the longest river in North America. Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana, the Missouri flows east and south for 2,341 miles before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis, Missouri. The river takes drainage from a populated, semi-arid watershed of more than half a million square miles. When combined with the lower Mississippi River, it forms the fourth longest river system. For over 12,000 years, people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation. More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed, most leading a nomadic lifestyle, the Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century. The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the groundwork as trappers explored the region, pioneers headed west en masse beginning in the 1830s, first by covered wagon, then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river. Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers, leading to some of the most longstanding, during the 20th century, the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation, flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power. Fifteen dams impound the main stem of the river, with more on tributaries. Meanders have been cut and the river channelized to improve navigation, from the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming, three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River. The longest begins near Browers Spring,9,100 feet above sea level, on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains. Flowing west then north, it runs first in Hell Roaring Creek, then west into the Red Rock, swings northeast to become the Beaverhead and these two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana. The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri Headwaters State Park near Three Forks, Montana, the Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake, a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains. Issuing from the mountains near Cascade, the flows northeast to the city of Great Falls, where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri. Farther on, the passes through the Fort Peck Dam, and immediately downstream. At the confluence, the Yellowstone is actually the larger river, the Missouri then meanders east past Williston and into Lake Sakakawea, the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam. Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck, the capital of North Dakota and it slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the Cannonball River confluence. While it continues south, eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota, the Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains, receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest
29.
Nebraska
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Nebraska /nᵻˈbræskə/ is a state that lies in both the Great Plains and the Midwestern United States. Its area is just over 77,220 sq mi with almost 1.9 million people and its largest city is Omaha, which is on the Missouri River. The state is crossed by many trails and was explored by the Lewis. Nebraska was admitted as the 37th state of the United States in 1867 and it is the only state in the United States whose legislature is unicameral and officially nonpartisan. Nebraska is composed of two major regions, the Dissected Till Plains and the Great Plains. The Dissected Till Plains is a region of rolling hills. The Great Plains occupy most of western Nebraska, characterized by treeless prairie, the state has a large agriculture sector and is a major producer of beef, pork, corn, and soybeans. Two major climatic zones are represented in Nebraska, the half of the state has a humid continental climate, and the western half. Indigenous peoples lived in the region of present-day Nebraska for thousands of years before European exploration. The historic tribes in the state included the Omaha, Missouria, Ponca, Pawnee, Otoe, when European exploration, trade, and settlement began, both Spain and France sought to control the region. In the 1690s, Spain established trade connections with the Apaches, by 1703, France had developed a regular trade with the native peoples along the Missouri River in Nebraska, and by 1719 had signed treaties with several of these peoples. After war broke out between the two countries, Spain dispatched an expedition to Nebraska under Lieutenant General Pedro de Villasur in 1720. The party was attacked and destroyed near present-day Columbus by a force of Pawnees and Otoes. The massacre of the Villasur expedition effectively put an end to Spanish exploration of Nebraska for the remainder of the 18th century, in 1762, during the Seven Years War, France ceded the Louisiana territory to Spain. Frances withdrawal from the area left Britain and Spain competing for dominance along the Mississippi, by 1773, later that year, Mackays party built a trading post, dubbed Fort Carlos IV, near present-day Homer. In 1819, the United States established Fort Atkinson as the first U. S. Army post west of the Missouri River, the army abandoned the fort in 1827 as migration moved further west. European-American settlement did not begin in any numbers until after 1848, on May 30,1854, the US Congress created the Kansas and the Nebraska territories, divided by the Parallel 40° North, under the Kansas–Nebraska Act. The Nebraska Territory included parts of the current states of Colorado, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, the territorial capital of Nebraska was Omaha
30.
South Dakota
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South Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux Native American tribes, South Dakota is the 17th most expansive, but the 5th least populous and the 5th least densely populated of the 50 United States. Once the southern portion of the Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2,1889, Pierre is the state capital and Sioux Falls, with a population of about 171,000, is South Dakotas largest city. South Dakota is bordered by the states of North Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Wyoming, the state is bisected by the Missouri River, dividing South Dakota into two geographically and socially distinct halves, known to residents as East River and West River. Eastern South Dakota is home to most of the states population, West of the Missouri, ranching is the predominant agricultural activity, and the economy is more dependent on tourism and defense spending. Most of the Native American reservations are located in West River, the Black Hills, a group of low pine-covered mountains sacred to the Sioux, are located in the southwest part of the state. Mount Rushmore, a major tourist destination, is located there, South Dakota experiences a temperate continental climate, with four distinct seasons and precipitation ranging from moderate in the east to semi-arid in the west. The ecology of the state features species typical of a North American grassland biome, humans have inhabited the area for several millennia, with the Sioux becoming dominant by the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, European-American settlement intensified after a rush in the Black Hills. Encroaching miners and settlers triggered a number of Indian wars, ending with the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, historically dominated by an agricultural economy and a rural lifestyle, South Dakota has recently sought to diversify its economy in areas to attract and retain residents. South Dakotas history and rural character still strongly influence the culture of the state, South Dakota is situated in the north-central United States, and is considered a part of the Midwest by the U. S. Census Bureau, it is also part of the Great Plains region. The culture, economy, and geography of western South Dakota have more in common with the West than the Midwest, South Dakota has a total area of 77,116 square miles, making the state the 17th largest in the Union. Black Elk Peak, formerly named Harney Peak, with an elevation of 7,242 ft, is the states highest point, while the shoreline of Big Stone Lake is the lowest, with an elevation of 966 ft. South Dakota is bordered to the north by North Dakota, to the south by Nebraska, to the east by Iowa and Minnesota, the geographical center of the U. S. is 17 miles west of Castle Rock in Butte County. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is located between Allen and Kyle,1,024 mi from the nearest coastline, the Missouri River is the largest and longest river in the state. Other major South Dakota rivers include the Cheyenne, James, Big Sioux, Eastern South Dakota has many natural lakes, mostly created by periods of glaciation. Additionally, dams on the Missouri River create four large reservoirs, Lake Oahe, Lake Sharpe, Lake Francis Case, South Dakota can generally be divided into three regions, eastern South Dakota, western South Dakota, and the Black Hills. The Missouri River serves as a boundary in terms of geographic, social, at times the Black Hills are combined with the rest of western South Dakota, and people often refer to the resulting two regions divided by the Missouri River as West River and East River
31.
Lewis and Clark Expedition
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It began near St. Louis, made its way westward, and passed through the continental divide to reach the Pacific coast. The Corps of Discovery comprised a group of U. S. Army volunteers under the command of Captain Meriwether Lewis and his close friend, Second Lieutenant William Clark. The campaigns secondary objectives were scientific and economic, to study the plants, animal life, and geography. With maps, sketches, and journals in hand, the returned to St. Louis to report its findings to Jefferson. According to Thomas Jefferson himself, one goal was to find the most direct and practicable water communication across this continent, Jefferson also placed special importance on declaring U. S. The expedition made notable contributions to science, but scientific research was not the goal of the mission. During the 19th century, references to Lewis and Clark scarcely appeared in history books even during the United States Centennial in 1876, Lewis and Clark began to gain new attention around the start of the 20th century. Both the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition, in St. Louis, in 2004, a complete and reliable set of the expeditions journals was compiled by Gary E. Moulton. In the 2000s, the bicentennial of the expedition further elevated popular interest in Lewis, as of 1984, no U. S. exploration party was more famous, and no American expedition leaders are more instantly recognizable by name. In the 1780s, while Minister to France, Jefferson met John Ledyard in Paris, like Captain Cook, Jefferson also wished to discover a practical route through the Northwest to the Pacific coast. Alexander Mackenzie had already charted a route in his quest for the Pacific, Mackenzie and his party then became the first on record to cross America north of Mexico to the Pacific, when he arrived near Bella Coola in 1793—a dozen years before Lewis and Clark. Two years into his presidency, Jefferson asked Congress to fund an expedition through the Louisiana territory to the Pacific Ocean and he did not attempt to hide the Lewis and Clark expedition itself from Spanish, French, and British officials, but rather claimed different reasons for the venture. He used a message to ask for funding due to poor relations with the opposition party in Congress. In 1803, Jefferson commissioned the Corps of Discovery, and named U. S. Army Captain Meriwether Lewis its leader, Lewis demonstrated remarkable skills and potential as a frontiersman. As the expedition was gaining approval and funding, Jefferson made efforts to him for the long journey ahead. All the latter qualifications Capt. Lewis has, in 1803, Jefferson sent Lewis to Philadelphia to study medicinal cures under Benjamin Rush, a physician and humanitarian. Jefferson also arranged for Lewis to be educated by Andrew Ellicott. Lewis, however, was not ignorant of science and had demonstrated to Jefferson a marked capacity to learn, at Monticello, Jefferson possessed the largest library in the world on the subject of the geography of the North American continent, and Lewis had full access to that library
32.
Hugh Glass
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Hugh Glass was an American frontiersman, fur trapper and trader, hunter, and explorer. He is best known for his story of survival and retribution, born in Pennsylvania to Scots-Irish parents, Glass became an explorer of the watershed of the Upper Missouri River, in present-day Montana, the Dakotas, and the Platte River area of Nebraska. His life story has been adapted into two films, Man in the Wilderness and The Revenant. Despite the storys popularity, its accuracy has been disputed and it was first recorded in 1825 in The Portfolio, a Philadelphia literary journal, as a literary piece and later picked up by various newspapers. Although originally published anonymously, it was revealed to be the work of James Hall. There is no writing from Hugh Glass himself to corroborate the veracity of it, also, it is likely to have been wildly embellished over the years as a legend. Glass was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania, to Scots-Irish parents who had emigrated from Ulster in present-day Northern Ireland, Glass life before the famous bear attack is largely unverifiable, and his frontier story contained numerous embellishments. He was reported to have been captured by pirates under the command of Gulf of Mexico chief Jean Lafitte off the coast of Texas in 1816, Glass allegedly escaped by swimming to shore near what is present-day Galveston, Texas. He was later rumored to have been captured by the Pawnee tribe and he eventually wed a Pawnee woman. Glass traveled to St. Louis, Missouri in 1821, accompanying several Pawnee delegates invited to meet with U. S. authorities and these men and others would later be known as Ashleys Hundred. Glass, however, did not join Ashleys company until the next year, in June 1823 they met up with many of the men that had joined in 1822, and were attacked by Arikara warriors. Glass was apparently shot in the leg and the survivors retreated downstream and sent for help. Glass wrote a letter to the parents of John S. Gardner, killed on June 2,1823, Glass, Andrew Henry, Ashleys partner had joined the group, and he along with Glass and several others set out overland to the Yellowstone River. The bear charged, picked him up, bit and lacerated his flesh, severely wounded him, Glass nevertheless managed to kill the bear with help from his trapping party, but was left badly mauled. The men were convinced Glass would not survive his injuries, nevertheless, Henry asked for two volunteers to stay with Glass until he died and then bury him. John S. Fitzgerald and a man identified as Bridges stepped forward. Later, claiming that they were interrupted by attacking Arikara, the pair grabbed the rifle, knife, and other equipment belonging to Glass, Fitzgerald and Bridges later caught up with the party and incorrectly reported to Ashley that Glass had died. There is a debate whether Bridges was actually famed mountain man Jim Bridger, despite his injuries, Glass regained consciousness, but found himself abandoned, without weapons or equipment
33.
The Revenant (2015 film)
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It stars Leonardo DiCaprio, Tom Hardy, Domhnall Gleeson and Will Poulter. Development began in August 2001 when producer Akiva Goldsman purchased Punkes manuscript, principal photography began in October 2014. Location and crew concerns delayed the film from May to August 2015, the film premiered at the TCL Chinese Theatre on December 16,2015 and had a limited release on December 25, expanding on January 8,2016. It received positive reviews critics, with the performances, direction. In 1823, Hugh Glass guides Andrew Henry’s trappers through unorganized territory, while he and his half-Pawnee son, Hawk, are hunting, the companys camp is attacked by an Arikara war party. Glass recommends that the travel on foot to Fort Kiowa. After docking, the crew stashes the pelts near the shore, Glass is badly mauled by a grizzly bear and left close to death. Trapper John Fitzgerald, fearful of another Arikara attack, argues that the group must mercy-kill Glass, Henry agrees, but is unable to pull the trigger, instead, he offers money for someone to stay with Glass. When the only volunteers are Hawk and the young Jim Bridger, after the others leave, Fitzgerald attempts to smother Glass but is discovered by Hawk. Fitzgerald stabs him to death as Glass watches helplessly, the next morning, Fitzgerald convinces Bridger that the Arikara are approaching and they must abandon Glass. After they depart, Fitzgerald admits he lied, when Fitzgerald and Bridger meet Henry at the fort, Fitzgerald tells him that Glass died and Hawk vanished. Glass begins a journey through the wilderness. He performs crude self-surgery and eludes the pursuing Arikara who are looking for the Chiefs kidnapped daughter, Glass encounters Pawnee refugee Hikuc who says that revenge is in the Creators hands. The men share bison meat and travel together, after an hallucinogenic experience, Glass discovers Hikuc hanged by French hunters. He infiltrates their camp and sees the leader raping Powaqa and he frees her, kills two hunters, and steals Hikucs horse, leaving his canteen behind. The next morning, Glass is ambushed by the Arikara and driven over a cliff on his horse and he survives the night by eviscerating the horse and sheltering inside its carcass. A French survivor staggers into Fort Kiowa and Bridger recognizes his canteen as Glasss, believing it stolen, Henry organizes a search party. Fitzgerald, realizing Glass is alive, empties the outpost’s safe, the search party finds the exhausted Glass
34.
Henry Leavenworth
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Henry Leavenworth was an American soldier active in the War of 1812 and early military expeditions against the Plains Indians. He established Fort Leavenworth in Kansas, and also gave his name to Leavenworth, Kansas, Leavenworth County, Kansas, and he was born at New Haven, Connecticut, a son of Col. Jesse and Catharine Leavenworth. Soon after his birth his parents became alienated and his father moved with the children to Danville, Vermont and he then read law with General Erastus Root of Delhi, New York, and upon being admitted to the bar formed a partnership with his preceptor which lasted until 1812. Leavenworth was commissioned as a captain in the 25th U. S. Infantry in April 1812, in August 1813 he was promoted to major of the 9th Infantry. He was wounded at the Battle of Niagara on July 25,1814, in 1820 he began constructing Fort St. Anthony from the Cantonment New Hope stockade. In 1823, he led U. S. Army troops in the Arikara War, in 1825 he was made brigadier-general by brevet. In 1834 he commanded the United States Regiment of Dragoons during its expedition from Fort Gibson, the artist George Catlin was also in this expedition, and wrote of Leavenworths death. They hoped to meet and open formal relations among the United States and the Comanche, Kiowa and his regiment erected a monument at Cross Timbers, he was first buried in Delhi, with his remains later reinterred at Fort Leavenworth National Cemetery. Lake Harriet in Minneapolis is named for Harriet Lovejoy and his son Jesse Henry Leavenworth was also a military careerist. In addition to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, Leavenworth County, Kansas, the Leavenworth Penitentiary, Henry Leavenworth Elementary School, the United States Disciplinary Barracks at Fort Leavenworth is commonly called Leavenworth
35.
Henry Dodge
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Henry Dodge was a Democratic member of the U. S. House of Representatives and U. S. Senate, Territorial Governor of Wisconsin and a veteran of the Black Hawk War. His son was Augustus C. Dodge with whom he served in the U. S. Senate, the first, Henry Dodge was the half brother of Lewis F. Linn. James Clarke, the Governor of Iowa Territory, was the son-in-law of Henry Dodge, Henry Dodge was the son of Israel Dodge and Nancy Hunter Dodge. Israel was from Connecticut and a veteran of the Battle of Brandywine, Henry Dodge was born in Vincennes when Nancy stopped over to visit Israel on her way from Kaskaskia to Louisville. Henry was the first child in what is now Indiana who was born to parents from the colonies, in 1788 Israel abandoned the family and Henry was raised by his mother. At age 14 Dodge moved to Missouri to live with his father, although Henry returned to Kentucky occasionally, his move to Missouri was permanent. In 1800, he married Christiana McDonald, in 1805 Dodge was appointed deputy sheriff, reporting to his father. In 1806 Dodge was recruited by Aaron Burr to participate in Burrs spurious attempt at creating a new country in the southwest, Dodge and a companion went so far as to report to a concentration point for the affair in New Madrid. However, when they learned that Thomas Jefferson had deemed it an act, they immediately abandoned the effort. Dodge was indicted as a participant in the conspiracy, but the charges were dropped, in 1806 Dodge was named lieutenant of the militia. In 1813 he was appointed U. S. Marshal, as well as Sheriff of Ste, in the War of 1812, Dodge enlisted as a captain in the Missouri State Volunteers. He was part of a mounted company and he finished the war as a major general of the Missouri militia. His crowning achievement was saving about 150 Miami Indians from certain massacre after their raid on the Boones Lick settlement in the summer of 1814, Dodge emigrated with his large family and slaves inherited from his father to the U. S. Mineral District in early July 1827 and he served as a commander of militia during the Red Bird uprising of that year, and in October settled a large tract in present-day downtown Dodgeville, known then as Dodges Camp. He worked a large claim until around 1830, when he moved several miles south in a forested area known still as Dodges Grove. Here he began building what would become a large frame house for his ever-growing extended family. Dodge rose to prominence during the Black Hawk War of 1832, as colonel of the western Michigan Territory militia, Dodge brought a credible fighting force into being in a very short time. More than fifteen forts, fortified homes and blockhouses sprang up almost overnight, from these forts, Dodge and the mounted volunteers, with four companies of Territorial militia and one of Illinois mounted rangers, took to the field as the Michigan Mounted Volunteers
36.
Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)
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The treaty is an agreement between nine more or less independent parties. The treaty set forth traditional territorial claims of the tribes as among themselves, the United States acknowledged that all the land covered by the treaty was Indian territory and did not claim any part of it. The boundaries agreed to in the Fort Laramie treaty of 1851 would be used to settle a number of cases in the 20th century. The treaty should also make an effective and lasting peace among the eight tribes, the next year, both Thomas Fitzpatrick and David D. Mitchell recommended a council with the Indians to prevent a conflict. The United States government undertook negotiations with the Native American Plains tribes living between the Arkansas and Missouri rivers to ensure protected right-of-way for the migrants, the Congress had appropriated one hundred thousand dollars to the assembly, endorsed by Luke Lea. Because the area around Fort Laramie lacked forage for the Indians horses, many Indians have referred to the treaty as the Horse Creek Treaty. Representatives from the Lakota, Cheyenne, Assiniboine, Gros Ventre, Mandan, Arikara, Hidatsa, Shoshone, Crow, the Comanche, Kiowa, and Kiowa Apache refused to send representatives to Fort Laramie because the fort was in Sioux territory. The Comanche, Kiowa, and Kiowa Apache considered the Sioux an enemy, the United States Senate ratified the treaty, adding Article 5, to adjust compensation from fifty to ten years, if the tribes accepted the changes. Acceptance from all tribes, with the exception of the Crow, was procured, several tribes never received the commodities promised as payments. The Lakota got some rather new territorial claims recognized, in 1823, a number of Lakotas had helped the United States army attack an Arikara village at Grand River. The Lakotas had kept on pushing the village north, so they got treaty on the former Arikara homeland along the Grand. The Lakota got exclusive treaty right to the Black Hills, to the consternation of the Cheyenne, the Sioux were given right to the Black Hills and other country that the Northern Cheyennes claimed. Their home country was the Black Hills, declared a Cheyenne historian in 1967, Arapahoe chief Black Coal complained in 1875, I have never got anything yet for my land. It is part mine, and part the Sioux, in the first place, they came from the Missouri River and reached this place, and now they have got up this far, and they claim all this land. The Cheyenne and Arapaho, the southernmost of the treaty tribes, the Crow treaty territory included the area westward from Powder River. Little Bighorn River ran through the center of the Crow domain, the treaty was broken almost immediately after its inception, by the Lakota and Cheyenne attacking the Crow over the next two years. In 1858 the failure of the United States to prevent the mass emigration of miners and settlers into Colorado during the Pikes Peak Gold Rush, didnt help matters any. They took over Indian lands in order to them, against the protests of the Indians, and founded towns, started farms
37.
Assiniboine
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The Assiniboine or Assiniboin people, also known as the Hohe and known by the endonym Nakota, are a First Nations/Native American people originally from the Northern Great Plains of North America. Today, they are centered in present-day Saskatchewan and they have also populated parts of Alberta and southwestern Manitoba in Canada, and northern Montana and western North Dakota in the United States. They were well known throughout much of the late 18th and early 19th century, images of Assiniboine people were painted by such 19th-century artists as Karl Bodmer and George Catlin. The Europeans and Americans adopted names that other tribes used for the Assiniboine, they did not until later learn the tribes autonym, in Siouan, they traditionally called themselves the Hohe Nakota. With the widespread adoption of English, however, many now use the name became common in English. The English adopted Assiniboine, used by the Canadian French colonists and it was a transliteration into French phonetics of what they heard the Ojibwe use as a term for these western people. In the same way, Assnipwan comes from the word asinîpwâta in the western Cree dialects, from asiniy ᐊᓯᓂᐩ NA – rock, stone – and pwâta ᐹᐧᑕ NA – enemy, early French traders in the west were often familiar with Algonquian languages. They transliterated many Cree or Ojibwe exonyms for other western Canadian indigenous peoples during the colonial era. The English referred to the Assiniboine by adopting terms from the French spelled using English phonetics, other tribes associated stone with the Assiniboine because they primarily cooked with heated stones. They dropped hot stones into water to heat it to boiling for cooking meat, some writers believed that the name was derived from the Ojibway term Assin, stone, and the French bouillir, to boil, but such an etymology is very unlikely. Assiniboine is a Mississippi Valley Siouan language, in the Western Siouan language family, in the early 21st century, about 150 people speak the language and most are more than 40 years old. The majority of the Assiniboine today speak only American English, the 2000 census showed 3,946 tribal members who lived in the United States. Assiniboine are closely linked by language to the Stoney First Nations people of Alberta, the latter two tribes speak varieties of Nakota, a distant, but not mutually intelligible, variant of the Sioux language. The Assiniboine, along with the Stoney of Alberta, share an ancestry with the Sioux nation. The separation of the Assiniboine from the Sioux must have occurred at some prior to 1640. The Assiniboine and Sioux were both gradually pushed westward onto the plains from the woodlands of Minnesota by the Ojibwe, who had acquired firearms from their French allies. Later, the Assiniboine acquired horses via raiding and trading with neighboring tribes of Plains Indians such as the Crow, the first person of European descent to describe the Assiniboine was an employee of the Hudsons Bay Company named Henry Kelsey in the 1690s. The Assiniboine obtained guns, ammunition, metal tomahawks, metal pots, wool blankets, wool coats, wool leggings, beaver furs and bison hides were the most commonly traded furs
38.
Battle of Honsinger Bluff
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The Battle of Honsinger Bluff was a conflict between the United States Army and the Sioux people on August 4,1873 along the Yellowstone River near present-day Miles City, Montana. The main combatants were units of the U. S. 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col, the Battle of Honsinger Bluff took place at a point approximately 1 mile east of the confluence of the Tongue River and Yellowstone River. This hill is nearly 13 miles long and between 1 and 3 miles wide with steep slopes of 200 to 300 feet and it is the present location of the Miles City Airport. To the east and south lies the Yellowstone River, the floodplain, varying between 1 and 3 miles in width, extends westerly upstream along the Yellowstone for nearly 13 miles until it meets Locke Bluff near Hathaway, Montana. Stanleys column consisted of a 1,300 man force of cavalry, infantry and it traveled with 275 mule-drawn wagons and 353 civilians involved in the survey. 27 Indian and mixed-blood scouts supported the column, the Native American forces were from the lodge of Sitting Bull, situated near Locke Bluff to the west, estimated at anywhere from 400 to 500 lodges. It included Hunkpapa Sioux under Gall accompanied by the warchief Rain in the Face, Oglala Sioux under Crazy Horse, on Sunday, August 3,1873, Stanleys column camped near the mouth of Sunday Creek, a tributary to the Yellowstone on the northeasterly end of Yellowstone Hill. Early on the morning of August 4, the column moved up the northwest side of the hill along the fork of Sunday Creek. Capt. George W. Yates with a troop of cavalry accompanied the surveyors along the southeast side of the hill along the Yellowstone River. Custer, with Companies A and B of the 7th Cavalry under the command of Capt. Myles Moylan scouted to the west ahead of the Stanley column, Custers group consisted of 86 men,5 officers and Indian scouts. Custers brother, Lt. Tom Custer, and his brother-in-law, Lt. James Calhoun, Custers troops traveled along the top of Yellowstone Hill and then descended a steep buffalo trail on its northwesterly end on to the broad, grass covered flood plain. Custer spotted an area along the Yellowstone, about 2 miles to the West that would be a suitable location for the Stanley column to camp that evening. He dismounted his men in the woods, where they napped and fished in the river and their horses grazed on the grassy floodplain. Having a premonition of danger, Custer set out two four-man guard patrols, scouts from Sitting Bulls village traveled along the Yellowstone west of Yellowstone Hill but did not appear to be aware of the presence of the Stanley column. They did, however, spot Custers group resting in the woods, reinforcements were obtained from Sitting Bulls village and by noon somewhere between 100 and 300 Indians were hiding in the second wooded area 2 miles west of Custers location. A small band of Indians approached the cavalrys grazing horse from the West and they were spotted by the guard units, who alerted the other troops. Custer ordered his men to saddle up and he began to pursue the Indian riders in the company of his orderly, Tom Custer followed with a group of approximately 20 troopers. Myles Moylan led the remainder of the unit behind Tom Custer, George Custer halted his pursuit and the Indian riders also halted
39.
George Armstrong Custer
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George Armstrong Custer was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the American Indian Wars. Raised in Michigan and Ohio, Custer was admitted to West Point in 1857, with the outbreak of the Civil War, Custer was called to serve with the Union Army. Custer developed a reputation during the Civil War. He participated in the first major engagement, the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21,1861, near Washington and his association with several important officers helped his career as did his success as a highly effective cavalry commander. He was wounded in the Battle of Culpeper Court House in Virginia on September 13,1863, in 1864, Custer was awarded another star and brevetted to major general rank. At the conclusion of the Appomattox Campaign, in which he and his troops played a role, Custer was present at General Robert E. Lees surrender to General Ulysses S. Grant. After the Civil War, Custer remained a general in the United States Volunteers until they were mustered out in February 1866. He reverted to his permanent rank of captain and was appointed a lieutenant colonel in the 7th Cavalry Regiment in July 1866 and he was dispatched to the west in 1867 to fight in the American Indian Wars. The battle is known in American history as Custers Last Stand. Custer and his regiment were defeated so decisively at the Little Bighorn that it has overshadowed all of his prior achievements, according to family letters, Custer was named after George Armstrong, a minister, in his devout mothers hope that her son might join the clergy. Custer was born in New Rumley, Ohio, to Emanuel Henry Custer, a farmer and blacksmith and he had two younger brothers, Thomas Custer and Boston Custer, both of whom died with him on the battlefield at Little Bighorn. His other full siblings were the familys youngest child, Margaret Custer, and Nevin Custer, Custer also had three older half-siblings. It was in large, close knit family that Custer. Emanuel Custer was an outspoken Democrat who taught his children politics, in a February 3,1887 letter to his sons widow, Libby, he related an incident when Autie was about four years old. He had to have a tooth drawn, and he was much afraid of blood. When I took him to the doctor to have the tooth pulled, it was in the night and I told him if it bled well it would get right away. When he got to the doctor he took his seat, the forceps slipped off and he had to make a second trial. He pulled it out, and Autie never even scrunched, going home, I led him by the arm
40.
Bloody Knife
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Bloody Knife was an American Indian who served as a scout and guide for the U. S. 7th Cavalry Regiment. He was the scout of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer and has been called perhaps the most famous Native American scout to serve the U. S. Army. Bloody Knife was born to a Hunkpapa Sioux father and an Arikara mother around 1840 and he was abused and discriminated against by the other Sioux in his village because of his background, in particular by Gall, a future chief. When Bloody Knife was a teenager, he left his village with his mother to live with the Arikara tribe and his brothers were killed during a Sioux raid led by Gall in 1862. Bloody Knife found employment as a courier and hunter for the American Fur Company and he died from a bullet wound to the head on June 25,1876, during the Battle of the Little Bighorn. While his exact date and place of birth are unknown, Bloody Knife was probably born between 1837 and 1840 in Dakota Territory and his father was a Hunkpapa Sioux and his mother a member of the Arikara tribe, also known as the Ree. Along with brothers and perhaps one sister, he lived with his fathers tribe during his early childhood, Bloody Knife grew to hate the Sioux and especially a Sioux named Gall. Gall was the brother of Sitting Bull, but while Sitting Bull had also mistreated Bloody Knife it was his peer with whom Bloody Knife developed an enduring feud. When Bloody Knifes mother left his father in 1856 to return to her own tribe, about fifteen, he found himself on the Upper Missouri River at an American Fur Company trading post called Fort Clark. Conflicts between the Arikaras and Sioux were routine there, with Sioux war parties attacking Arikaras who wandered too far from the fort. In spite of the threat they represented, Bloody Knife took on and succeeded in the job of delivering mail to other forts in Missouri. He did not, however, pass through these years unscathed, in the fall of 1862, two of his brothers were killed, mutilated, and scalped by a Sioux war party led by Gall. Their bodies were left to be eaten by wolves, after working for the American Fur Company, Bloody Knife accompanied Brigadier General Alfred Sully in 1865 as a scout on his Sioux expedition. He also worked as a messenger, helping the troops to communicate with military units in the area. In late 1865, Bloody Knife met with Captain Adams Bassett of Company C, volunteer Infantry, whom he told that Gall had recently arrived near Fort Berthold, that Gall was not peaceful and had killed white men along the Missouri River. Bassett sent a lieutenant with a platoon and Bloody Knife to capture Gall or kill him if he would not surrender, Bloody Knife led the soldiers to the Hunkpapa village, south of the fort where Gall was staying. The men attempted to arrest Gall upon arrival, but when Gall tried to escape he was bayoneted and forced to the ground, and was twice stabbed with bayonets. The story goes that Bloody Knife took aim to administer a killing shot to Galls head, Bloody Knife argued furiously with the officer to no avail
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Battle of the Little Bighorn
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The battle, which occurred June 25–26,1876, near the Little Bighorn River in eastern Montana Territory, was the most prominent action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. The fight was a victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne. The U. S. 7th Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, five of the 7th Cavalrys twelve companies were annihilated, Custer was killed, as were two of his brothers, a nephew, and a brother-in-law. The total U. S. casualty count included 268 dead and 55 severely wounded, including four Crow Indian scouts, the battle, and Custers actions in particular, have been studied extensively by historians. Even though many of the native peoples eventually agreed to relocate to ever-shrinking reservations, among the Plains Tribes, the long-standing ceremonial tradition known as the Sun Dance was the most important religious event of the year. It is a time for prayer and personal sacrifice on behalf of the community, towards the end of spring in 1876, the Lakota and the Cheyenne held a Sun Dance that was also attended by a number of Agency Indians who had slipped away from their reservations. Col. John Gibbons column of six companies of the 7th Infantry and four companies of the 2nd Cavalry marched east from Fort Ellis in western Montana on March 30 and they were accompanied by teamsters and packers with 150 wagons and a large contingent of pack mules that reinforced Custer. They were later joined there by the steamboat Far West, which was loaded with 200 tons of supplies from Fort Lincoln, the coordination and planning began to go awry on June 17,1876 when Crooks column retreated after the Battle of the Rosebud. Unaware of Crooks battle, Gibbon and Terry proceeded, joining forces in early June near the mouth of the Rosebud Creek, as this was the likely location of Native encampments, all army elements were to converge around June 26 or 27, attempting to engulf the Native Americans. Custer had been offered the use of Gatling guns but declined, at sunrise on June 25, Custers scouts reported they could see a massive pony herd and signs of the Native American village roughly 15 miles in the distance. After a nights march, the officer who was sent with the scouts could see neither. Custers scouts also spotted the regimental cooking fires that could be seen from 10 miles away, assuming his presence had been exposed, Custer decided to attack the village without further delay. On the morning of June 25, Custer divided his 12 companies into three battalions in anticipation of the forthcoming engagement, three companies were placed under the command of Major Marcus Reno, and three were placed under the command of Capt. Frederick Benteen. Five companies remained under Custers immediate command, the 12th, Company B under Capt. Thomas McDougall, had been assigned to escort the slower pack train carrying provisions and additional ammunition. Unknown to Custer, the group of Native Americans seen on his trail were actually leaving the encampment on the Big Horn, Custers overriding concern was that the Native American group would break up and scatter. The command began its approach to the village at noon and prepared to attack in full daylight, the 7th Cavalry was created just after the American Civil War. Many men were veterans of the war, including most of the leading officers, six other troopers had died of drowning and 51 from cholera epidemics. Half of the 7th Cavalrys companies had just returned from 18 months of duty in the Deep South
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