1.
Privately held company
–
More ambiguous terms for a privately held company are unquoted company and unlisted company. Though less visible than their publicly traded counterparts, private companies have major importance in the worlds economy. In 2008, the 441 largest private companies in the United States accounted for US$1,800,000,000,000 in revenues and employed 6.2 million people, according to Forbes. In 2004, the Forbes count of privately held U. S. businesses with at least $1 billion in revenue was 305, cargill, Koch Industries, Bechtel, Publix, Pilot Corp. Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu, Hearst Corporation, Cox Enterprises, S. C, johnson, McWane, Carlson Companies, and Mars are among the largest privately held companies in the United States. In the broadest sense, the private corporation refers to any business not owned by the state. This usage is found in former communist countries to differentiate from former state-owned enterprises. In the United States, the privately held company is more often used to describe for-profit enterprises whose shares are not traded on the stock market. In countries with public trading markets, a privately held business is taken to mean one whose ownership shares or interests are not publicly traded. Often, privately held companies are owned by the company founders and/or their families, sometimes employees also hold shares of private companies. Most small businesses are privately held, Private companies may be called corporations, limited companies, limited liability companies, unlimited companies, or other names, depending on where and how they are organized and structured. In the United States, but not generally in the United Kingdom, privately held companies generally have fewer or less comprehensive reporting requirements and obligations for transparency, via annual reports, etc. than publicly traded companies do. For example, in the United States, unlike in Europe, in addition, private company executives may steer their ships without shareholder approval, allowing them to take significant action without delays. There is a requirement for large proprietary companies, which are required to lodge Form 388H to the ASIC containing their financial report. In the United States, private companies are held to different accounting auditing standards than are public companies, other companies, like Sageworks, provide aggregated data on privately held companies, segmented by industry code. Privately held companies also sometimes have restrictions on how many shareholders they may have, for example, the U. S. Securities Exchange Act of 1934, section 12, limits a privately held company, generally, to fewer than 2000 shareholders, and the U. S. Investment Company Act of 1940, requires registration of investment companies that have more than 100 holders, in Australia, section 113 of the Corporations Act 2001 limits a privately held company to fifty non-employee shareholders. Private enterprises comprise the sector of an economy
2.
Aerospace
–
Aerospace is the human effort in science, engineering and business to fly in the atmosphere of Earth and surrounding space. Aerospace organisations research, design, manufacture, operate, or maintain aircraft and/or spacecraft, Aerospace activity is very diverse, with a multitude of commercial, industrial and military applications. Aerospace is not the same as airspace, which is the air space directly above a location on the ground. In most industrial countries, the industry is a cooperation of public. Along with these public space programs, many companies produce technical tools and components such as spaceships, some known companies involved in space programs include Boeing, Airbus Group, SpaceX, Lockheed Martin, MacDonald Dettwiler and Northrop Grumman. These companies are involved in other areas of aerospace such as the construction of aircraft. Modern aerospace began with George Cayley in 1799, Cayley proposed an aircraft with a fixed wing and a horizontal and vertical tail, defining characteristics of the modern airplane. Airmen like Otto Lilienthal, who introduced cambered airfoils in 1891, the Wright brothers were interested in Lilienthals work and read several of his publications. They also found inspiration in Octave Chanute, an airman and the author of Progress in Flying Machines, war and science fiction inspired great minds like Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Wernher von Braun to achieve flight beyond the atmosphere. The launch of Sputnik 1 in October 1957 started the Space Age, in April 1981, the Space Shuttle Columbia launched, the start of regular manned access to orbital space. A sustained human presence in space started with Mir in 1986 and is continued by the International Space Station. Space commercialization and space tourism are more recent focuses in aerospace, Aerospace manufacturing is a high-technology industry that produces aircraft, guided missiles, space vehicles, aircraft engines, propulsion units, and related parts. Most of the industry is geared toward governmental work, for each original equipment manufacturer, the US government has assigned a Commercial and Government Entity code. These codes help to each manufacturer, repair facilities. In the United States, the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics, others include the very large airline industry. The aerospace industry employed 472,000 wage and salary workers in 2006, most of those jobs were in Washington state and in California, with Missouri, New York and Texas also being important. The leading aerospace manufacturers in the U. S. are Boeing, United Technologies Corporation, SpaceX, Northrop Grumman and these manufacturers are facing an increasing labor shortage as skilled U. S. workers age and retire. In India, Bangalore is a center of the aerospace industry, where Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, the National Aerospace Laboratories
3.
Mesquite, Texas
–
The city of Mesquite is a suburb located east of Dallas, Texas. Most of the city is located in Dallas County, as of the 2015 census, the population was 144,788 making it the twentieth most populous city in the state of Texas. According to legislative action, the city is the Rodeo Capital of Texas, as of 2016, Mesquite received a Playful City USA designation, for the fourth year in a row. The city was founded on March 14,1878, on land along the Texas & Pacific Railroad, the locals then named the town after Mesquite Creek. The city was incorporated on December 3,1887, after electing Mayor J. E. Russell. Mesquite prospered through the late 19th century and early 20th century as a community growing cotton, hay, corn and sugar. The town remained predominantly agrarian until after World War II when the boom also took root in Mesquite. The Ionies, were the tribe located close to present day Fort Worth. The Tawakonies, were in present-day Dallas, finally, the Caddo, were the native farmers of the Mesquite land. From 1680 to 1790, after harvest was over, these three tribes held a tournament and trading fair. Many outlaws resided in the area, but Sam Bass is historically known for his train robberies in Texas, in 1878 he robbed a train in downtown Mesquite, escaping with $30,000. The Mesquiter, was established in 1882 by R. S, kimbrough, and was Dallas Countys longest running newspaper. In 1958, the Mesquite ProRodeo was founded by Neal Gay, by the mid 1980s, the events were being broadcast by ESPN. In 1959, Big Town Mall opened as the first air conditioned shopping mall in the United States, the mall was demolished in the summer of 2006. By 1970, LBJ Freeway was constructed, connecting Mesquite to its neighbors, Garland to the north, also in 1971, Town East Mall was constructed. The mall was used by director Ron Howard to film portions of the movie Cotton Candy in 1978, the malls associated traffic and shops would continue to grow the town. By the 1990 census, the city had grown to 101,484 people, in 1986, the Mesquite Arena opened its doors as the new home for the Mesquite ProRodeo. By 1998, the facility was expanded to include a Convention Center, Exhibition Hall,2011 saw Mesquite pass a law that allows beer and wine sales in the city
4.
John Carmack
–
John D. Carmack is an American game programmer, aerospace and virtual reality engineer. Carmack was the programmer of the id video games Commander Keen, Wolfenstein 3D, Doom, Quake, Rage. In August 2013, Carmack took the position of CTO at Oculus VR, Carmack, son of local television news reporter Stan Carmack, grew up in the Kansas City Metropolitan Area where he became interested in computers at an early age. He attended Shawnee Mission East High School in Prairie Village, Kansas and Raytown South High School in nearby Raytown, Carmack was introduced to video games with the 1978 shoot em up title Space Invaders in the arcades during a summer vacation as a child. The 1980 maze chase arcade game Pac-Man also left an impression on him. He cited Shigeru Miyamoto as the game developer he most admired, as reported in David Kushners Masters of Doom, when Carmack was 14, he broke into a school to help a group of kids steal Apple II computers. To gain entry to the building, Carmack concocted a sticky substance of thermite mixed with Vaseline that melted through the windows, however, an overweight accomplice struggled to get through the hole, and opened the window, setting off a silent alarm and alerting police. John was arrested, and sent for psychiatric evaluation, Carmack was then sentenced to a year in a juvenile home. He attended the University of Missouri–Kansas City for two semesters before withdrawing to work as a freelance programmer. Softdisk, a company in Shreveport, Louisiana, hired Carmack to work on Softdisk G-S, introducing him to John Romero. Later, this team would be placed by Softdisk in charge of a new, afterwards, Carmack left Softdisk to co-found id Software. Carmacks engines have also licensed for use in other influential first-person shooters such as Half-Life, Call of Duty. In 2007, when Carmack was on vacation with his wife, he ended up playing games on his cellphone. On August 7,2013, Carmack joined Oculus VR as their CTO, on November 22,2013, he resigned from id Software to work full-time at Oculus VR. Carmacks reason for leaving was because ids parent company ZeniMax Media didnt want to support Oculus Rift, Carmacks role at both companies later became central to a ZeniMax lawsuit against Oculus parent company Facebook, claiming that Oculus stole ZeniMaxs virtual reality intellectual property. The trial jury absolved Carmack of liability, though Oculus and other officers were held liable for trademark, copyright. In February 2017 Carmack sued ZeniMax, claiming the company had refused to pay him the remaining $22.5 million owed him from their purchase of id Software, around 2000, Carmack became interested in rocketry, a hobby of his youth. Reviewing how much money he was spending on customizing Ferraris, Carmack realized he could do significant work in rocketry and he began by giving financial support to a few local amateur groups before starting Armadillo Aerospace
5.
Startup company
–
A startup is usually a company such as a small business, a partnership or an organization designed to rapidly develop a scalable business model. Startup companies can come in all forms and sizes, some of the critical tasks are to build a co-founder team to secure key skills, know-how, financial resources and other elements to conduct research on the target market. Typically, a startup will begin by building a first minimum viable product, in addition, startups founders do research to deepen their understanding of the ideas, technologies or business concepts and their commercial potential. Business models for startups are generally found via a bottom-up or top-down approach, given that startups operate in high-risk sectors, it can also be hard to attract investors to support the product/service development or attract buyers. The size and maturity of the startup ecosystem where the startup is launched, the startup ecosystem consists of the individuals, institutions and organizations business incubators and business accelerators and top-performing entrepreneurial firms and startups. A region with all of elements is considered to be a strong entrepreneurship ecosystem. Investors are generally most attracted to new companies distinguished by their strong co-founding team. Attractive startups generally have lower bootstrapping costs, higher risk, successful startups are typically more scalable than an established business, in the sense that the startup has the potential to grow rapidly with a limited investment of capital, labor or land. Startups have several options for funding, venture capital firms and angel investors may help startup companies begin operations, exchanging seed money for an equity stake in the firm. Venture capitalists and angel investors provide financing to a range of startups, with the expectation that a small number of the startups will become viable. Factoring is another option, though it is not unique to startups, startups usually need to form partnerships with other firms to enable their business model to operate. To become attractive to businesses, startups need to align their internal features, such as management style. In their 2013 study, Kask and Linton develop two ideal profiles, or also known as configurations or archetypes, for startups that are commercializing inventions, the inheritor profile calls for management style that is not too entrepreneurial and the startup should have an incremental invention. This profile is set out to be successful in a market that has a dominant design. In contrast to this profile is the originator which has a management style that is highly entrepreneurial and this profile is set out to be more successful in a market that does not have a dominant design. New startups should align themselves to one of the profiles when commercializing an invention to be able to find, by finding a business partner a startup will have greater chances to become successful. Startup founders often have a casual or offbeat attitude in their dress, office space and marketing. Startup founders in the 2010s may wear hoodies, sneakers and other clothes to business meetings
6.
Sub-orbital spaceflight
–
For example, the path of an object launched from Earth that reaches 100 km above sea level, and then falls back to Earth, is considered a sub-orbital spaceflight. Some sub-orbital flights have been undertaken to test spacecraft and launch vehicles later intended for orbital spaceflight, other vehicles are specifically designed only for sub-orbital flight, examples include manned vehicles such as the X-15 and SpaceShipOne, and unmanned ones such as ICBMs and sounding rockets. Flights which attain sufficient velocity to go into low Earth orbit, examples of this include Yuri Gagarins Vostok 1, and flights of the Fractional Orbital Bombardment System. Usually a rocket is used, but experimental sub-orbital spaceflight has also achieved with a space gun. By one definition a sub-orbital spaceflight reaches a higher than 100 km above sea level. The US military and NASA award astronaut wings to those flying above 50 mi, during freefall the trajectory is part of an elliptic orbit as given by the orbit equation. The perigee distance is less than the radius of the Earth R including atmosphere, hence the ellipse intersects the Earth, the major axis is vertical, the semi-major axis a is more than R/2. The specific orbital energy ϵ is given by, ε = − μ2 a > − μ R where μ is the standard gravitational parameter, to minimize the required delta-v, the high-altitude part of the flight is made with the rockets off. The maximum speed in a flight is attained at the lowest altitude of this free-fall trajectory, if ones goal is simply to reach space, for example in competing for the Ansari X Prize, horizontal motion is not needed. In this case the lowest required delta-v, to reach 100 km altitude, is about 1.4 km/s, for sub-orbital spaceflights covering a horizontal distance the maximum speed and required delta-v are in between those of a vertical flight and a LEO. The maximum speed at the ends of the trajectory are now composed of a horizontal. The higher the horizontal distance covered, the greater both speeds will be, for the V-2 rocket, just reaching space but with a range of about 330 km, the maximum speed was 1.6 km/s. Scaled Composites SpaceShipTwo which is under development will have a similar free-fall orbit, for larger ranges, due to the elliptic orbit the maximum altitude can even be considerably more than for a LEO. It should be noted that any spaceflight that returns to the surface, including sub-orbital ones, the speed at the start of the reentry is basically the maximum speed of the flight. The aerodynamic heating caused will vary accordingly, it is less for a flight with a maximum speed of only 1 km/s than for one with a maximum speed of 7 or 8 km/s. Let θ be half the angle that the projectile is to go around the earth, the minimum-delta-v trajectory corresponds to an ellipse with one focus at the centre of the earth and the other at the point halfway between the launch point and the destination point. Longer ranges will have lower apogees in the minimal-delta-v solution and we see that the Δv increases with range, leveling off at 7.9 km/s as the range approaches 20000 km. The minimum-delta-v trajectory for going halfway around the world corresponds to a circular orbit just above the surface, see lower for the time of flight
7.
Spacecraft
–
A spacecraft is a vehicle, or machine designed to fly in outer space. Spacecraft are used for a variety of purposes, including communications, earth observation, meteorology, navigation, space colonization, planetary exploration, on a sub-orbital spaceflight, a spacecraft enters space and then returns to the surface, without having gone into an orbit. For orbital spaceflights, spacecraft enter closed orbits around the Earth or around other celestial bodies, robotic spacecraft used to support scientific research are space probes. Robotic spacecraft that remain in orbit around a body are artificial satellites. Only a handful of interstellar probes, such as Pioneer 10 and 11, Voyager 1 and 2, orbital spacecraft may be recoverable or not. By method of reentry to Earth they may be divided in non-winged space capsules, Sputnik 1 was the first artificial satellite. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957, the launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments, while the Sputnik launch was a single event, it marked the start of the Space Age. Apart from its value as a technological first, Sputnik 1 also helped to identify the upper atmospheric layers density and it also provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. Pressurized nitrogen in the satellites false body provided the first opportunity for meteoroid detection, Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No. 1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR. The satellite travelled at 29,000 kilometers per hour, taking 96.2 minutes to complete an orbit and this altitude is called the Kármán line. In particular, in the 1940s there were several test launches of the V-2 rocket, as of 2016, only three nations have flown manned spacecraft, USSR/Russia, USA, and China. The first manned spacecraft was Vostok 1, which carried Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into space in 1961, there were five other manned missions which used a Vostok spacecraft. The second manned spacecraft was named Freedom 7, and it performed a sub-orbital spaceflight in 1961 carrying American astronaut Alan Shepard to an altitude of just over 187 kilometers, there were five other manned missions using Mercury spacecraft. Other Soviet manned spacecraft include the Voskhod, Soyuz, flown unmanned as Zond/L1, L3, TKS, China developed, but did not fly Shuguang, and is currently using Shenzhou. Except for the shuttle, all of the recoverable manned orbital spacecraft were space capsules. Manned space capsules The International Space Station, manned since November 2000, is a joint venture between Russia, the United States, Canada and several other countries, some reusable vehicles have been designed only for manned spaceflight, and these are often called spaceplanes. The first example of such was the North American X-15 spaceplane, the first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19,1963. The first partially reusable spacecraft, a winged non-capsule, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarins flight
8.
Space tourism
–
Space tourism is space travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes. To date only orbital space tourism has taken place provided by the Russian Space Agency, some space tourists have signed contracts with third parties to conduct certain research activities while in orbit. Orbital tourist flights were set to resume in 2015 but one planned was postponed indefinitely, as an alternative term to tourism, some organizations such as the Commercial Spaceflight Federation use the term personal spaceflight. The Citizens in Space project uses the term citizen space exploration, the Soviet space program was aggressive in broadening the pool of cosmonauts. The Soviet Intercosmos program included cosmonauts selected from Warsaw Pact members and later allies of the USSR. Most of these cosmonauts received full training for their missions and were treated as equals, the European Space Agency took advantage of the program as well. The U. S. space shuttle program included payload specialist positions which were filled by representatives of companies or institutions managing a specific payload on that mission. These payload specialists did not receive the training as professional NASA astronauts and were not employed by NASA. In 1983, Ulf Merbold from ESA and Byron Lichtenberg from MIT were the first payload specialists to fly on the Space Shuttle, in 1984, Charles D. Walker became the first non-government astronaut to fly, with his employer McDonnell Douglas paying $40,000 for his flight. NASA was also eager to prove its capability to Congressional sponsors, senator Jake Garn was flown on the Shuttle in 1985, followed by Representative Bill Nelson in 1986. During the 1970s, Shuttle prime contractor Rockwell International studied a $200–300 million removable cabin that could fit into the Shuttles cargo bay, the cabin could carry up to 74 passengers into orbit for up to three days. Space Habitation Design Associates proposed, in 1983, a cabin for 72 passengers in the bay, passengers were located in six sections, each with windows and its own loading ramp, and with seats in different configurations for launch and landing. Another proposal was based on the Spacelab habitation modules, which provided 32 seats in the bay in addition to those in the cockpit area. The presentation also forecast flights to orbit within 30 years. As the shuttle program expanded in the early 1980s, NASA began a Space Flight Participant program to allow citizens without scientific or governmental roles to fly, Christa McAuliffe was chosen as the first Teacher in Space in July 1985 from 11,400 applicants. 1,700 applied for the Journalist in Space program, including Walter Cronkite, Tom Brokaw, Tom Wolfe, an Artist in Space program was considered, and NASA expected that after McAuliffes flight two to three civilians a year would fly on the shuttle. After McAuliffe was killed in the Challenger disaster in January 1986 the programs were canceled, McAuliffes backup, Barbara Morgan, eventually got hired in 1998 as a professional astronaut and flew on STS-118 as a mission specialist. A second journalist-in-space program, in which NASA green-lighted Miles OBrien to fly on the shuttle, was scheduled to be announced in 2003
9.
Orbital spaceflight
–
An orbital spaceflight is a spaceflight in which a spacecraft is placed on a trajectory where it could remain in space for at least one orbit. To do this around the Earth, it must be on a trajectory which has an altitude at perigee above 100 kilometers, this is, by at least one convention. To remain in orbit at this altitude requires a speed of ~7.8 km/s. Orbital speed is slower for higher orbits, but attaining them requires greater delta-v, the expression orbital spaceflight is mostly used to distinguish from sub-orbital spaceflights, which are flights where the apogee of a spacecraft reaches space, but the perigee is too low. Orbital spaceflight from Earth has only achieved by launch vehicles that use rocket engines for propulsion. To reach orbit, the rocket must impart to the payload a delta-v of about 9. 3–10 km/s and this figure is mainly for horizontal acceleration needed to reach orbital speed, but allows for atmospheric drag, gravity losses, and gaining altitude. Currently, 2-4 stages are needed to achieve the required delta-v, most launches are by expendable launch systems. The Pegasus rocket for small satellites instead launches from an aircraft at an altitude of 12 km, there have been many proposed methods for achieving orbital spaceflight that have the potential of being much more affordable than rockets. Some of these such as the space elevator, and rotovator. Gun launch has been proposed for cargo, from 2015 SpaceX have demonstrated significant progress in their more incremental approach to reducing the cost of orbital spaceflight. The initial stages of these improvements could reduce the cost of a launch by an order of magnitude. An object in orbit at an altitude of less than roughly 200 km is considered due to atmospheric drag. For a satellite to be in an orbit,350 km is a more standard altitude for low Earth orbit. For example, on 1958-02-01 the Explorer 1 satellite was launched into an orbit with a perigee of 358 kilometers and it remained in orbit for more than 12 years before its atmospheric reentry over the Pacific Ocean on 1970-03-31. However, the behaviour of objects in orbit depends on altitude, their ballistic coefficient. There are three bands of orbit around the Earth, low Earth orbit, medium Earth orbit. Due to Orbital mechanics orbits are in a particular, largely fixed plane around the Earth, which coincides with the center of the Earth, NASA provides real-time tracking of the over 500 artificial satellites maintained in orbit around Earth. For the position of these satellites see NASA satellite tracking, in spaceflight, an orbital maneuver is the use of propulsion systems to change the orbit of a spacecraft
10.
Lunar Lander Challenge
–
The Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge was a competition funded by NASAs Centennial Challenges program. The multi-level competition was conducted by the X PRIZE Foundation, with sponsorship from the Northrop Grumman Corporation who ran the ongoing competition, the prize purses were paid by NASA. The competition is divided into two levels, both levels require teams to demonstrate control of their vehicle by flying to an altitude of more than 50 meters, flying laterally for 100 m, and landing on a pad. For level 1, this pad is a simple 10 m diameter circle, for level 2, it is a lunar surface. After completing this first flight, the vehicle can then be refueled, each flight must meet a required minimum flight time of 90 seconds for level 1 and 180 seconds for level 2. For each level, the two flights along with any necessary preparation must be accomplished within a short 150-minute time period, each Level offered a first- and second-place prize. Level 1 awarded a first place prize purse of $350,000, the more difficult level 2 awarded first place prize of $1 million and a $500,000 second place prize. 2006 was the first year of the competition and it was announced on May 5,2006, giving teams only a few months to prepare for the late-October competition. Although four teams officially registered for the competition, only one was able to receive the required permit from the FAA before the event. Armadillo Aerospace arrived at the 2006 event, held at Las Cruces International Airport in New Mexico, in the end, Armadillo made three attempts to win the prize, each one using Pixel. The 2007 Lunar Lander Challenge took place on October 27–28 at the Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico, micro-Space, one of the teams registered in 2007, had to retreat from the competition after they missed a mandatory meeting. The only team to compete was again Armadillo Aerospace, Armadillo entered their MOD vehicle for level 1. They attempted six flights, but never completed the full profile, a flight on October 27 ended with the vehicle crashing on the return flight. Their final flight attempt on October 28 caused a fire on the launch pad, team leader John Carmack expressed his disappointment, saying today is officially a bad day when it comes to our vehicle. The 2008 Lunar Lander Challenge took place October 24–25, back at the Las Cruces International Airport, because the X PRIZE Cup was canceled for 2008, the Lunar Lander Challenge was held separately, and was open only to members of the press. It was, however, broadcast live by the official event webcast, SpaceVidcast, the only teams that flew were Armadillo Aerospace and TrueZer0. Both received waivers from the FAA to fly experimental rockets, TrueZer0 attempted level 1, achieved hover, then lost roll control and was aborted and crashed. Armadillo had an unsuccessful first attempt at level 1, and landed early due to inadequate thrust, on their second attempt they completed the first leg, but the second leg was cut short by the FAA closing the flight window
11.
Space Adventures
–
Space Adventures, Ltd. is a Virginia, USA-based space tourism company founded in 1998 by Eric C. Anderson. As of 2010, offerings include zero-gravity atmospheric flights, orbital spaceflights, and other spaceflight-related experiences including cosmonaut training, spacewalk training, plans announced thus far include sub-orbital and lunar spaceflights. As of October 2009, seven clients have participated in the spaceflight program with Space Adventures. Eric C. Anderson is the president and CEO of Space Adventures and he co-founded the company in 1998 with several other entrepreneurs from the aerospace, adventure travel and entertainment industries. The company is headquartered in Tysons Corner, Virginia with an office in Moscow, since 2001, Space Adventures has launched seven clients on eight successful missions to the International Space Station. In April 2001, the company sent American businessman Dennis Tito for a reported $20 million payment, South African businessman Mark Shuttleworth did the same in April 2002, becoming the first African in space. Charles Simonyi, an ex-executive at Microsoft, became the space tourist who visited the ISS in April 2007. He is the world’s first private space explorer who launched to space twice, in 2008, game developer Richard Garriott, the first second-generation U. S. astronaut, became the sixth client to travel to the ISS. In October 2009, Cirque du Soleil founder, Guy Laliberté, english soprano Sarah Brightman was expected to become the eight client of Space Adventures to visit the International Space Station, paying $52 million for her flight. However, the company announced in May 2015 that Brightman had postponed her trip for personal family reasons, the spot was eventually taken by Kazakh government cosmonaut Aidyn Aimbetov. In January 2008, Space Adventures acquired Zero Gravity Corporation which is the first, Space Adventures’ first orbital spaceflight client and the world’s first private space explorer launched to the ISS in April 2001 on Soyuz TM-32. American businessman Dennis Tito received training at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City in Russia, Tito participated in Space Adventures’ other programs, including a zero-gravity flight, centrifuge training and a supersonic jet flight prior to his orbital flight. Mark Shuttleworth spent 10 days in space and he launched with two crewmates, Russian commander Yuri Gidzenko and Italian astronaut Roberto Vittori. They launched on Soyuz rocket TM-34 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan on April 25,2002, Shuttleworth dedicated his flight to educating South African youth and conducting scientific research. Dr. Gregory Olsen completed over 900 hours of training in Star City and he and his crew mates launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome on October 1,2005 aboard Soyuz TMA-7. While aboard the ISS, he participated in a research prepared by the European Space Agency that studied the human body’s response to the microgravity environment. Through Amateur Radio on the ISS, Dr. Olsen contacted high school students in New Jersey, anousheh Ansari lifted off on Soyuz TMA-9 on September 18,2006 from Baikonur, Kazakhstan. Ansari became the space tourist
12.
Caddo Mills, Texas
–
Caddo Mills is a city in Hunt County, Texas, United States. It is home to a Fedex sorting facility, the population was 1,338 at the 2010 census. Caddo Mills is located at 33°03′53″N 96°13′45″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 2.6 square miles, of which,2.6 square miles of it is land and 0. 38% is water. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,149 people,459 households, the population density was 439.2 people per square mile. There were 494 housing units at a density of 188.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city is 92. 7% White,25. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the family size was 3.00. In the city, the population was out with 27. 6% under the age of 18,7. 7% from 18 to 24,29. 2% from 25 to 44,21. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 35 years, for every 100 females there were 83.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.5 males, the median income for a household in the city was $15,071, and the median income for a family was $23,516. Males had an income of $26,979 versus $19,875 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,531, about 6. 4% of families and 8. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6. 5% of those under age 18 and 18. 1% of those age 65 or over. The city is served by the Caddo Mills Independent School District, guy Benton Johnson - Sociologist James Farrell Claytor - Art Director, Mork & Mindy, Family Ties
13.
Texas
–
Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
14.
Spaceport America
–
It lies 89 miles north of El Paso,45 miles north of Las Cruces, and 20 miles southeast of Truth or Consequences. The site is built to both vertical and horizontal launch aerospace vehicles, as well as an array of non-aerospace events. Spaceport America is owned and operated by the State of New Mexico, via a state agency, tenants of the spaceport include Virgin Galactic and SpaceX, while UP Aerospace and Armadillo Aerospace have all operated from the spaceport. Located in in southern New Mexico, Spaceport America is the result of two decades of efforts to increase the commercial accessibility of spaceflight. The spaceports initial concept was proposed by Stanford University engineering lecturer and he wrote the initial business and strategic plans, secured US$1. In 1992, the Southwest Space Task Force was formed to advance the New Mexico space industrys commercial infrastructure, after several years of study, they focused on a 27-square-mile plot of state-owned land,45 miles north of Las Cruces, as a location for the spaceport. In 2003, the task force petitioned new Economic Development Cabinet Secretary Rick Homans who then picked up the torch, Homans presented the idea to state Governor Richardson and negotiated with the X Prize Foundation to locate the X Prize Cup in New Mexico. The spaceport was branded Spaceport America, Construction of the first temporary launch facility at the spaceport site began on 4 April 2006. Early operations of the spaceport utilized this temporary infrastructure, some of it borrowed from neighboring White Sands Missile Range, in early 2007, red tape was still in the process of being cleared and the spaceport itself was still little more than a 100-foot by 25-foot concrete slab. That slab would eventually be part of the facility for the spaceports first tenant UP Aerospace. On April 3, voters in neighboring Doña Ana County approved a tax that would go into effect upon final approval from the Spaceport America host county Sierra County. The first images of the then planned spaceports Hangar Terminal Facility were released in early September 2007, in April 2008, the voters in Sierra County approved the plan, releasing over US$40 million in funding for the spaceport. Voters in the county of Otero, however, rejected the spaceport tax during November general elections. In spite of this, Spaceport America had what it needed to move forward, in December, Gerald Martin Construction Management, from Albuquerque, was chosen to oversee construction. As of April 2009, the first of 13 bid packages for the spaceport was expected to be released later that month. The goal is to have completed in 17 months, by December 2010, the ground-breaking ceremony took place 19 June 2009 and paid tours of the facilities began in December of the same year. By February 2010, the in mid-construction budgetary estimate for completion was $198 million, on October 22, a ceremonial flypass of Spaceport America was made by SpaceShipTwo to celebrate the completion of the runway. By October 2010, with the complete and the terminal building under active construction
15.
New Mexico
–
New Mexico is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. It was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6,1912 and it is usually considered one of the Mountain States. New Mexico is fifth by area, the 36th-most populous, inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years before European exploration, New Mexico was colonized by the Spanish in 1598 Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain. Later, it was part of independent Mexico before becoming a U. S. territory and eventually a U. S. state as a result of the Mexican–American War. Among U. S. states, New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanics, the major Native American nations in the state are Navajo, Pueblo, and Apache peoples. The demography and culture of the state are shaped by these strong Hispanic and Native American influences and its scarlet and gold colors are taken from the royal standards of Spain, along with the ancient sun symbol of the Zia, a Pueblo-related tribe. New Mexico, or Nuevo México in Spanish, is incorrectly believed to have taken its name from the nation of Mexico. The name simply stuck, even though the area had no connection to Mexico or the Mexica Indian tribes, Mexico, formerly a part of New Spain, adopted its name centuries later in 1821, after winning independence from Spanish rule. New Mexico was a part of the independent Mexican Empire and Federal Republic of Mexico for 27 years,1821 through 1848, New Mexico and Mexico developed as neighboring Spanish-speaking communities under Spanish rule, with relatively independent histories. The states total area is 121,412 square miles, the eastern border of New Mexico lies along 103° W longitude with the state of Oklahoma, and 2.2 miles west of 103° W longitude with Texas. On the southern border, Texas makes up the eastern two-thirds, while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third, the western border with Arizona runs along the 109°03 W longitude. The southwestern corner of the state is known as the Bootheel, the 37° N latitude parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado. The states New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah come together at the Four Corners in the corner of New Mexico. New Mexico, although a state, has very little water. Its surface water area is about 250 square miles, the New Mexican landscape ranges from wide, rose-colored deserts to broken mesas to high, snow-capped peaks. Despite New Mexicos arid image, heavily forested mountain wildernesses cover a significant portion of the state, the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains, run roughly north-south along the east side of the Rio Grande in the rugged, pastoral north. The most important of New Mexicos rivers are the Rio Grande, Pecos, Canadian, San Juan, the Rio Grande is tied for the fourth-longest river in the United States. Tourists visiting these sites bring significant money to the state, other areas of geographical and scenic interest include Kasha-Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument and the Gila Wilderness in the southwest of the state
16.
SpaceX
–
Space Exploration Technologies Corporation, better known as SpaceX, is an American aerospace manufacturer and space transport services company headquartered in Hawthorne, California. It was founded in 2002 by entrepreneur Elon Musk with the goal of reducing space transportation costs, SpaceX has since developed the Falcon launch vehicle family and the Dragon spacecraft family, which both currently deliver payloads into Earth orbit. As of March 2017, SpaceX has since flown ten missions to the International Space Station under a cargo resupply contract, SpaceX announced in 2011 they were beginning a privately funded reusable launch system technology development program. In December 2015, a first stage was flown back to a landing pad near the launch site and this was the first such achievement by a rocket for orbital spaceflight. In April 2016, with the launch of CRS-8, SpaceX successfully vertically landed a first stage on an ocean drone-ship landing platform, in May 2016, in another first, SpaceX again landed a first stage, but during a significantly more energetic geostationary transfer orbit mission. In March 2017, SpaceX became the first to successfully re-launch and this is the main purpose this System was designed for. In February 2017, Elon Musk announced that the company had contracted by two private individuals to send them in a Dragon spacecraft on a free return trajectory around the Moon. Provisionally launching in 2018, this may become the first instance of lunar tourism. Musk tried to buy cheap rockets from Russia, but returned empty-handed after failing to find rockets for an affordable price, on the flight home, Musk realized that he could start a company that could build the affordable rockets he needed. According to early Tesla and SpaceX investor Steve Jurvetson, Musk calculated that the raw materials for building a rocket actually were only 3 percent of the price of a rocket at the time. SpaceX started with the smallest useful orbital rocket, instead of building a complex and riskier launch vehicle. In early 2002, Musk was seeking staff for his new space company, Musk approached renowned rocket engineer Tom Mueller and Mueller agreed to work for Musk, and thus SpaceX was born. SpaceX was first headquartered in a warehouse in El Segundo, California, the company has grown rapidly since it was founded in 2002, growing from 160 employees in 2005 to nearly 5,000 in late 2015 and February 2016. At year-end 2012, SpaceX had over 40 launches on its manifest representing about $4 billion in contract revenue, the contracts included both commercial and government customers. As of December 2013, SpaceX had a total of 50 future launches under contract, Musk has stated that one of his goals is to improve the cost and reliability of access to space, ultimately by a factor of ten. CEO Elon Musk said, I believe $500 per pound or less is very achievable, a major goal of SpaceX has been to develop a rapidly reusable launch system. Musk stated in a 2011 interview that he hopes to send humans to Mars surface within 10–20 years, in 2010, Musks calculations convinced him that the colonization of Mars was possible. After completing its primary burn, the first stage of the rocket detached from the second stage as usual
17.
X Prize Cup
–
This led to plans to build the worlds first true rocket festival. Three X-Prize Cups have been held, in 2005,2006 and 2007, each X Prize Cup hosts different events and demonstrations, such as rocket-powered bicycles, rocket jet packs, but particularly notable are the Lunar Lander Challenge and the Space Elevator Games. 85,000 visitors attended the 2007 X Prize Cup, although there was no X Prize Cup in 2009, there was a Lunar Lander Challenge. This X Prize was first proposed by Dr. Peter Diamandis in an address to the NSS International Space Development Conference in 1995. The notion of a goal was adopted from the SpaceCub project, demonstration of a private vehicle capable of flying a pilot to the edge of space. This goal was selected to help encourage the industry in the private sector. The X Prize Cup aimed to demonstrate that spaceflight can be affordable and accessible to corporations and civilians, opening the door to commercial spaceflight and it is also hoped that competition will breed innovation to develop new low-cost methods of reaching Earth orbit. The X Prize Cup offers monetary rewards and organizational support to the community of aerospace professionals—and by staging Earths great space exposition, NASA is developing similar prize programs called Centennial Challenges to generate innovative solutions to space technology problems. It was modeled after early 20th-century aviation prizes, and aimed to spur development of low-cost spaceflight, the prize was won on October 4,2004, the 47th anniversary of the Sputnik 1 launch, by the Tier One project using the experimental spaceplane SpaceShipOne. The success and popularity of this event lead to the events which were called the X-PRIZE Cup. The 2006 Wirefly X Prize Cup focused on rocketry and lunar landing technology, the exposition also featured high-powered rocket launches and exhibits intended to boost public interest in aerospace technology. In December 2006, the Cups organizers announced expansion plans based on the success of the October event, with the success of the original X Prize competition, the open competitions for $2.5 million in monetary prizes were the highlight of the 2006 Wirefly X Prize Cup. The aerospace teams in Las Cruces fought for the top prize in three events—the Lunar Lander Challenge, the Vertical Rocket Challenge, and the Space Elevator Games, in addition to the featured competitions, the Wirefly X Prize Cup included a series of rocketry exhibitions and educational presentations. Rocketman Dan Schlund demonstrated his Rocketbelt, a device allows him to soar above the earth with a rocket strapped to his back. The Rocket Racing League debuted the Mark-1 X-Racer, a preview of next-generation motor sports, other attractions included high-powered rocket launches, a student competition, a symposium on personal spaceflight, and an assortment of ground displays and simulators. The 2007 X Prize Cup, was held at Holloman Air Force Base in Alamogordo, NM, aircraft as well as rockets were featured at the event, along with the Lunar Lander Challenge. No other competitor was able to even a successful first leg of the competition. The Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge is intended to accelerate the development of a vehicle capable of launching from the surface of the Moon to lunar orbit
18.
VTVL
–
Vertical takeoff, vertical landing is a form of takeoff and landing for rockets. VTVL rockets are not to be confused with aircraft which take off and land vertically which use the air for support and propulsion, such as helicopters,1961 Bell Rocket Belt, personal VTVL rocket belt demonstrated. VTVL rocket concepts were studied by Philip Bono of Douglas Aircraft Co. in the 1960s, apollo Lunar Module was a 1960s two-stage VTVL vehicle for landing and taking off from the moon. The Soviet Union did some development work on, but never flew, the McDonnell Douglas DC-X was an unmanned prototype VTVL launch vehicle that flew several successfully test flights in the 1990s. In June 1996, the set a altitude record of 3,140 metres. Follow-on VTVL designs including Mastens Xaero and Armadillos Stig were aimed at higher-speed flight to higher suborbital altitudes, SpaceX announced plans in 2010 to eventually install deployable landing gear on the Dragon spacecraft and use the vehicles thrusters to perform a land-based landing. The test vehicle made eight successful test flights in 2012–2013, grasshopper v1.0 made its eighth, and final, test flight on October 7,2013, flying to an altitude of 744 metres before making its eighth successful VTVL landing. F9R Dev1 made its first test flight in April 2014, to an altitude of 250 meters before making a vertical landing. 2013, SpaceXs DragonFly is a prototype low-altitude rocket-powered test article for a version of their Dragon space capsule. The DragonFly is a reusable launch vehicle, intended for low-altitude flight testing expected to start in 2014. On November 23,2015, Blue Origins New Shepard booster rocket made the first successful vertical landing following an unmanned suborbital test flight that reached space. On December 21,2015, SpaceXs 20th Falcon 9 first stage made a landing after boosting 11 commercial satellites to low earth orbit on Falcon 9 Flight 20. On April 8,2016, SpaceXs Falcon 9 made the first successful landing on their Autonomous spaceport drone ship as part of the SpaceX CRS-8 cargo resupply mission to the International Space Station, the technology required to successfully achieve VTVL has several parts. First, thrust must be greater than weight, second the thrust is required to be vectored. Guidance must be capable of calculating the position and attitude of the vehicle, RCS systems are usually required to keep the vehicle at the correct angle. Landing legs and deployment mechanisms add to the weight of the vehicle compared to expendable vehicles and it can also be necessary to be able to ignite engines in a variety of conditions potentially including vacuum, hypersonic, supersonic, transonic, and subsonic. Elon Musk has discussed the potential for substantial reductions in space flight costs as a result of being able to reuse rockets after successful VTVL landings, vertical landing of spaceships was the predominant mode of rocket landing envisioned in the pre-spaceflight era. Many science fiction authors as well as depictions in popular culture showed rockets landing vertically, typically resting after landing on the space vehicles fins, the spacecraft stopped mid-air again and, as the engines throttled back, began its successful vertical landing
19.
Ansari X Prize
–
It was modeled after early 20th-century aviation prizes, and aimed to spur development of low-cost spaceflight. $10 million was awarded to the winner, and more than $100 million was invested in new technologies in pursuit of the prize, several other X Prizes have since been announced by the X Prize Foundation, promoting further development in space exploration and other technological fields. In reading the book, The Spirit of St. Louis during 1994, Peter Diamandis realized that such a prize, as a space prize, might be just what was needed to bring space travel to the general public, to jump-start a commercial space industry. Diamandis developed a fully formed idea for a suborbital space barnstorming prize, the X Prize was first publicly proposed by Diamandis in an address to the NSS International Space Development Conference in 1995. The competition goal was adopted from the SpaceCub project, demonstration of a vehicle capable of flying a pilot to the edge of space. This goal was selected to help encourage the industry in the private sector. It aimed to demonstrate that spaceflight can be affordable and accessible to corporations and civilians, opening the door to commercial spaceflight, NASA is developing a similar prize program called Centennial Challenges to generate innovative solutions to space technology problems. — website Len Cormiers PanAero, Inc, some sources mention two other companies, AeroAstro* Cerulean Freight Forwarding Co. but do not mention Whalen Aeronautics Inc. The Tier One project made two competitive flights, X1 on September 29,2004, piloted by Mike Melvill to 102.9 km. They thus won the prize, which was awarded on November 6,2004, as of 2011, the trophy is on display in the Saint Louis Science Center in St. Louis, Missouri. It was the first flight of a monopropellant rocket. They have not announced a revised timetable, on August 8,2004, Space Transport Corporations Rubicon 1 and Armadillo Aerospaces unnamed test vehicle, in two separate unmanned test launches, both crashed and were destroyed. On February 15,2005, AERA Corporation announced its plans to send seven paying passengers into space as early as 2006, anousheh Ansari and Amir Ansari, the official sponsors of the competition. First USA, US$1,000,000 New Spirit of St. Louis Organization Danforth Foundation, US$500,000 Tom Clancy, mcDonnell Andrew Taylor Andrew Beal St. The Foundation has developed into a non-profit prize institute that conceives, designs, the funding for the US$10,000,000 prize was unconventional in being backed by an insurance policy to guarantee that the $10 million is in place on the day that the prize is won. Diamandis referred to this as an insurance policy. The success of the X Prize competition has spurred spin-offs that are set up in the same way, an independent spin-off called the N-Prize was started by Cambridge Microbiologist Paul H. Dear in 2007, designed to research into low-cost orbital launchers
20.
Fibre optic gyroscope
–
A fibre optic gyroscope senses changes in orientation using the Sagnac effect, thus performing the function of a mechanical gyroscope. However its principle of operation is based on the interference of light which has passed through a coil of optical fibre. Two beams from a laser are injected into the same fiber, due to the Sagnac effect, the beam travelling against the rotation experiences a slightly shorter path delay than the other beam. Beam splitting optics launches light from a laser diode into two waves propagating in the clockwise and anticlockwise directions through a coil consisting of turns of optical fibre. The strength of the Sagnac effect is dependent on the area of the closed optical path. The FOG was first proposed by Vali and Shorthill in 1976, development of both the passive interferometer type of FOG, or IFOG, and a newer concept, the passive ring resonator FOG, or RFOG, is proceeding in many companies and establishments worldwide. A FOG provides extremely precise rotational rate information, in part because of its lack of sensitivity to vibration, acceleration. Unlike the classic spinning-mass gyroscope, the FOG has no moving parts, hence, this is perhaps the most reliable alternative to the mechanical gyroscope. Because of their reliability, FOGs are used for high performance space applications. The FOG typically shows a higher resolution than a laser gyroscope. FOGs are implemented in both open-loop and closed-loop configurations, FOGs requires calibration while ring laser gyroscopes do not. FOGs are used in Fibre optic gyrocompasses, FOGs are used in the inertial navigation systems of many guided missiles. FOGs can be an aid in remotely operated vehicles and autonomous underwater vehicles. Pavlath, Fiber-optic gyroscopes, IEEE Lasers and Electro-Optics Society Annual Meeting,1994, LEOS94 Conference Proceedings, Volume 2, pages 237–238. Collinson, Introduction to Avionics Systems,2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers, josé Miguel López-Higuer, Handbook of Fibre Optic Sensing Technology,2000, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Hervé Lefèvre, The Fiber-Optic Gyroscope,1993, Artech House
21.
Hydrogen peroxide
–
Hydrogen peroxide is a chemical compound with the formula H 2O2. In its pure form, it is a liquid, slightly more viscous than water. Hydrogen peroxide is the simplest peroxide and it is used as an oxidizer, bleaching agent and disinfectant. Concentrated hydrogen peroxide, or high-test peroxide, is an oxygen species and has been used as a propellant in rocketry. Its chemistry is dominated by the nature of its unstable peroxide bond, Hydrogen peroxide is unstable and slowly decomposes in the presence of base or a catalyst. Because of its instability, hydrogen peroxide is typically stored with a stabilizer in an acidic solution. Hydrogen peroxide is found in biological systems including the human body, enzymes that use or decompose hydrogen peroxide are classified as peroxidases. The boiling point of H 2O2 has been extrapolated as being 150.2 °C, in practice hydrogen peroxide will undergo potentially explosive thermal decomposition if heated to this temperature. It may be distilled at lower temperatures under reduced pressure. In aqueous solutions hydrogen peroxide differs from the material due to the effects of hydrogen bonding between water and hydrogen peroxide molecules. Hydrogen peroxide and water form a mixture, exhibiting freezing-point depression, pure water has a melting point of 0 °C. The boiling point of the same mixtures is also depressed in relation with the mean of both boiling points and this boiling point is 14 °C greater than that of pure water and 36.2 °C less than that of pure hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is a molecule with C2 symmetry. Although the O−O bond is a bond, the molecule has a relatively high rotational barrier of 2460 cm−1, for comparison. The increased barrier is ascribed to repulsion between the pairs of the adjacent oxygen atoms and results in hydrogen peroxide displaying atropisomerism. The molecular structures of gaseous and crystalline H 2O2 are significantly different and this difference is attributed to the effects of hydrogen bonding, which is absent in the gaseous state. Crystals of H 2O2 are tetragonal with the space group D4 4P4121, Hydrogen peroxide has several structural analogues with Hm−X−X−Hn bonding arrangements. It has the highest boiling point of this series, diphosphane and hydrogen disulfide exhibit only weak hydrogen bonding and have little chemical similarity to hydrogen peroxide
22.
Liquid oxygen
–
Liquid oxygen—abbreviated LOx, LOX or Lox in the aerospace, submarine and gas industries—is one of the physical forms of elemental oxygen. Liquid oxygen has a blue color and is strongly paramagnetic. Liquid oxygen has a density of 1.141 g/cm3 and is cryogenic with a point of 54.36 K. Because of its nature, liquid oxygen can cause the materials it touches to become extremely brittle. Liquid oxygen is also a powerful oxidizing agent, organic materials will burn rapidly and energetically in liquid oxygen. Further, if soaked in liquid oxygen, some such as coal briquettes, carbon black, etc. can detonate unpredictably from sources of ignition such as flames. Petrochemicals, including asphalt, often exhibit this behavior, the tetraoxygen molecule was first predicted in 1924 by Gilbert N. Lewis, who proposed it to explain why liquid oxygen defied Curies law. Modern computer simulations indicate that there are no stable O4 molecules in liquid oxygen, O2 molecules do tend to associate in pairs with antiparallel spins. Conversely, liquid nitrogen or liquid air can be oxygen-enriched by letting it stand in air, atmospheric oxygen dissolves in it. In commerce, liquid oxygen is classified as a gas and is widely used for industrial and medical purposes. Liquid oxygen is obtained from the oxygen found naturally in air by fractional distillation in an air separation plant. Liquid oxygen is a cryogenic liquid oxidizer propellant for spacecraft rocket applications, usually in combination with liquid hydrogen. Liquid oxygen is useful in this role because it creates a specific impulse. It was used in the very first rocket applications like the V2 missile and Redstone, R-7 Semyorka, Atlas boosters, many modern rockets use liquid oxygen, including the main engines on the now-retired Space Shuttle. U. S. Army has long recognized the importance of liquid oxygen. In 1985 it started a program of building its own facilities at all major consumption bases. By 1845, Michael Faraday had managed to liquefy most gases then known to exist, six gases, however, resisted every attempt at liquefaction and were known at the time as permanent gases. They were oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, in 1877, Louis Paul Cailletet in France and Raoul Pictet in Switzerland succeeded in producing the first droplets of liquid air
23.
Ethanol
–
Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is the principal type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor. Its chemical formula is C 2H 6O, which can be written also as CH 3-CH 2-OH or C 2H 5-OH, ethanol is mostly produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts, or by petrochemical processes. It is a psychoactive drug, causing a characteristic intoxication. It is widely used as a solvent, as fuel, and as a feedstock for synthesis of other chemicals, the eth- prefix and the qualifier ethyl in ethyl alcohol originally come from the name ethyl assigned in 1834 to the group C 2H 5- by Justus Liebig. He coined the word from the German name Aether of the compound C 2H 5-O-C 2H5, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, Ethyl is a contraction of the Ancient Greek αἰθήρ and the Greek word ύλη. The name ethanol was coined as a result of a resolution that was adopted at the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature that was held in April 1892 in Geneva, Switzerland. The term alcohol now refers to a class of substances in chemistry nomenclature. The Oxford English Dictionary claims that it is a loan from Arabic al-kuḥl, a powdered ore of antimony used since aniquity as a cosmetic. The use of alcohol for ethanol is modern, first recorded 1753, the systematic use in chemistry dates to 1850. Ethanol is used in medical wipes and most common antibacterial hand sanitizer gels as an antiseptic, ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their proteins and dissolving their lipids and is effective against most bacteria and fungi, and many viruses. However, ethanol is ineffective against bacterial spores, ethanol may be administered as an antidote to methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning. Ethanol, often in high concentrations, is used to dissolve many water-insoluble medications, as a central nervous system depressant, ethanol is one of the most commonly consumed psychoactive drugs. The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quantified by blood alcohol content, small doses of ethanol, in general, produce euphoria and relaxation, people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgment. Ethanol is commonly consumed as a drug, especially while socializing. The largest single use of ethanol is as a fuel and fuel additive. Brazil in particular relies heavily upon the use of ethanol as an engine fuel, gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous ethanol. Hydrous ethanol can be used as fuel in more than 90% of new gasoline fueled cars sold in the country, Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugar cane and noted for high carbon sequestration
24.
Quad (rocket)
–
In rocketry, the Armadillo Aerospace Quad vehicle called Pixel is a computer-controlled VTVL rocket that was used in 2006 to compete in the Lunar Lander Challenge. The quad vehicle design is a pressure fed in blow-down mode from a pressure of 320 psi for level 1. The cold gas vernier engines are cross-fed by gas drawn from space of the opposite tank. The vehicle was able to transfer propellant through connecting pipes between opposite tanks by controlling ullage pressures with the thrusters, this helps it balance, minimizing gas use, the main engine had two-axis thrust vectoring. The vehicle was fully controlled, with guidance from GPS
25.
Pressure-fed engine
–
The pressure-fed engine is a class of rocket engine designs. A separate gas supply, usually helium, pressurizes the propellant tanks to force fuel, to maintain adequate flow, the tank pressures must exceed the combustion chamber pressure. Pressure fed engines have simple plumbing and lack complex and often unreliable turbopumps, a typical startup procedure begins with opening a valve, often a one-shot pyrotechnic device, to allow the pressurizing gas to flow through check valves into the propellant tanks. Then the propellant valves in the engine itself are opened, if the fuel and oxidizer are hypergolic, they burn on contact, non-hypergolic fuels require an igniter. Multiple burns can be conducted by merely opening and closing the propellant valves as needed and they can be operated electrically, or by gas pressure controlled by smaller electrically operated valves. Care must be taken, especially during long burns, to avoid cooling of the pressurizing gas due to adiabatic expansion. Cold helium wont liquify, but it could freeze a propellant, decrease tank pressures, the Apollo Lunar Module Descent Propulsion System was unusual in storing its helium in a supercritical but very cold state. It was warmed as it was withdrawn through a heat exchanger from the ambient temperature fuel, spacecraft attitude control and orbital maneuvering thrusters are almost universally pressure-fed designs. Some launcher upper stages also use pressure-fed engines and these include the Aerojet AJ10 and TRW TR-201 used in the second stage of Delta II launch vehicle, and the Kestrel engine of the Falcon 1 by SpaceX. The 1960s Sea Dragon concept by Robert Truax for a big dumb booster would have used pressure-fed engines, pressure-fed engines have practical limits on propellant pressure, which in turn limits combustion chamber pressure. High pressure propellant tanks require thicker walls and stronger alloys which make the vehicle heavier, thereby reducing performance. The lower stages of launch vehicles often use solid fuel or pump-fed liquid fuel engines instead
26.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
27.
Masten Space Systems
–
Masten Space Systems is a Mojave, California based rocket company that is currently developing a line of reusable VTVL spacecraft, and related rocket propulsion hardware. Masten Space Systems competed in the NASA and Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge X Prize in 2009, winning the one second prize of $150,000. On November 2,2009 it was announced that Masten Space Systems had won first place in the two category, with Armadillo Aerospace coming in second. Mastens Xombie won the US$150,000 second prize in the Level One competition of the Lunar Lander Challenge on October 7,2009 with a landing accuracy of 16 centimetres. The primary goal of two airframes was to demonstrate stable, controlled flight using a GN&C system developed in-house at Masten. XA-0. 1B originally featured four engines with 1,000 pounds-force thrust, by October 2009, the regeneratively cooled isopropyl alcohol and liquid oxygen rocket engine was running at around 900 pounds-force. XA-0. 1B, nicknamed Xombie, first flew free of tether September 19,2009, Mastens Xoie won the US$1,000,000 Level Two prize of the Lunar Lander Challenge on October 30,2009. They beat Armadillo Aerospace by just a bit more than 24 inches of total landing accuracy, Xoie has an aluminum frame and features a version of Mastens 750 pounds-force thrust engine that produces around 1,000 pounds-force of thrust. Xoie, as the craft is nicknamed, qualified for the Lunar Lander Challenge level two on October 30,2009, the Xaero reusable launch vehicle is a vertical-takeoff, vertical-landing unmanned rocket which is being developed by Masten in 2010–2011. It is propelled by the 1,150 pounds-force Cyclops-AL-3 rocket engine burning isopropyl alcohol, the first Xaero test vehicle flew 110 test flights before being destroyed in its 111th flight. During the record-setting flight on Sep 11,2012, an engine valve stuck open during descent, was sensed by the control system, as designed, the flight termination system was triggered, destroying the vehicle before it could create a range safety problem. The ascent and initial portion of the descent was nominal, prior to the throttle valve which resulted in termination of the flight prior to the planned precision landing. A follow up to Xaero with the ability to reach 6 km altitude with engine on throughout, xaero-B is between 15 and 16 feet tall where Xaero was 12 feet tall. Xaero-B is proceeding through hot-fire testing and it will be used for the bulk of research flights up to initial altitudes between 20 km to 30 km. The Xodiac, a new VTVL rocket, was introduced in 2016 and it features pressure-fed LOx/IPA propellant, and a regeneratively cooled engine. Xeus is a vertical-landing, vertical-takeoff lunar lander demonstrator, Xeus consists of a Centaur upper stage with RL-10 main engine to which four Katana vertical thrusters have been added. Production Xeus are estimated to be able to land on the Moon with up to 14 tonnes payload when using the expendable version or 5 tonnes payload when using the reusable version, the damaged Centaur on the demonstrator Xeus limits it to Earth flights. The production versions would have to be manufacturing fault free and certified for space operations, man rating may also be needed
28.
Rocket Racing League
–
The Rocket Racing League was a racing league that planned to use rocket-powered aircraft to race a closed-circuit air racetrack. Founded in 2005, the league made its first public flights in 2010 and was working to begin regular racing seasons. The Rocket Racers were slated to compete in the air and on a virtual racetrack easily viewed by an audience as well as projected on large screen. Three prototype canard-style Rocket Racer aircraft were built between 2006 and 2010, with the addition of venture capital funding in mid-2009, technology development continued and one exhibition occurred in 2010, with another round of plans for an inaugural season of races in 2011. The 2011 races were, in the end, never scheduled, and by 2014, the league was defunct. Projected to be an hour and one half in length, the races were intended to be between Rocket Racer planes that used liquid oxygen and either kerosene or ethanol fuel with a time of four minutes. The rocketplanes were expected to cost less than US$1 million each, the planes were based on the fixed-gear Velocity SE modified by XCOR Aerospace and the retractible gear Velocity XL modified by Armadillo Aerospace for the purpose of rocket racing. The Velocity airframe was derived from a commercially available kit plane that traced its heritage to the Rutan Long-EZ. In order to provide the airframes, RRL purchased the manufacturer, Velocity Aircraft. The RRL had been called NASCAR with rockets, XCOR Aerospace flew the Rocket Racer for an audience at the 2008 EAA AirVenture Airshow at Oshkosh. Races were to have taken place on a course two miles long, one mile wide, and 1,500 feet in the air. A typical race would take one hour, and fans would be able to see multiple camera views, including cockpit, on-track, side-by-side. Additionally, a game had been planned which was to have interfaced with racer positional data in real time over the internet. The proposed track for a typical Rocket Race was to have begun with a staggered start, pilots were to take off in pairs a few minutes apart, they would be competing against the clock but would maneuver around each other much like NASCAR. The pilots would be guided by a virtual three-dimensional track projected in their head-up display, each racer was to have a separate track to follow but the courses were planned to be close together to build excitement. As of 2012, RRL claimed that official team recruitment will commence as the production-level Rocket Racers near completion. Listing five candidate teams of the RRL franchise, Bridenstine Rocket Racing, Santa Fe Racing, Rocket Star Racing, Team Extreme Rocket Racing, and Canada-based Beyond Gravity Rocket Racing. The formation of the league was announced by Granger Whitelaw, and Peter Diamandis, founder of the Ansari X-Prize, according to Diamandis, the purpose of the league was to inspire people of all ages to once again look up into the sky and find inspiration and excitement
29.
Velocity XL
–
The Velocity XL is an American amateur-built aircraft, produced by Velocity, Inc. It is a version of their Velocity SE canard pusher design. The Velocity XL is 12 in longer and has a 20 in greater span than the SE, the standard XL has a cruising range of 875 nautical miles and a 75% power cruising speed of 185 knots air speed. The XL is available in fixed gear and retractable gear form and can accommodate either three or four passengers plus a pilot. The five seat versions, the XL-5 and the TXL-RG-5, have a bench seat for three rather than the alternative separate pair of seats. Builders may use these manufacturer kits or design their own engine using a variety of other engines of similar power output. Velocity XL-FG Fixed landing gear version with a weight of 2,700 lb. Forty had been completed and flown by December 2011, Velocity XL-FG-5 Fixed landing gear version with a gross weight of 2,900 lb. Twenty-one had been completed and flown by December 2011. Velocity XL-RG Retractable landing gear version, with a weight of 2,700 lb.150 had been completed. Velocity TXL-RG-5 Retractable landing gear version, with weight of 2,900 lb. Eighteen had been completed and flown by December 2011, Velocity V-Twin Twin engine prototype, three built, powered by two Superior IO-320-A engines. The Mark-II utilized a standard fixed-gear Velocity XL airframe, modified for rocket propulsion
30.
Rocket engine
–
A rocket engine is a type of jet engine that uses only stored rocket propellant mass for forming its high speed propulsive jet. Rocket engines are reaction engines, obtaining thrust in accordance with Newtons third law, most rocket engines are internal combustion engines, although non-combusting forms also exist. Vehicles propelled by rocket engines are commonly called rockets, since they need no external material to form their jet, rocket engines can perform in a vacuum and thus can be used to propel spacecraft and ballistic missiles. Compared to other types of jet engines, rocket engines have the highest thrust, are by far the lightest, the ideal exhaust is hydrogen, the lightest of all gases, but chemical rockets produce a mix of heavier species, reducing the exhaust velocity. Rocket engines become more efficient at high velocities, since they do not require an atmosphere, they are well suited for uses at very high altitude and in space. Here, rocket is used as an abbreviation for rocket engine, chemical rockets are powered by exothermic chemical reactions of the propellant. Thermal rockets use a propellant, heated by a power source such as electric or nuclear power. Solid-fuel rockets are chemical rockets which use propellant in a solid state, liquid-propellant rockets use one or more liquid propellants fed from tanks. Hybrid rockets use a propellant in the combustion chamber, to which a second liquid or gas oxidiser or propellant is added to permit combustion. Monopropellant rockets use a single propellant decomposed by a catalyst, the most common monopropellants are hydrazine and hydrogen peroxide. Rocket engines produce thrust by the expulsion of an exhaust fluid which has accelerated to a high speed through a propelling nozzle. The fluid is usually a gas created by high pressure combustion of solid or liquid propellants, consisting of fuel and oxidiser components, within a combustion chamber. The nozzle uses the energy released by expansion of the gas to accelerate the exhaust to very high speed. An alternative to combustion is the rocket, which uses water pressurised by compressed air, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or manual pumping. Chemical rocket propellants are most commonly used, which undergo exothermic chemical reactions which produce hot gas which is used by a rocket for propulsive purposes. Alternatively, a chemically inert reaction mass can be heated using a power source via a heat exchanger. Solid rocket propellants are prepared as a mixture of fuel and oxidising components called grain, liquid-fuelled rockets force separate fuel and oxidiser components into the combustion chamber, where they mix and burn. Hybrid rocket engines use a combination of solid and liquid or gaseous propellants, both liquid and hybrid rockets use injectors to introduce the propellant into the chamber
31.
Top Gear (2002 TV series)
–
Top Gear is a British television series about motor vehicles, primarily cars. It is a version of the original 1977 show of the same name, airing since 2002. Following negative feedback for the series, Evans resigned, with the BBC choosing to retain the other five presenters and assigning LeBlanc, Harris, first-run episodes are broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two and BBC Two HD. From series 14–19, before the launch of the dedicated BBC Two HD channel, the series is also carried on cable television systems in the United States via BBC America, in Latin America via BBC Entertainment and in Europe and South-East Asia via BBC Knowledge. Following the decision by the BBC to cancel Top Gear in 2001, Jeremy Clarkson, Lotus assisted in the design of a race circuit at the site for use by the programme. While the celebrity segment was referred to as Star in a Reasonably Priced Car, addition segments were added in – The Cool Wall, in most of the early series, the presenters regularly destroyed a caravan. As a direct result, the ordered that filming continued at Dunsfold during May of that year, despite having no permit to do so. Both the BBC and the Health and Safety Executive carried out inquiries into the accident, later that summer, on 25 July, the BBC aired a special edition episode entitled Top Gear, Polar Special. Popularity the show rose to levels, that the waiting list to get a ticket for a recording was extensive. Featuring breath-taking stunts, amazing special effects and blockbusting driving sequences featuring some of the worlds best precision drivers, the Live tour began on 30 October 2008 in Earls Court, London, moving on to Birmingham in November before being performed in at least 15 other countries worldwide. But ironically, that does mean trying new things to the last, even if they screw up, because, well, it means you never stopped trying. On 1 April 2015, it was announced that the Top Gear Live stage shows were to continue under the banner of Clarkson, Hammond and May Live, shortly afterwards, Richard Hammond also confirmed he would not be returning to the show. On 16 June, later that year, the BBC confirmed that the final films would air as a compilation on 28 June, anchored by Hammond. Production delays and scheduling conflicts led to the series being aired on 29 May 2016. Newspaper articles also highlighted that the show struggled with viewing figures, on 4 July, following the series finale, Evans announced that he would be leaving Top Gear after having hosted only six episodes. The most common used in the show are Car Reviews, Power Laps, Star in a Reasonably Priced Car, Cool Wall. One of the segments of Top Gear, Car Reviews focuses on the presenters conducting a road-test of a car, looking at such factors as ride quality, speed, handling, practicality. Their reviews are conducted on and around Top Gears test track, or on the roads of Britain
32.
The Stig
–
The Stig is a character on the British motoring television show Top Gear. The character is a play on the anonymity of racing drivers full-face helmets, the Stigs primary role is setting lap times for cars tested on the show, as well as instructing celebrity guests, off-camera, for the shows Star in a Reasonably Priced Car segment. The identity of the original Black Stig, Perry McCarthy, was exposed by a Sunday newspaper in January 2003, and confirmed by McCarthy later that year. The black-suited Stig was subsequently killed off that October in the series 3 premiere, in series 13 episode 1, the show jokingly unmasked the Stig as seven-time world champion F1 driver Michael Schumacher. In the hiatus following series 15, racing driver Ben Collins was revealed to be the Stig in a battle over Collins impending autobiography. In series 16, debuting in December 2010, Collins was replaced by a second White Stig, the relaunched show introduced a live studio audience, the Stig, a racetrack, and madcap stunts. Clarkson is credited by the Sunday Times with having come up with the idea for the Stig. Clarkson and Wilman wanted to have a racing driver as part of the shows cast. Clarkson then asked Wilman why the driver needed to speak at all, the name Stig derives from Wilman and Clarksons time at Repton School, where new boys had always been called Stig. According to the original Stig, Perry McCarthy, speaking in 2006, after McCarthy objected, they settled upon the name Stig. McCarthy had said of the idea at the time that I dont want to be remembered as the Gimp. When introducing the Stig in the Top Gear premiere, Clarkson said, We dont know its name, we dont know its name, nobody knows its name. According to the Daily Mail in 2010, his face is never revealed on set and he stays suited and with his helmet on throughout the show, arriving early and leaving late, having his own dressing room and eating privately, if he does eat. The studio audience has no access to him at any time, in 2009, another Times article reiterated that only a few production staff, the shows presenters and other BBC journalists knew the Stigs true identity. He would speak as little as possible in the backstage areas, McCarthy also explained that hiding his identity while coaching the celebrities for Star in a Reasonably Priced Car proved difficult. He said that he did reveal his identity while coaching Ross Kemp and David Soul, as he had previously known them. For other drives, if celebrities asked if he was a particular person, adding that more often than not, the suggestion was Michael Schumacher. The Stig is never shown talking on screen, although he does talk with celebrities off-camera while training them to drive around the track, Clarkson has joked that he is not a very talkative chap
33.
Video game
–
A video game is an electronic game that involves interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device such as a TV screen or computer monitor. The word video in video game referred to a raster display device. Some theorists categorize video games as an art form, but this designation is controversial, the electronic systems used to play video games are known as platforms, examples of these are personal computers and video game consoles. These platforms range from large mainframe computers to small handheld computing devices, the input device used for games, the game controller, varies across platforms. Common controllers include gamepads, joysticks, mouse devices, keyboards, the touchscreens of mobile devices, and buttons, or even, with the Kinect sensor, a persons hands and body. Players typically view the game on a screen or television or computer monitor, or sometimes on virtual reality head-mounted display goggles. There are often game sound effects, music and, in the 2010s, some games in the 2000s include haptic, vibration-creating effects, force feedback peripherals and virtual reality headsets. In the 2010s, the game industry is of increasing commercial importance, with growth driven particularly by the emerging Asian markets and mobile games. As of 2015, video games generated sales of USD74 billion annually worldwide, early games used interactive electronic devices with various display formats. The earliest example is from 1947—a Cathode ray tube Amusement Device was filed for a patent on 25 January 1947, by Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann, and issued on 14 December 1948, as U. S. Written by MIT students Martin Graetz, Steve Russell, and Wayne Wiitanens on a DEC PDP-1 computer in 1961, and the hit ping pong-style Pong, used the DEC PDP-1s vector display to have two spaceships battle each other. In 1971, Computer Space, created by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, was the first commercially sold and it used a black-and-white television for its display, and the computer system was made of 74 series TTL chips. The game was featured in the 1973 science fiction film Soylent Green, Computer Space was followed in 1972 by the Magnavox Odyssey, the first home console. Modeled after a late 1960s prototype console developed by Ralph H. Baer called the Brown Box and these were followed by two versions of Ataris Pong, an arcade version in 1972 and a home version in 1975 that dramatically increased video game popularity. The commercial success of Pong led numerous other companies to develop Pong clones and their own systems, the game inspired arcade machines to become prevalent in mainstream locations such as shopping malls, traditional storefronts, restaurants, and convenience stores. The game also became the subject of articles and stories on television and in newspapers and magazines. Space Invaders was soon licensed for the Atari VCS, becoming the first killer app, the term platform refers to the specific combination of electronic components or computer hardware which, in conjunction with software, allows a video game to operate. The term system is commonly used
34.
Doom (series)
–
Doom is a series of first-person shooter video games developed by id Software. The series focuses on the exploits of a space marine operating under the auspices of Union Aerospace Corporation, who fights hordes of demons. Since the release of Doom in 1993, the series has spawned numerous sequels, expansion packs, since its debut, over 10 million copies of games in the Doom series have been sold. The player has to battle the forces of Hell, consisting of demons, in the games, the players character will often go back and forth through hell. Doom II follows after the events in Doom, the once again assumes the role of the unnamed space marine. After returning from Hell, the finds that Earth has also been invaded by the demons. Doom II, Hell on Earth was released in 1994, followed by two official releases based on its version of the Doom engine, Master Levels for Doom II in 1995. Doom 64 was released in 1997, developed by Midway Games, the Doom series remained dormant between 1997 and 2000, when Doom 3 was announced. Doom 3 had its own expansion pack released in 2005, titled Doom 3 and it was later renamed to simply Doom in 2014. The game became a second reboot of the series, rather than a continuation or origin story of earlier games and was released in 2016, a set of four novels based on Doom were written with permission of id Software by Dafydd ab Hugh and Brad Linaweaver. The books, listed in order, are titled Knee Deep in the Dead, Hell on Earth, Infernal Sky, all were published between June 1995 and January 1996 by Pocket Books. Some in the Doom community started calling the unnamed Marine in the games Flynn Taggart or Fly, after the character of the novels. The first two books featured recognizable locations and situations from the first two games and it was criticized for ridiculous dialogue and a poor story, as well as erroneous representations of some weapons from the game. On January 31,2005, a game resembling the classic Space Hulk was released, entitled Doom. An eponymous film adaptation was released in 2005, in early 2008, a new series of Doom novels by Matthew J. Costello were published, an author who had worked on the story and scripts for Doom 3 and Resurrection of Evil. The series of books aim to novelize the story of Doom 3, with the first installment, Worlds on Fire, the second book in the series, Maelstrom, was released in March 2009. In 2008, Id Software CEO Todd Hollenshead has stated in an interview that another Doom movie, possibly based on Doom 4, strategy guides released in printed editions include, Robert E. In 1996, Next Generation ranked the series as the 19th top game of all time, for how despite the hundreds of titles, no one has ever been able to equal ids original
35.
NASA
–
President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
36.
European Space Agency
–
The European Space Agency is an intergovernmental organisation of 22 member states, dedicated to the exploration of space. Established in 1975 and headquartered in Paris, France, ESA has a staff of about 2,000. The main European launch vehicle Ariane 5 is operated through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching, after World War II, many European scientists left Western Europe in order to work with the United States. The meeting was attended by representatives from eight countries, including Harrie Massey. The Western European nations decided to have two different agencies, one concerned with developing a system, ELDO, and the precursor of the European Space Agency. The latter was established on 20 March 1964 by an agreement signed on 14 June 1962, from 1968 to 1972, ESRO launched seven research satellites. ESA in its current form was founded with the ESA Convention in 1975, ESA has 10 founding member states, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. These signed the ESA Convention in 1975 and deposited the instruments of ratification by 1980, during this interval the agency functioned in a de facto fashion. ESA launched its first major scientific mission in 1975, Cos-B, ESA joined NASA in the IUE, the worlds first high-orbit telescope, which was launched in 1978 and operated very successfully for 18 years. A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in 1986 ESA began Giotto, its first deep-space mission, to study the comets Halley and Grigg–Skjellerup. Hipparcos, a mission, was launched in 1989 and in the 1990s SOHO, Ulysses. Recent scientific missions in co-operation with NASA include the Cassini–Huygens space probe, as the successor of ELDO, ESA has also constructed rockets for scientific and commercial payloads. Ariane 1, launched in 1979, brought mostly commercial payloads into orbit from 1984 onward, the successor launch vehicle of Ariane 5, the Ariane 6 is already in the definition stage and is envisioned to enter service in the 2020s. The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become, along with agencies like NASA, JAXA, ISRO, CSA and Roscosmos, one of the major participants in scientific space research. Although ESA had relied on co-operation with NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances led to decisions to rely more on itself, a 2011 press issue thus stated, Russia is ESAs first partner in its efforts to ensure long-term access to space. ESA maintains its scientific and research projects mainly for astronomy-space missions such as Corot, launched on 27 December 2006 and this is the reason space exploration is an integral part of overall space activities. It has always been so, and it will be more important in the future. ESA describes its work in two overlapping ways, For the general public the various fields of work are described as Activities, Member states participate to varying degrees in the mandatory and optional space programmes
37.
Boeing
–
The Boeing Company is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, and satellites worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services, Boeing stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The Boeing Companys corporate headquarters are located in Chicago and the company is led by President, Boeing is organized into five primary divisions, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Boeing Defense, Space & Security, Engineering, Operations & Technology, Boeing Capital, and Boeing Shared Services Group. Boeing bought Heaths shipyard in Seattle on the Duwamish River, which became his first airplane factory. Boeing was incorporated in Seattle by William Boeing, on July 15,1916, Boeing was later incorporated in Delaware, the original Certificate of Incorporation was filed with the Secretary of State of Delaware on July 19,1934. Boeing, who studied at Yale University, worked initially in the timber industry and this knowledge proved invaluable in his subsequent design and assembly of airplanes. The company stayed in Seattle to take advantage of the supply of spruce wood. William Boeing founded his company a few months after the June 15 maiden flight of one of the two B&W seaplanes built with the assistance of George Conrad Westervelt, a U. S. Navy engineer. Boeing and Westervelt decided to build the B&W seaplane after having flown in a Curtiss aircraft, Boeing bought a Glenn Martin Flying Birdcage seaplane and was taught to fly by Glenn Martin himself. Boeing soon crashed the Birdcage and when Martin informed Boeing that replacement parts would not become available for months, Westervelt agreed to build a better airplane and soon produced the B&W Seaplane. This first Boeing airplane was assembled in a hangar located on the northeast shore of Seattles Lake Union. Many of Boeings early planes were seaplanes, on April 6,1917, the U. S. declared War on Germany and later in the year entered World War I. On May 9,1917, the became the Boeing Airplane Company. With the U. S. entering the war, Boeing knew that the U. S. Navy needed seaplanes for training, so Boeing shipped two new Model Cs to Pensacola, Florida, where the planes were flown for the Navy. The Navy liked the Model C and ordered 50 more, the company moved its operations to a larger former shipbuilding facility known as Boeing Plant 1, located on the lower Duwamish River, Washington state. Others, including Boeing, started selling other products, Boeing built dressers, counters, and furniture, along with flat-bottom boats called Sea Sleds. In 1919 the Boeing B-1, flying boat made its first flight and it accommodated one pilot and two passengers and some mail. Over the course of eight years, it made international airmail flights from Seattle to Victoria, on May 24,1920, the Boeing Model 8 made its first flight
38.
Scaled Composites
–
Scaled Composites is an American aerospace company founded by Burt Rutan and currently owned by Northrop Grumman that is located at the Mojave Spaceport, Mojave, California, United States. It is known for designs, for its use of non-metal, composite materials. Scaled Composites was established in 1982 and purchased by the Beech Aircraft Corporation in 1985, in 1988, Beechs parent company, Raytheon, sold Scaled back to Rutan, who then sold it to Wyman-Gordon. After Wyman-Gordon was acquired by Precision Castparts Corp, Rutan and ten investors re-acquired the company as Scaled Composites, LLC. Northrop Grumman, a shareholder in the company with a 40% stake. Both companies said Northrop Grummans acquisition would not affect Scaled Composites strategy or involve replacing Burt Rutan as senior manager, the acquisition by Northrop Grumman was completed on August 24,2007. Before forming Scaled Composites, Burt Rutan had designed several aircraft for amateur builders, including the VariEze and he also designed the Beechcraft Starship, which was, however, a commercial failure. These aircraft were distinctive because of their configuration, winglets. Before SpaceShipOne, Rutan was best known for his Voyager aircraft, which his brother, Dick Rutan, the company announced in April 2003 that it was working on a privately funded spacecraft, in an attempt to win the Ansari X PRIZE for the first private, manned spaceflight. This experimental rocket-powered spacecraft was given the name SpaceShipOne, on December 17,2003, they announced SpaceShipOnes first supersonic flight, the first flight of its kind by a privately funded aircraft. SpaceShipOne successfully made this flight, reaching 68,000 feet and 930 mph, the craft was taken aloft by the White Knight carrier aircraft. On the same day, Paul Allen, one of the founders of Microsoft, on April 1,2004, the U. S. Department of Transportation issued the company what it called the worlds first license for a sub-orbital manned rocket flight. The Mojave Airport, operating part-time as Mojave Spaceport, is the point for SpaceShipOne. SpaceShipOne performed the first privately funded human spaceflight on June 21,2004, Flight 16P on September 29,2004 and Flight 17P on October 4,2004 won the X-Prize for Scaled Composites and SpaceShipOne. Scaled Composites Model 351, is being built for Stratolaunch Systems to provide a platform from which air-launch space missions can be staged, with a wingspan of 117 m, the design has the longest wingspan of any airplane to date. Each of the twin fuselages of the aircraft is 238 feet long and will be supported by 12 main landing gear wheels and it will require 12,000 feet of runway to lift-off. This model which utilized a slightly longer fuselage, larger span, the Rutan Aircraft Factory sold over 600 plan sets for the VariViggen to homebuilders, and eventually about 20 of the aircraft were built. Following the crash of one in New Brunswick, Canada in September 2006 due to wing tank fuel contamination, the prototype aircraft, N27VV, was donated to the EAA AirVenture Museum in 1988
39.
SpaceShipOne
–
SpaceShipOne is an experimental air-launched rocket-powered aircraft with suborbital flight capability at speeds of up to 900 m/s, using a hybrid rocket motor. SpaceShipOne completed the first manned spaceflight in 2004. That same year, it won the US$10 million Ansari X Prize and was retired from active service. Its mother ship was named White Knight, both craft were developed and flown by Mojave Aerospace Ventures, which was a joint venture between Paul Allen and Scaled Composites, Burt Rutans aviation company. Allen provided the funding of approximately US$25 million, Rutan has indicated that ideas about the project began as early as 1994 and the full-time development cycle time to the 2004 accomplishments was about three years. The vehicle first achieved supersonic flight on December 17,2003, SpaceShipOnes first official spaceflight, known as flight 15P, was piloted by Mike Melvill. A few days before that flight, the Mojave Air and Space Port was the first commercial spaceport licensed in the United States, a few hours after that flight, Melvill became the first licensed U. S. commercial astronaut. The overall project name was Tier One which has evolved into Tier 1b with a goal of taking a ships first passengers into space within the next few days. The achievements of SpaceShipOne are more comparable to the X-15 than orbiting spacecraft like the Space Shuttle, accelerating a spacecraft to orbital speed requires more than 60 times as much energy as accelerating it to Mach 3. It would also require a heat shield to safely dissipate that energy during re-entry. SpaceShipOnes official model designation is Scaled Composites Model 316.52 m, the main structure is of a graphite/epoxy composite material. From front to back, it contains the cabin, oxidizer tank, fuel casing. The craft has short, wide wings, with a span of 5 m, there are large vertical tailbooms mounted on the end of each wing, with horizontal stabilisers protruding from the tailbooms. It has gear for horizontal landings, the overall mass of the fully fueled craft is 3,600 kg, of which 2,700 kg is taken by the fully loaded rocket motor. Empty mass of the spacecraft is 1,200 kg, including the 300 kg empty motor casing, originally the nozzle protruded from the back, but this turned out to be aerodynamically disadvantageous. In June 2004, between flights 14P and 15P, a fairing was added, smoothly extending the fuselage shape to meet the end of the nozzle. On flight 15P the new fairing overheated, due to being black on the inside and facing a hot, the fairing softened, and the lower part crumpled inwards during boost. Following that flight the interior of the fairing was painted white, the craft has a single unsteerable and unthrottleable hybrid rocket motor, a cold gas reaction control system, and aerodynamic control surfaces
40.
Nvidia
–
Nvidia Corporation is an American technology company based in Santa Clara, California. It designs graphics processing units for the market, as well as system on a chip units for the mobile computing. Its primary GPU product line, labeled GeForce, is in competition with Advanced Micro Devices Radeon products. Nvidia expanded its presence in the industry with its handheld SHIELD Portable, SHIELD Tablet. Since 2014, Nvidia has shifted to become a company focused on four markets – gaming, professional visualization, data centers. In addition to GPU manufacturing, Nvidia provides parallel processing capabilities to researchers and they are deployed in supercomputing sites around the world. More recently, It has moved into the computing market. In addition to AMD, its competitors include Intel, Qualcomm, Nvidia is now focused on artificial intelligence. The name of the company comes from Invidia in Roman mythology who corresponds to Nemesis, RIVA TNT in 1998 solidified Nvidias reputation for capable hardware. Autumn 1999 saw the release of the GeForce, most notably introducing on-board transformation, running at 120 MHz and featuring four pixel pipelines, it implemented advanced video acceleration, motion compensation and hardware sub-picture alpha blending. The GeForce outperformed existing products by a wide margin, due to the success of its products, Nvidia won the contract to develop the graphics hardware for Microsofts Xbox game console, which earned Nvidia a $200 million advance. However, the project drew the time of many of its best engineers away from other projects, in the short term this did not matter, and the GeForce2 GTS shipped in the summer of 2000. In December 2000, Nvidia reached an agreement to acquire the assets of its one-time rival 3dfx. The acquisition process was finalized in April 2002, in July 2002, Nvidia acquired Exluna for an undisclosed sum. Exluna made software rendering tools and the personnel were merged into the Cg project, in August 2003, Nvidia acquired MediaQ for approximately US$70 million. On April 22,2004, Nvidia acquired iReady, also a provider of high performance TCP/IP, in December 2004, it was announced that Nvidia would assist Sony with the design of the graphics processor in the PlayStation 3 game console. In March 2006, it emerged that Nvidia would deliver RSX to Sony as an IP core, under the agreement, Nvidia would provide ongoing support to port the RSX to Sonys fabs of choice, as well as die shrinks to 65 nm. This practice contrasted with its business arrangement with Microsoft, in which Nvidia managed production, meanwhile, in May 2005 Microsoft chose to license a design by ATI and to make its own manufacturing arrangements for the Xbox 360 graphics hardware, as had Nintendo for the Wii console
41.
Armadillo
–
Armadillos are New World placental mammals in the order Cingulata with a leathery armour shell. The Chlamyphoridae and Dasypodidae are the surviving families in the order. The word armadillo means little armoured one in Spanish, the Aztecs called them āyōtōchtli, Nahuatl for turtle-rabbit, āyōtl and tōchtli. The Portuguese word for armadillo is tatu which derives from the Tupi language, similar names are also found in other, especially European, languages. About nine extant genera and 21 extant species of armadillo have been described and their average length is about 75 cm, including tail. The giant armadillo grows up to 150 cm and weighs up to 54 kg, while the pink fairy armadillo is a diminutive species, all species are native to the Americas, where they inhabit a variety of different environments. Like all of the Xenarthra lineages, armadillos originated in South America, due to the continents former isolation, they were confined there for most of the Cenozoic. The recent formation of the Isthmus of Panama allowed a few members of the family to migrate northward into southern North America by the early Pleistocene, today, all extant armadillo species are still present in South America. They are particularly diverse in Paraguay and surrounding areas, some, including four species of Dasypus, are widely distributed over the Americas, whereas others, such as Yepess mulita, are restricted to small ranges. Their range has expanded in North America over the last century due to a lack of natural predators. Armadillos are small to medium-sized mammals, the smallest species, the pink fairy armadillo, is roughly chipmunk-sized at 85 g and 13–15 cm in total length. The largest species, the giant armadillo, can be the size of a pig and weigh up to 54 kg. Many species use their claws to dig for food, such as grubs. The nine-banded armadillo prefers to build burrows in moist soil near the creeks, streams, the diets of different armadillo species vary, but consist mainly of insects, grubs, and other invertebrates. Some species, however, feed almost entirely on ants and termites, in common with other xenarthrans, armadillos, in general, have low body temperatures of 33–36 °C and low basal metabolic rates. This is particularly true of types that specialize in using termites as their food source. The armour is formed by plates of bone covered in relatively small, overlapping epidermal scales called scutes. Most species have rigid shields over the shoulders and hips, with a number of bands separated by flexible skin covering the back, additional armour covers the top of the head, the upper parts of the limbs, and the tail
42.
Research and development
–
Research and development, also known in Europe as research and technical development, is a general term for activities in connection with corporate or governmental innovation. Research and development is situated at the front end of the life cycle. R&D differs from the vast majority of activities in that it is not intended to yield immediate profit, and generally carries greater risk. New product design and development is more often not a crucial factor in the survival of a company. In an industry that is changing fast, firms must continually revise their design and this is necessary due to continuous technology change and development as well as other competitors and the changing preference of customers. Without an R&D program, a firm must rely on strategic alliances, acquisitions, a system driven by marketing is one that puts the customer needs first, and produces goods that are known to sell. Market research is carried out, which establishes what is needed, if the development is technology driven R&D is directed toward developing products to meet the unmet need. Statistics on organizations devoted to R&D may express the state of an industry, some common measures include, budgets, numbers of patents or on rates of peer-reviewed publications. Bank ratios are one of the best measures, because they are maintained, public. In the United States, a ratio of research and development for an industrial company is about 3. 5% of revenues. A high technolog company, such as a manufacturer, might spend 7% or a pharmaceutical companies such as Merck & Co.14. 1% or Novartis 15. 1%. That is, gross profits will be as much as 90% of the sales cost, with manufacturing costing only 10% of the product price, most industrial companies get 40% revenues only. On a technical level, high tech organizations explore ways to re-purpose and they often reuse advanced manufacturing processes, expensive safety certifications, specialized embedded software, computer-aided design software, electronic designs and mechanical subsystems. Research from 2000 has shown that firms with a persistent R&D strategy outperform those with an irregular or no R&D investment program. Research and development are very difficult to manage, since the feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, higher R&D spending does not guarantee more creativity, research is the most risky financing area because both the development of an invention and its successful realization carries uncertainty including the profitability of the invention. One way of reducing the uncertainty of researching know-hows is to obtain already researched know-hows, president Barack Obama requested $147.696 billion for research & development in FY2012. Much of this spending was devoted to research on the mechanisms of disease
43.
NewSpace
–
As with any new phenomenon, NewSpace currently defies easy description, its shape-shifting contours are still evolving, in flux, and otherwise not well-settled. As of a 2016 Forbes article, for example, the full definitional-scope of NewSpace remains somewhat elusive, but they know they are excited about it. He spotlight understandably on low-cost and visionary commercial space technologies, but the concept is more than that. From an industrial perspective, NewSpace is nominally a fundamentally disruptive force—a Schumpeterian gale of creative destruction—vis-à-vis Old Space. The space sector has entered a period, ripe with growth, new ideas, new players. Culturally, NewSpace denizens tend to think of themselves as exciting and inventive dreamers, while considering their Old Space counterparts to be, in stark contrast, neufelds biography Von Braun, Dreamer of Space, Engineer of War makes plain. As a youth he became enamored with the possibilities of space exploration by reading the science fiction of Jules Verne and H. G. Wells. Moreover, von Braun was one of the first to chart a serious plan for reaching and settling Mars, a space mission that has come to virtually define the NewSpace generation. The real science is an effort to be faithful to humanitys greatest achievements, the Star Trek series are the only science fiction series crafted with such respect for real science and intelligent writing. Thats why its the only science fiction series that many scientists watch regularly, in a congratulatory call to NASA on the success of the Curiosity mission, President Obama joked, I understand there is a special mohawk guy working on the mission. It does sound like NASA has come a long way from the shirt, black dark-rimmed glasses. You guys are a bit cooler than you used to be, kennedys vow to send humans to the moon, citing positively the all-hands effort behind the Apollo moon landing as uniting the country and exemplifying the spirit of the American people. In America, we understand that a nation is only living as long as it is striving, no challenge can match the. spirit of America. For more than a decade, NASA has invested in industry to develop capabilities for the American people. On February 9,2017, it was reported that the United Kingdom government, transport Secretary Chris Grayling and U. K. To be able to access this lucrative market by building on the U. K. s strengths in science, research, masayoshi Son, and a growing number of other global movers and shakers with legitimate trillionaire potential. But its nothing compared to, say, colonizing Mars and creating a place on which a substantial number of humans live. If you have grand goals of how to change the world, seattle Times journalist Sandi Doughtons 2012 interview of planetary scientist John S
