1.
Jan van Eyck
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Jan van Eyck was a Flemish/Netherlandish painter active in Bruges. He is often considered one of the founders of Early Netherlandish painting school, the few surviving records of his early life indicate that he was born c. After Johns death in 1425 he was employed in Lille as court painter to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, until 1429 before moving to Bruges, where he lived until his death. Apart from the Ghent Altarpiece and the miniatures of the Turin-Milan Hours, about 20 surviving paintings are confidently attributed to him. Ten, including the Ghent altarpiece, are dated and signed with a variation of his motto, ALS IK KAN always written in Greek characters, Van Eyck painted both secular and religious subject matter, including altarpieces, single panel religious figures and commissioned portraits. His work includes single panels, diptychs, triptychs, and polyptych panels and he was well paid by Philip, who sought that the painter was secure financially and had artistic freedom and could paint whenever he pleased. Van Eycks work comes from the International Gothic style, but he soon eclipsed it, through his developments in the use of oil paint he achieved a new level of virtuosity. Van Eyck was highly influential and his techniques and style were adopted and refined by the Early Netherlandish painters, little is known of Jan van Eycks early life and neither the date nor place of his birth is documented. This suggests a date of birth of 1395 at the latest, however, his apparent age in the London probable self-portrait of 1433 suggests to most scholars a date closer to 1380. He was identified in the late 1500s as having been born in Maaseik and this claim is still considered credible on etymological grounds, considering that Van Eyck means of Eyck which is an old variant spelling of eik. He had a sister Margareta, and at least two brothers, Hubert and Lambert, both painters, but the order of their births has not been established. Another significant, and rather younger, painter who worked in Southern France and it is not known where Jan was educated, but he had knowledge of Latin and used the Greek and Hebrew alphabets in his inscriptions, indicating that he was schooled in the classics. This level of education was rare among painters, and would have made him attractive to the cultivated Philip. Van Eyck served John of Bavaria-Straubing, ruler of Holland, Hainault, by this time van Eyck had assembled a small workshop and was involved in redecorating the Binnenhof palace in The Hague. After Johns death in 1425 he moved to Bruges and came to the attention of Philip the Good c and his emergence as a collectable painter generally follows his appointment to Philips court, and from this point his activity in the court is comparatively well documented. He served as court artist and diplomat, and a was a member of the Tournai painters guild. On 18 October 1427, the Feast of St. Luke, he travelled to Tournai to attend a banquet in his honour, also attended by Robert Campin, a court salary freed him from commissioned work, and allowed a large degree of artistic freedom. Over the following decade van Eycks reputation and technical ability grew, unlike most of his peers his reputation never diminished and he remained well regarded over the following centuries
2.
Oil painting
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Oil painting is the process of painting with pigments with a medium of drying oil as the binder. Commonly used drying oils include linseed oil, poppy seed oil, walnut oil, the choice of oil imparts a range of properties to the oil paint, such as the amount of yellowing or drying time. Certain differences, depending on the oil, are visible in the sheen of the paints. An artist might use different oils in the same painting depending on specific pigments and effects desired. The paints themselves also develop a particular consistency depending on the medium, the oil may be boiled with a resin, such as pine resin or frankincense, to create a varnish prized for its body and gloss. Its practice may have migrated westward during the Middle Ages, Oil paint eventually became the principal medium used for creating artworks as its advantages became widely known. In recent years, water miscible oil paint has come to prominence and, to some extent, water-soluble paints contain an emulsifier that allows them to be thinned with water rather than paint thinner, and allows very fast drying times when compared with traditional oils. Traditional oil painting techniques often begin with the artist sketching the subject onto the canvas with charcoal or thinned paint, Oil paint is usually mixed with linseed oil, artist grade mineral spirits, or other solvents to make the paint thinner, faster or slower-drying. A basic rule of oil paint application is fat over lean and this means that each additional layer of paint should contain more oil than the layer below to allow proper drying. If each additional layer contains less oil, the painting will crack. This rule does not ensure permanence, it is the quality and type of oil leads to a strong. There are many media that can be used with the oil, including cold wax, resins. These aspects of the paint are closely related to the capacity of oil paint. Traditionally, paint was transferred to the surface using paintbrushes. Oil paint remains wet longer than other types of artists materials, enabling the artist to change the color. At times, the painter might even remove a layer of paint. This can be done with a rag and some turpentine for a time while the paint is wet, Oil paint dries by oxidation, not evaporation, and is usually dry to the touch within a span of two weeks. It is generally dry enough to be varnished in six months to a year, art conservators do not consider an oil painting completely dry until it is 60 to 80 years old
3.
Oak
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An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, the second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species. Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species, also, the acorns contain tannic acid, as do the leaves, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring, in spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a structure known as a cupule, each acorn contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group, the oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera and a number of sections, The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections, Quercus, the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short, acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter, the leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur, Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long, acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter, the section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia, styles long, acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Protobalanus, the live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter, the inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Lobatae, the red oaks of North America, Central America, styles long, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter
4.
National Gallery, London
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The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, in Central London. Founded in 1824, it houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the century to 1900. The Gallery is a charity, and a non-departmental public body of the Department for Culture, Media. Its collection belongs to the public of the United Kingdom and entry to the collection is free of charge. It is among the most visited art museums in the world, after the Musée du Louvre, the British Museum, unlike comparable museums in continental Europe, the National Gallery was not formed by nationalising an existing royal or princely art collection. It came into being when the British government bought 38 paintings from the heirs of John Julius Angerstein, after that initial purchase the Gallery was shaped mainly by its early directors, notably Sir Charles Lock Eastlake, and by private donations, which comprise two-thirds of the collection. It used to be claimed that this was one of the few national galleries that had all its works on permanent exhibition, the present building, the third to house the National Gallery, was designed by William Wilkins from 1832 to 1838. Only the façade onto Trafalgar Square remains essentially unchanged from this time, wilkinss building was often criticised for the perceived weaknesses of its design and for its lack of space, the latter problem led to the establishment of the Tate Gallery for British art in 1897. The Sainsbury Wing, an extension to the west by Robert Venturi, the current Director of the National Gallery is Gabriele Finaldi. The late 18th century saw the nationalisation of royal or princely art collections across mainland Europe, great Britain, however, did not emulate the continental model, and the British Royal Collection remains in the sovereigns possession today. In 1777 the British government had the opportunity to buy an art collection of international stature, the MP John Wilkes argued for the government to buy this invaluable treasure and suggested that it be housed in a noble gallery. The twenty-five paintings from that now in the Gallery, including NG1, have arrived by a variety of routes. This offer was declined and Bourgeois bequeathed the collection to his old school, Dulwich College, the collection opened in Britains first purpose-built public gallery, the Dulwich Picture Gallery, in 1814. The British Institution, founded in 1805 by a group of aristocratic connoisseurs, the members lent works to exhibitions that changed annually, while an art school was held in the summer months. However, as the paintings that were lent were often mediocre, some resented the Institution. One of the Institutions founding members, Sir George Beaumont, Bt, in 1823 another major art collection came on the market, which had been assembled by the recently deceased John Julius Angerstein. Angerstein was a Russian-born émigré banker based in London, his collection numbered 38 paintings, including works by Raphael, on 1 July 1823 George Agar Ellis, a Whig politician, proposed to the House of Commons that it purchase the collection. The appeal was given added impetus by Beaumonts offer, which came with two conditions, that the government buy Angersteins collection, and that a building was to be found
5.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
6.
Panel painting
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A panel painting is a painting made on a flat panel made of wood, either a single piece, or a number of pieces joined together. Panel painting is very old, it was a very prestigious medium in Greece and Rome, a series of 6th century BC painted tablets from Pitsa represent the oldest surviving Greek panel paintings. Most classical Greek paintings that were famous in their day seem to have been of a size comparable to modern works - perhaps up to a half-length portrait size. We can only attempt to imagine what these looked like from some detailed literary descriptions, the Severan Tondo, also from Egypt is one of the handful of non-funerary Graeco-Roman specimens to survive. Encaustic and tempera are the two used in antiquity. Encaustic largely ceased to be used after the early Byzantine icons, the earliest forms of panel painting were dossals, altar fronts and crucifixes. All were painted with images, commonly the Christ or the Virgin, with the saints appropriate to the dedication of the church. Donor portraits including members of the family are also often shown. Painted panels for altars are most numerous in Spain, especially Catalonia, the 13th and 14th centuries in Italy were a great period of panel painting, mostly altarpieces or other religious works. However, it is estimated that of all the paintings produced there,99.9 percent have been lost. The vast majority of Early Netherlandish paintings are on panel, and these include most of the earliest portraits, such as those by Jan van Eyck, and some other secular scenes. However, one of the earliest surviving oils on canvas is a French Madonna with angels of about 1410 in the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin, which is very early indeed for oil painting also. By the 15th century with the wealth of Europe, and later the appearance of humanism. Secular art opened the way to the creation of chests, painted beds, birth trays, many such works are now detached and hung framed on walls in museums. Many double-sided wings of altarpieces have also been sawn into two one-sided panels, canvas took over from panel in Italy by the first half of the 16th century, a change led by Mantegna and the artists of Venice. His panels are of notoriously complicated construction, containing as many as seventeen pieces of wood, for smaller cabinet paintings, copper sheets were another rival support, from the end of the 16th century, used by many artists including Adam Elsheimer. Many Dutch painters of the Golden Age used panel for their small works, by the 18th century it had become unusual to paint on panel, except for small works to be inset into furniture, and the like. But, for example, The National Gallery in London has two Goya portraits on panel, many other painting traditions also painted, and still paint, on wood, but the term is usually only used to refer to the Western tradition described above
7.
Early Netherlandish painting
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Their work follows the International Gothic style and begins approximately with Robert Campin and Jan van Eyck in the early 1420s. It lasts at least until the death of Gerard David in 1523, the major Netherlandish painters include Campin, van Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden, Dieric Bouts, Petrus Christus, Hans Memling, Hugo van der Goes and Hieronymus Bosch. These artists made significant advances in natural representation and illusionism, and their subjects are usually religious scenes or small portraits, with narrative painting or mythological subjects being relatively rare. Landscape is often richly described but relegated as a background detail before the early 16th century, the painted works are generally oil on panel, either as single works or more complex portable or fixed altarpieces in the form of diptychs, triptychs or polyptychs. The period is noted for its sculpture, tapestries, illuminated manuscripts, stained glass. Assisted by the system, panels and a variety of crafts were sold to foreign princes or merchants through private engagement or market stalls. A majority were destroyed during waves of iconoclasm in the 16th and 17th centuries, Early northern art in general was not well regarded from the early 17th to the mid-19th century, and the painters and their works were not well documented until the mid-19th century. Art historians spent almost another century determining attributions, studying iconography, attribution of some of the most significant works is still debated. These artists became a driving force behind the Northern Renaissance. In this political and art-historical context, the north follows the Burgundian lands which straddled areas that encompass parts of modern France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlandish artists have been known by a variety of terms. Late Gothic is a designation which emphasises continuity with the art of the Middle Ages. In the early 20th century, the artists were variously referred to in English as the Ghent-Bruges school or the Old Netherlandish school. In this context, primitive does not refer to a lack of sophistication. When the Burgundian dukes established centres of power in the Netherlands, in the 19th century the Early Netherlandish artists were classified by nationality, with Jan van Eyck identified as German and van der Weyden as French. Scholars were at times preoccupied as to whether the schools genesis was in France or Germany, in the 14th century, as Gothic art gave way to the International Gothic era, a number of schools developed in northern Europe. Early Netherlandish art originated in French courtly art, and is tied to the tradition. Modern art historians see the era as beginning with 14th-century manuscript illuminators and this patronage continued in the low countries with the Burgundian dukes, Philip the Good and his son Charles the Bold. The demand for illuminated manuscripts declined towards the end of the century, following van Eycks innovations, the first generation of Netherlandish painters emphasised light and shadow, elements usually absent from 14th-century illuminated manuscripts
8.
Giovanni Arnolfini
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The Arnolfini were a powerful family in Lucca, involved in the politics and trade of the small but wealthy city, which specialised in weaving expensive cloth. He became wealthy trading in silk and other fabrics, tapestries and other objects, although in later years he seems to have suffered business reverses. His fame arises because he is the most likely candidate, out of a number of male Arnolfinis, to have been the subject of two portraits by Jan van Eyck, the famous Flemish painter. These are, The Arnolfini Portrait of Giovanni and his wife, dated 1434 and now in London and he was presumably born in Lucca, where his parents lived, but neither the place nor the date are documented. Since there was no fixed age for this, it gives no clue as to his date of birth. In the next few years Giovanni di Nicolao worked with a very successful Italian merchant, Marco Guidiccioni, records of some of his dealings with the Ducal court have survived, but these were probably only part of his business activities. Other sales to the Court are recorded, although he may have been acting on behalf of Guidiccioni. In 1426 he married Costanza Trenta, who is at first sight not the wife in the portrait and she was also from Lucca, and her aunt Ginevra Cavalcanti was married to Lorenzo de Medici, brother of Cosimo de Medici. On the other hand, Margaret Koster has recently proposed that the portrait may be a memorial one, including an image of Costanza. In 1442 he signed an agreement whereby, for a moderate fee and he was permitted to practise the small burgesss crafts, but whether he ever did is unknown. In 1446 and 1452 he is documented as an arbitrator in disputes between other Lucchese merchants over property, these are his last appearances in the documentary record, the double portrait remained in Flanders, which suggests that Giovanni died there. There is no evidence of a further marriage, but one has been assumed by art historians. The appearance of the woman in the double portrait perhaps suggests she was Flemish, a slightly younger first cousin of Giovanni, called Giovanni de Arrigo Arnolfini, also came to live in Bruges and was even more successful than Giovanni de Nicolao. Jane or Jeanne Arnolfini is documented further until her death in Bruges in 1480
9.
Flanders
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Flanders is the Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium, although there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, language, politics and history. It is one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium, the demonym associated with Flanders is Fleming, while the corresponding adjective is Flemish. The official capital of Flanders is Brussels, although Brussels itself has an independent regional government, in historical contexts, Flanders originally refers to the County of Flanders, which around AD1000 stretched from the Strait of Dover to the Scheldt estuary. In accordance with late 20th century Belgian state reforms the area was made two political entities, the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region. These entities were merged, although geographically the Flemish Community, which has a cultural mandate, covers Brussels. Flanders has figured prominently in European history, as a consequence, a very sophisticated culture developed, with impressive achievements in the arts and architecture, rivaling those of northern Italy. Belgium was one of the centres of the 19th century industrial revolution, geographically, Flanders is generally flat, and has a small section of coast on the North Sea. Much of Flanders is agriculturally fertile and densely populated, with a density of almost 500 people per square kilometer. It touches France to the west near the coast, and borders the Netherlands to the north and east, the Brussels Capital Region is an enclave within the Flemish Region. Flanders has exclaves of its own, Voeren in the east is between Wallonia and the Netherlands and Baarle-Hertog in the consists of 22 exclaves surrounded by the Netherlands. It comprises 6.5 million Belgians who consider Dutch to be their mother tongue, the political subdivisions of Belgium, the Flemish Region and the Flemish Community. The first does not comprise Brussels, whereas the latter does comprise the Dutch-speaking inhabitants of Brussels, the political institutions that govern both subdivisions, the operative body Flemish Government and the legislative organ Flemish Parliament. The two westernmost provinces of the Flemish Region, West Flanders and East Flanders, forming the central portion of the historic County of Flanders, a feudal territory that existed from the 8th century until its absorption by the French First Republic. Until the 1600s, this county also extended over parts of France, one of the regions conquered by the French in Flanders, namely French Flanders in the Nord department. French Flanders can be divided into two regions, Walloon Flanders and Maritime Flanders. The first region was predominantly French-speaking already in the 1600s, the latter became so in the 20th century, the city of Lille identifies itself as Flemish, and this is reflected, for instance, in the name of its local railway station TGV Lille Flandres. The region conquered by the Dutch Republic in Flanders, now part of the Dutch province of Zeeland, the significance of the County of Flanders and its counts eroded through time, but the designation remained in a very broad sense. In the Early modern period, the term Flanders was associated with the part of the Low Countries
10.
Bruges
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Bruges is the capital and largest city of the province of West Flanders in the Flemish Region of Belgium, in the northwest of the country. The area of the whole city amounts to more than 13,840 hectares, including 1,075 hectares off the coast, the historic city centre is a prominent World Heritage Site of UNESCO. It is oval and about 430 hectares in size, the citys total population is 117,073, of whom around 20,000 live in the city centre. The metropolitan area, including the commuter zone, covers an area of 616 km2 and has a total of 255,844 inhabitants as of 1 January 2008. Along with a few other canal-based northern cities, such as Amsterdam and Stockholm, Bruges has a significant economic importance thanks to its port and was once one of the worlds chief commercial cities. Bruges is well known as the seat of the College of Europe, the name probably derives from the Old Dutch for bridge, brugga. Also compare Middle Dutch brucge, brugge, and modern Dutch bruggehoofd, the form brugghe would be a southern Dutch variant. The Dutch word and the English bridge both derive from Proto-Germanic *brugjō-, Bruges was a location of coastal settlement during prehistory. This Bronze Age and Iron Age settlement is unrelated to medieval city development, in the Bruges area, the first fortifications were built after Julius Caesars conquest of the Menapii in the first century BC, to protect the coastal area against pirates. The Franks took over the region from the Gallo-Romans around the 4th century. The Viking incursions of the century prompted Count Baldwin I of Flanders to reinforce the Roman fortifications, trade soon resumed with England. Bruges received its city charter on 27 July 1128, and new walls and canals were built, in 1089 Bruges became the capital of the County of Flanders. Since about 1050, gradual silting had caused the city to lose its access to the sea. A storm in 1134, however, re-established this access, through the creation of a channel at the Zwin. The new sea arm stretched all the way to Damme, a city became the commercial outpost for Bruges. Bruges had a location at the crossroads of the northern Hanseatic League trade. They developed, or borrowed from Italy, new forms of merchant capitalism, whereby several merchants would share the risks and profits and they employed new forms of economic exchange, including bills of exchange and letters of credit. The city eagerly welcomed foreign traders, most notably the Portuguese traders selling pepper and other spices, the citys entrepreneurs reached out to make economic colonies of England and Scotlands wool-producing districts
11.
Orthogonality
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The concept of orthogonality has been broadly generalized in mathematics, as well as in areas such as chemistry, and engineering. The word comes from the Greek ὀρθός, meaning upright, and γωνία, the ancient Greek ὀρθογώνιον orthogōnion and classical Latin orthogonium originally denoted a rectangle. Later, they came to mean a right triangle, in the 12th century, the post-classical Latin word orthogonalis came to mean a right angle or something related to a right angle. In geometry, two Euclidean vectors are orthogonal if they are perpendicular, i. e. they form a right angle, two vectors, x and y, in an inner product space, V, are orthogonal if their inner product ⟨ x, y ⟩ is zero. This relationship is denoted x ⊥ y, two vector subspaces, A and B, of an inner product space, V, are called orthogonal subspaces if each vector in A is orthogonal to each vector in B. The largest subspace of V that is orthogonal to a subspace is its orthogonal complement. Given a module M and its dual M∗, an element m′ of M∗, two sets S′ ⊆ M∗ and S ⊆ M are orthogonal if each element of S′ is orthogonal to each element of S. A term rewriting system is said to be if it is left-linear and is non-ambiguous. Orthogonal term rewriting systems are confluent, a set of vectors in an inner product space is called pairwise orthogonal if each pairing of them is orthogonal. Such a set is called an orthogonal set, nonzero pairwise orthogonal vectors are always linearly independent. In certain cases, the normal is used to mean orthogonal. For example, the y-axis is normal to the curve y = x2 at the origin, however, normal may also refer to the magnitude of a vector. In particular, a set is called if it is an orthogonal set of unit vectors. As a result, use of the normal to mean orthogonal is often avoided. The word normal also has a different meaning in probability and statistics, a vector space with a bilinear form generalizes the case of an inner product. When the bilinear form applied to two results in zero, then they are orthogonal. The case of a pseudo-Euclidean plane uses the term hyperbolic orthogonality, in the diagram, axes x′ and t′ are hyperbolic-orthogonal for any given ϕ. In 2-D or higher-dimensional Euclidean space, two vectors are orthogonal if and only if their dot product is zero, i. e. they make an angle of 90°, hence orthogonality of vectors is an extension of the concept of perpendicular vectors into higher-dimensional spaces
12.
Ernst Gombrich
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Sir Ernst Hans Josef Gombrich OM CBE FBA was an Austrian-born art historian who became a naturalised British citizen in 1947 and spent most of his working life in the United Kingdom. His father was a lawyer and former classmate of Hugo von Hofmannsthal, at the Conservatoire she was a pupil of, amongst others, Anton Bruckner. However, rather than follow a career as a concert pianist she became an assistant of Theodor Leschetizky and she also knew Arnold Schoenberg, Gustav Mahler, Hugo Wolf and Johannes Brahms. Rudolf Serkin was a family friend. Adolf Busch and members of the Busch Quartet regularly met and played in the family home, throughout his life Gombrich maintained a deep love and knowledge of classical music. In 1936 he married Ilse Heller, a pupil of his mother and their only child, Richard Gombrich, went on to become a noted Indologist and scholar of Buddhism, acting as the Boden Professor of Sanskrit at Oxford University in 1976–2004. During World War II, Gombrich worked for the BBC World Service, when in 1945 an upcoming announcement was prefaced by a Bruckner symphony written for Wagners death, Gombrich guessed correctly that Hitler was dead and promptly broke the news to Churchill. He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1960, made CBE in 1966, knighted in 1972 and he was the recipient of numerous additional honours, including Goethe Prize 1994 and Balzan Prize in 1985 for History of Western Art. Gombrich was close to a number of Austrian émigrés who fled to the West prior to the Anschluss, among them Karl Popper, Friedrich Hayek and he was instrumental in bringing to publication Poppers magnum opus The Open Society and Its Enemies. Each had known the other only fleetingly in Vienna, as Gombrichs father served his law apprenticeship with Poppers father and they became lifelong friends in exile. Gombrichs first book, and the one he did not write in English, was Eine kurze Weltgeschichte für junge Leser. It was very popular and translated into several languages, but was not available in English until 2005 and he did most of this translation and revision himself, and it was completed by his long-time assistant and secretary Caroline Mustill and his granddaughter Leonie Gombrich after his death. The Story of Art, first published in 1950 and currently in its 16th edition, is regarded as one of the most accessible introductions to the history of visual arts. Originally intended for adolescent readers, it has millions of copies. Other important books are Aby Warburg, An Intellectual Biography, The Sense of Order, the complete list of his publications, E. H. Gombrich, A Bibliography, was published by Joseph Burney Trapp in 2000, when Gombrich arrived in England in 1936, Art History was largely concerned with connoisseurship. Gombrich, however, had brought up in the Viennese culture of Bildung and was concerned with wider issues of cultural tradition. It was in Art and Illusion that he introduced the ideas of schemata, making and matching, correction and trial and error influenced by conjecture and refutation, the process does not start from scratch, however
13.
Donatello
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Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi, better known as Donatello, was an early Renaissance sculptor from Florence. He worked with stone, bronze, wood, clay, stucco and wax, and had several assistants, with four perhaps being a typical number. Though his best-known works were mostly statues in the round, he developed a new, very shallow, type of bas-relief for small works, and a good deal of his output was larger architectural reliefs. Donatello was the son of Niccolò di Betto Bardi, who was a member of the Florentine Arte della Lana, Donatello was educated in the house of the Martelli family. He apparently received his artistic training in a goldsmiths workshop. While undertaking study and excavations with Filippo Brunelleschi in Rome, work that gained the two men the reputation of treasure seekers, Donatello made a living by working at goldsmiths shops. In 1409–1411 he executed the colossal seated figure of Saint John the Evangelist, which until 1588 occupied a niche of the old cathedral façade and this work marks a decisive step forward from late Gothic Mannerism in the search for naturalism and the rendering of human feelings. The face, the shoulders and the bust are still idealized, while the hands, in 1411–13, Donatello worked on a statue of St. Mark for the guild church of Orsanmichele. In 1417 he completed the Saint George for the Confraternity of the Cuirass-makers, the elegant St. George and the Dragon relief on the statues base, executed in schiacciato is one of the first examples of central-point perspective in sculpture. From 1423 is the Saint Louis of Toulouse for the Orsanmichele, Donatello had also sculpted the classical frame for this work, which remains, while the statue was moved in 1460 and replaced by Incredulity of Saint Thomas by Verrocchio. Between 1415 and 1426, Donatello created five statues for the campanile of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, also known as the Duomo. These works are the Beardless Prophet, Bearded Prophet, the Sacrifice of Isaac, Habbakuk, and Jeremiah, from the late teens is the Pazzi Madonna relief in Berlin. In 1425, he executed the notable Crucifix for Santa Croce, this work portrays Christ in a moment of the agony, eyes and mouth partially opened, the body contracted in an ungraceful posture. From 1425 to 1427, Donatello collaborated with Michelozzo on the monument of the Antipope John XXIII for the Battistero in Florence. Donatello made the recumbent bronze figure of the deceased, under a shell, in 1427, he completed in Pisa a marble relief for the funerary monument of Cardinal Rainaldo Brancacci at the church of SantAngelo a Nilo in Naples. In the same period, he executed the relief of the Feast of Herod, the relief is mostly in stiacciato, with the foreground figures are done in bas-relief. Around 1430, Cosimo de Medici, the foremost art patron of his era and this is now Donatellos most famous work, and the first known free-standing nude statue produced since antiquity. Also from this period is the disquietingly small Love-Atys, housed in the Bargello, some have perceived the David as having homo-erotic qualities, and have argued that this reflected the artists own orientation
14.
Masaccio
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Masaccio, born Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone, was the first great Italian painter of the Quattrocento period of the Italian Renaissance. Masaccio died at twenty-six and little is known about the circumstances of his death. The name Masaccio is a version of Maso, meaning clumsy or messy Tom. The name may have created to distinguish him from his principal collaborator, also called Maso. Despite his brief career, he had a influence on other artists. He was one of the first to use linear perspective in his painting, employing techniques such as vanishing point in art for the first time, Masaccio was born to Giovanni di Simone Cassai and Jacopa di Martinozzo in Castel San Giovanni di Altura, now San Giovanni Valdarno. His father was a notary and his mother the daughter of an innkeeper of Barberino di Mugello and his family name, Cassai, comes from the trade of his paternal grandfather Simone and granduncle Lorenzo, who were carpenters/cabinet makers. Masaccios father died in 1406, when he was five, later that same year a brother was born. He also was to become a painter, with the nickname of lo Scheggia meaning the splinter, there is no evidence for Masaccios artistic education, however Renaissance painters traditionally began an apprenticeship with an established master around the age of 12. Johannis Simonis pictor populi S. Nicholae de Florentia, the first works attributed to Masaccio are the San Giovenale Triptych, now in the Museum of Cascia di Reggello near Florence, and the Virgin and Child with Saint Anne at the Uffizi. The San Giovenale altarpiece was discovered in 1961 in the church of San Giovenale at Cascia di Reggello and it depicts the Virgin and Child with angels in the central panel, Sts. Bartholomew and Blaise on the panel, and Sts. Juvenal and Anthony Abbot in the right panel, the painting has lost much of its original framing, and its surface is badly abraded. The second work was perhaps Masaccios first collaboration with the older and already-renowned artist, Masolino is believed to have painted the figure of St. Anne and the angels that hold the cloth of honor behind her, while Masaccio painted the more important Virgin and Child on their throne. Masolinos figures are delicate, graceful and somewhat flat, while Masaccios are solid, in Florence, Masaccio could study the works of Giotto and become friends with Brunelleschi and Donatello. It was destroyed when the cloister was rebuilt at the end of the 16th century. With the two artists probably working simultaneously, the painting began around 1425, but for reasons the chapel was left unfinished. As a whole the frescoes represent human sin and its redemption through the actions of Peter, the style of Masaccios scenes shows the influence of Giotto especially
15.
Erwin Panofsky
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Erwin Panofsky was a German-Jewish art historian, whose academic career was pursued mostly in the U. S. after the rise of the Nazi regime. Many of his works are still in print, including Studies in Iconology, Humanist Themes in the Art of the Renaissance, Meaning in the Visual Arts, and his eponymous 1943 study of Albrecht Dürer. Panofskys ideas were highly influential in intellectual history in general, particularly in his use of historical ideas to interpret artworks. Panofsky was born in Hannover to a wealthy Jewish Silesian mining family and he grew up in Berlin, receiving his Abitur in 1910 at the Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium. Because of an accident, Panofsky was exempted from military service during World War I. Panofskys academic career in art took him to the University of Berlin, University of Munich, and finally to University of Hamburg. It was during this period that his first major writings on art history began to appear, a significant early work was Idea, Ein Beitrag zur Begriffsgeschichte der älteren Kunstheorie, based on the ideas of Ernst Cassirer. Panofsky first came to the United States in 1931 to teach at New York University, in 1999, Panofsky Lane, named in his honor, was created in the Institutes faculty housing complex. Panofsky was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the British Academy, in 1954 he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1962 he received the Haskins Medal of The Medieval Academy of America, in 1947–1948 Panofsky was the Charles Eliot Norton professor at Harvard University, the lectures later became Early Netherlandish Painting. Panofsky became particularly known for his studies of symbols and iconography in art. Panofsky identifies a plethora of hidden symbols that all point to the sacrament of marriage, Panofsky was known to be friends with physicists Wolfgang Pauli and Albert Einstein. His younger son, Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky, became a renowned physicist who specialized in particle accelerators. His elder son, Hans A. Panofsky, was an atmospheric scientist who taught at Pennsylvania State University for 30 years, as Wolfgang Panofsky related, his father used to call his sons meine beiden Klempner. William S. Heckscher was a student, fellow emigre, in 1973 he was succeeded at Princeton by Irving Lavin. In his 1936 essay Style and Medium in the Motion Pictures, take, for example, a painting of the Last Supper. If we stopped at this first stratum, such a picture could only be perceived as a painting of 13 men seated at a table and this first level is the most basic understanding of a work, devoid of any added cultural knowledge. Secondary or conventional subject matter, This stratum goes a step further and brings to the equation cultural, for example, a Western viewer would understand that the painting of 13 men around a table would represent the Last Supper
16.
Ghent Altarpiece
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The panels are organised in two registers, each with two sets of wings, all of which are foldable and contain inner and outer panel paintings. The upper register of the panels contains form the central Deësis of Christ the King, Virgin Mary. They are immediarly flanked, in the panels by music playing angels, and, on the far outermost panels. The central panel of the register shows a gathering of saints, sinners, clergy. There are several groupings of figures, overseen by the dove of the Holy Spirit, Art historians generally agree that the overall structure was designed by Hubert in the early to mid 1420s, and that the panels were painted by his younger brother Jan between 1430 and 1432. The altarpiece was commissioned by the merchant and Ghent mayor Jodocus Vijd, the altarpieces installation was officially celebrated on 6 May 1432. It was much later moved for security reasons to the principal cathedral chapel, a now lost inscription on the frame stated that Hubert van Eyck maior quo nemo repertus started the altarpiece, but that Jan van Eyck—calling himself arte secundus —completed it in 1432. The panels were threatened during outbreaks of iconoclasm, and have been damaged by fire, at times, some were sold and others were looted during war. A number of panels were taken by the German occupying forces during World War I, in 1934 two panels, The Just Judges and Saint John the Baptist, were stolen. The Saint John the Baptist panel was returned soon after, in 1945, the altarpiece was returned from Germany after spending much of World War II hidden in a salt mine, which greatly damaged the paint and varnish. The Belgian art restorer Jef Van der Veken produced a copy of the The Just Judges, the panels are organised in two registers, each with two sets of wings, all of which are foldable and contain inner and outer panel paintings. The upper register of the panels contains form the central Deësis of Christ the King, Virgin Mary. They are immediarly flanked, in the panels by music playing angels, and, on the far outermost panels. The central panel of the register shows a gathering of saints, sinners, clergy. There are several groupings of figures, overseen by the dove of the Holy Spirit, Art historians generally agree that the overall structure was designed by Hubert in the early to mid 1420s, and that the panels were painted by his younger brother Jan between 1430 and 1432. The altarpiece was commissioned by the merchant and Ghent mayor Jodocus Vijd, the altarpieces installation was officially celebrated on 6 May 1432. It was much later moved for security reasons to the principal cathedral chapel, a now lost inscription on the frame stated that Hubert van Eyck maior quo nemo repertus started the altarpiece, but that Jan van Eyck—calling himself arte secundus —completed it in 1432. Attribution to the van Eyck brothers has been established through the amount of surviving documentary evidence attached to the commission
17.
Hubert van Eyck
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Hubert van Eyck was an Early Netherlandish painter and older brother of Jan van Eyck, as well as Lambert and Margareta, also painters. He was probably born in Maaseik, in what is now the Belgian province of Limburg, into a family in the gentry. As the name was not a common one, he is probably the Magister Hubertus, pictor recorded as having been paid in 1409 for panels in the church of Onze Lieve Vrouwe. Around the time of his settlement, or shortly afterwards, he began his only surviving documented work, modern scientific investigation reveals various changes between the finished work and the lower painted levels and the underdrawing. Today the inscription is regarded as an overgenerous fraternal tribute. The town magistrates of Ghent visited his workshop in 1425, the city had commissioned two designs for a painting from him and his heirs paid taxes relating to properties in Ghent. A copper inscription recording his date of death was engraved on the tombstone, according to a tradition from the 16th century, his arm was preserved as a relic in a casket above the portal of Saint Bavo of Ghent. Van Vaernewijck also records the tradition that Jan van Eyck was trained by his brother, though when Jan is first documented in August 1422 he was already a master. Drawings in the Albertina, Vienna of the Apostles have been attributed to him, a Diptych by Hubert van Eyck. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, Volume 28, No, 184–193 van Buren, Anne Hagopian, Eyck, van and Eyck, Hubert van. Grove Art Online, Oxford Art Online, Oxford University Press, accessed 9 Dec.2012, online Harbison, Craig, Jan van Eyck, The Play of Realism, Reaktion Books, London,1991, ISBN0948462183 Snyder, James. Northern Renaissance Art,1985, Harry N
18.
Oil paint
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Oil paint is a type of slow-drying paint that consists of particles of pigment suspended in a drying oil, commonly linseed oil. The viscosity of the paint may be modified by the addition of a solvent such as turpentine or white spirit, Oil paints have been used in Europe since the 12th century for simple decoration, but were not widely adopted as an artistic medium until the early 15th century. Common modern applications of oil paint are in finishing and protection of wood in buildings and exposed metal structures such as ships and its hard-wearing properties and luminous colors make it desirable for both interior and exterior use on wood and metal. Due to its properties, it has recently been used in paint-on-glass animation. Thickness of coat has considerable bearing on time required for drying, the literature abounds with incorrect theories and information, in general, anything published before 1952 is suspect. Until 1991 nothing was known about the aspect of cave paintings from the Paleolithic era. Many assumptions were made about the chemistry of the binders, the oldest known oil paintings date from 650 AD, found in 2008 in caves in Afghanistans Bamiyan Valley, using walnut and poppy seed oils. Though the ancient Mediterranean civilizations of Greece, Rome, and Egypt used vegetable oils, indeed, linseed oil was not used as a medium because of its tendency to dry very slowly, darken, and crack, unlike mastic and wax. Greek writers such as Aetius Amidenus recorded recipes involving the use of oils for drying, such as walnut, poppy, hempseed, pine nut, castor, when thickened, the oils became resinous and could be used as varnish to seal and protect paintings from water. Additionally, when yellow pigment was added to oil, it could be spread over tin foil as an expensive alternative to gold leaf. Early Christian monks maintained these records and used the techniques in their own artworks, theophilus Presbyter, a 12th-century German monk, recommended linseed oil but advocated against the use of olive oil due to its long drying time. Oil paint was used as it is today in house decoration, as a tough waterproof cover for exposed woodwork. In the 13th century, oil was used to detail tempera paintings, in the 14th century, Cennino Cennini described a painting technique utilizing tempera painting covered by light layers of oil. The slow-drying properties of organic oils were commonly known to early painters, however, the difficulty in acquiring and working the materials meant that they were rarely used. As public preference for naturalism increased, the quick-drying tempera paints became insufficient to achieve the very detailed and precise effects that oil could achieve. Van Eyck’s mixture may have consisted of piled glass, calcined bones, the new mixture had a honey-like consistency and better drying properties. This mixture was known as oglio cotto—cooked oil, leonardo da Vinci later improved these techniques by cooking the mixture at a very low temperature and adding 5 to 10% beeswax, which prevented darkening of the paint. Giorgione, Titian, and Tintoretto each may have altered this recipe for their own purposes, the use of any cooked oils or Litharge darkens an oil painting rapidly
19.
Tempera
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Tempera, also known as egg tempera, is a permanent, fast-drying painting medium consisting of colored pigments mixed with a water-soluble binder medium. Tempera also refers to the paintings done in this medium, Tempera paintings are very long lasting, and examples from the 1st centuries AD still exist. Egg tempera was a method of painting until after 1500 when it was superseded by the invention of oil painting. Tempera painting has been found on early Egyptian sarcophagi decorations, many of the Fayum mummy portraits use tempera, sometimes in combination with encaustic. A related technique has been used also in ancient and early medieval paintings found in several caves, high-quality art with the help of tempera was created in Bagh Caves between the late 4th and 10th centuries AD and in the 7th century AD in Ravan Chhaya rock shelter, Orissa. Tempera painting was the panel painting medium for nearly every painter in the European Medieval. For example, every surviving panel painting by Michelangelo is egg tempera, oil paint, which may have originated in Afghanistan between the 5th and 9th centuries and migrated westward in the Middle Ages eventually superseded tempera. Oil replaced tempera as the medium used for creating artwork during the 15th century in Early Netherlandish painting in northern Europe. Around 1500, oil paint replaced tempera in Italy, in the 19th and 20th centuries, there were intermittent revivals of tempera technique in Western art, among the Pre-Raphaelites, Social Realists, and others. Tempera painting continues to be used in Greece and Russia where it is the medium for Orthodox icons. Tempera is traditionally created by hand-grinding dry powdered pigments into an agent or medium, such as egg, glue, honey, water, milk. Tempera painting starts with placing an amount of the powdered pigment onto a palette, dish or bowl and adding about an equal volume of the binder. Some pigments require slightly more binder, some require less, a few drops of distilled water are added, then the binder is added in small increments to the desired transparency. The more egg emulsion, the more transparent the paint, the most common form of classical tempera painting is egg tempera. For this form most often only the contents of the egg yolk is used, the white of the egg and the membrane of the yolk are discarded. Egg yolk is never used by itself with pigment, it dries almost immediately, some agent is always added, in variable proportions. One recipe calls for vinegar, other recipes suggest white wine, some schools of egg tempera use various mixtures of egg yolk and water. The paint mixture has to be adjusted to maintain a balance between a greasy and watery consistency by adjusting the amount of water and yolk
20.
Wet-in-wet
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Watercolor or watercolour, also aquarelle, a diminutive of the Latin for water, is a painting method in which the paints are made of pigments suspended in a water-based solution. Watercolor refers to both the medium and the resulting artwork, the traditional and most common support—material to which the paint is applied—for watercolor paintings is paper. Other supports include papyrus, bark papers, plastics, vellum, leather, fabric, wood, Watercolor paper is often made entirely or partially with cotton, which gives a good texture and minimizes distortion when wet. Watercolors are usually translucent, and appear luminous because the pigments are laid down in a form with few fillers obscuring the pigment colors. Watercolors can also be made opaque by adding Chinese white, in East Asia, watercolor painting with inks is referred to as brush painting or scroll painting. In Chinese, Korean and Japanese painting it has been the dominant medium, india, Ethiopia and other countries have long watercolor painting traditions as well. Fingerpainting with watercolor paints originated in mainland China, however, its continuous history as an art medium begins with the Renaissance. The German Northern Renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer, who painted several fine botanical, wildlife, an important school of watercolor painting in Germany was led by Hans Bol as part of the Dürer Renaissance. Despite this early start, watercolors were used by Baroque easel painters only for sketches, copies or cartoons. Notable early practitioners of watercolor painting were Van Dyck, Claude Lorrain, Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, however, botanical illustration and wildlife illustration perhaps form the oldest and most important traditions in watercolor painting. Botanical illustrations became popular during the Renaissance, both as hand-tinted woodblock illustrations in books or broadsheets and as tinted ink drawings on vellum or paper. Wildlife illustration reached its peak in the 19th century with such as John James Audubon. Several factors contributed to the spread of watercolor painting during the 18th century, Watercolor artists were commonly brought with the geological or archaeological expeditions, funded by the Society of Dilettanti, to document discoveries in the Mediterranean, Asia, and the New World. This example popularized watercolors as a form of personal tourist journal, the confluence of these cultural, engineering, scientific, tourist, and amateur interests culminated in the celebration and promotion of watercolor as a distinctly English national art. William Blake published several books of hand-tinted engraved poetry, provided illustrations to Dantes Inferno, from the late 18th century through the 19th century, the market for printed books and domestic art contributed substantially to the growth of the medium. Satirical broadsides by Thomas Rowlandson, many published by Rudolph Ackermann, were extremely popular. Among the important and highly talented contemporaries of Turner and Girtin, were John Varley, John Sell Cotman, Anthony Copley Fielding, Samuel Palmer, William Havell, the Swiss painter Louis Ducros was also widely known for his large format, romantic paintings in watercolor. These societies provided annual exhibitions and buyer referrals for many artists, in particular, the graceful, lapidary, and atmospheric watercolors by Richard Parkes Bonington created an international fad for watercolor painting, especially in England and France in the 1820s
21.
Illusionism
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Sculptural illusionism includes works, often painted, that appear real from a distance. Other forms, such as the tradition in the theatre. The development of increasingly accurate representation of the appearances of things has a long history in art. It includes elements such as the depiction of the anatomy of humans and beasts, of perspective and effects of distance. Ancient Greek art is recognised as having made great progress in the representation of anatomy. Pliny the Elders famous story of birds pecking at grapes painted by Zeuxis in the 5th century BC may well be a legend, roman portraiture, when not under too much Greek influence, shows a greater commitment to a truthful depiction of its subjects. The art of Late Antiquity famously rejected illusionism for expressive force, scientific methods of representing perspective were developed in Italy and gradually spread across Europe, and accuracy in anatomy rediscovered under the influence of classical art. As in classical times, idealism remained the norm, intriguingly, having led the development of illusionic painting, still life was to be equally significant in its abandonment in Cubism. In his writings and art criticisms during the mid-1960s art critic/artist Donald Judd claimed that illusionism in painting undermined the artform itself, Judd implied that painting was dead, claiming painting was a lie and because it depicted the illusion of 3-dimensions on a flat surface. Judd claimed that painting needed to recognize its objecthood in real space, Donald Judd wrote in “Specific Objects” in 1965, Three dimensions are real space. That gets rid of the problem of illusionism and of space, space in and around marks of color… Actual space is intrinsically more powerful. In the Webster Texas Holiday Inn, there is a double illusion ceiling by muralist Frank Wilson, the hotel is close to the Houston Space Center, and double illusion murals exist in rooms for officials as well as the dining room. They show the illusion of a night sky under darkness, illuminated by glowing minerals, under normal light we see clouds and birds of peace
22.
Genre painting
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Genre painting, also called genre scene or petit genre, depicts aspects of everyday life by portraying ordinary people engaged in common activities. A work would often be considered as a genre work even if it could be shown that the artist had used a known member of his family. In this case it would depend on whether the work was likely to have intended by the artist to be perceived as a portrait—sometimes a subjective question. The depictions can be realistic, imagined, or romanticized by the artist, because of their familiar and frequently sentimental subject matter, genre paintings have often proven popular with the bourgeoisie, or middle class. Genre subjects appear in many traditions of art and these were part of a pattern of Mannerist inversion in Antwerp painting, giving low elements previously in the decorative background of images prominent emphasis. The generally small scale of these paintings was appropriate for their display in the homes of middle class purchasers. Often the subject of a painting was based on a popular emblem from an Emblem book. The merry company showed a group of figures at a party, other common types of scenes showed markets or fairs, village festivities, or soldiers in camp. In Italy, a school of painting was stimulated by the arrival in Rome of the Dutch painter Pieter van Laer in 1625. He acquired the nickname Il Bamboccio and his followers were called the Bamboccianti, whose works would inspire Giacomo Ceruti, Antonio Cifrondi, jean-Baptiste Greuze and others painted detailed and rather sentimental groups or individual portraits of peasants that were to be influential on 19th-century painting. Spain had a tradition predating The Book of Good Love of social observation and commentary based on the Old Roman Latin tradition, practiced by many of its painters and illuminators. More than a later, the Spanish artist Francisco de Goya used genre scenes in painting and printmaking as a medium for dark commentary on the human condition. His The Disasters of War, a series of 82 genre incidents from the Peninsular War, with the decline of religious and historical painting in the 19th century, artists increasingly found their subject matter in the life around them. In French art this was known as the Troubador style, in the second half of the century interest in genre scenes, often in historical settings or with pointed social or moral comment, greatly increased across Europe. Other 19th-century English genre painters include Augustus Leopold Egg, George Elgar Hicks, William Holman Hunt, scotland produced two influential genre painters, David Allan and Sir David Wilkie. Wilkies The Cottars Saturday Night inspired a work by the French painter Gustave Courbet. Famous Russian realist painters like Vasily Perov and Ilya Repin also produced genre paintings, in Germany, Carl Spitzweg specialized in gently humorous genre scenes, and in Italy Gerolamo Induno painted scenes of military life. Subsequently the Impressionists, as well as such 20th-century artists as Pierre Bonnard, Itshak Holtz, Edward Hopper, other notable 19th-century genre painters from the United States include George Caleb Bingham, William Sidney Mount, and Eastman Johnson
23.
Infrared
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It extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers, to 1000000 nm. Most of the radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared. Like all EMR, IR carries radiant energy, and behaves both like a wave and like its quantum particle, the photon, slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared. The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has an effect on Earths climate. Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements and it excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry. Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range, Infrared radiation is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected, Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect overheating of electrical apparatuses. Thermal-infrared imaging is used extensively for military and civilian purposes, military applications include target acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing, and tracking. Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm, Infrared radiation extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers to 1 mm. This range of wavelengths corresponds to a range of approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz. Below infrared is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Sunlight, at a temperature of 5,780 kelvins, is composed of near thermal-spectrum radiation that is slightly more than half infrared. At zenith, sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea level, of this energy,527 watts is infrared radiation,445 watts is visible light, and 32 watts is ultraviolet radiation. Nearly all the radiation in sunlight is near infrared, shorter than 4 micrometers. On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, almost all thermal radiation consists of infrared in mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. Of these natural thermal radiation processes only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, thermal infrared radiation also has a maximum emission wavelength, which is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of object, in accordance with Wiens displacement law. Therefore, the band is often subdivided into smaller sections. Due to the nature of the blackbody radiation curves, typical hot objects, such as exhaust pipes, the three regions are used for observation of different temperature ranges, and hence different environments in space
24.
Pentimenti
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A pentimento is an alteration in a painting, evidenced by traces of previous work, showing that the artist has changed his or her mind as to the composition during the process of painting. The word is Italian for repentance, from the verb pentirsi, some pentimenti have always been visible on the final painting with careful inspection, others are revealed by the increasing transparency that some paint acquires after several centuries. Others, especially in the underdrawing, can only be seen with modern methods such as X-rays and infrared reflectography and these are able to record photographically some pigments, depending on their chemical composition, which remain covered by later paint layers. For example, white lead, a pigment, will be detected by X-ray. These methods have greatly expanded the number of art historians are aware of. Normally secondary versions or copies will have few if any pentimenti, although this will not always be the case, like Rembrandt, Titian and many other masters, Caravaggio seems rarely to have made preliminary drawings, but to have composed straight onto the canvas. The number of found in the work of such masters naturally tends to be higher. The term is usually treated as an Italian word and therefore written in italics, the fully anglicised word pentiment is much rarer, though included in the Grove Dictionary of Art. The word pentimento is occasionally used synonymously with palimpsest, but strictly the latter is used for documents and parchments which, a portrait in the National Gallery, London of Jacques de Norvins by Ingres was painted in 1811–12 when the sitter was Napoleons Chief of Police in Rome. Originally, instead of the curtain at the left, there was a fully painted bust of a head on top of a small column. Probably this was a bust of Napoleons son, who was known as the King of Rome, the presumption is that this was overpainted with the curtain after the fall of Napoleon, either by Ingres himself, or another artist. The bust can just be out in the enlarged online photo, with its chin level with the sitters hair-line. These may always have been visible, or have become so by the paint becoming transparent with age, few viewers of the painting would notice the bust without it being pointed out. Strictly speaking, these alterations might not be described as pentimenti, because of the lapse of time. These are used in discussing the painting and comparing it to version of the subject in Bari. A Zurbarán in the Cleveland Museum of Art shows that the size of a cloth was expanded after the dark background under-paint had been applied. The term has sometimes used in a modern sense to describe the appearance of the sides of buildings with painted advertising. Often old ads are painted over with newer ads and the paint wears away to reveal the older layers, examples in Amsterdam, New York City and elsewhere have been photographed
25.
Underdrawing
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Underdrawing is a preparatory drawing done on a painting ground before paint is applied, for example, an imprimatura or an underpainting. Underdrawing was used extensively by 15th century painters like Jan van Eyck and these artists underdrew with a brush, using hatching strokes for shading, using water-based black paint, before underpainting and overpainting with oils. Cennino DAndrea Cennini describes a different type of underdrawing, made with graded tones rather than hatching, infrared reflectography and spectroscopic analysis of paintings Drawsketches. How to Draw step by step How to Draw with steps
26.
Cherry tree
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A cherry is the fruit of many plants of the genus Prunus, and is a fleshy drupe. The cherry fruits of commerce usually are obtained from a number of species such as cultivars of the sweet cherry. The name cherry also refers to the tree, and is sometimes applied to almonds and visually similar flowering trees in the genus Prunus, as in ornamental cherry, cherry blossom. Wild cherry may refer to any of the species growing outside of cultivation. The subgenus is native to the regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Other cherry fruits are members of subgenus Padus, most eating cherries are derived from either Prunus avium, the sweet cherry, or from Prunus cerasus, the sour cherry. The indigenous range of the sweet cherry extends through most of Europe, western Asia, and parts of northern Africa, and the fruit has been consumed throughout its range since prehistoric times. A cultivated cherry is recorded as having brought to Rome by Lucius Licinius Lucullus from northeastern Anatolia, also known as the Pontus region. Cherries were introduced into England at Teynham, near Sittingbourne in Kent, by order of Henry VIII, cherries arrived in North America early in the settlement of Brooklyn, New York when the region was under Dutch sovereignty. Trades people leased or purchased land to plant orchards and produce gardens, behind the house sold by Anthony Jansen from Salee to Barent Dirksen. Both species originate in Europe and western Asia, they do not cross-pollinate, some other species, although having edible fruit, are not grown extensively for consumption, except in northern regions where the two main species will not grow. Irrigation, spraying, labor, and their propensity to damage from rain, nonetheless, demand is high for the fruit. In commercial production, cherries are harvested by using a mechanized shaker, hand picking is also widely used to harvest the fruit to avoid damage to both fruit and trees. Common rootstocks include Mazzard, Mahaleb, Colt, and Gisela Series, sour cherries require no pollenizer, while few sweet varieties are self-fertile. Like most temperate-latitude trees, cherry seeds require exposure to cold to germinate, the pits are planted in the autumn and seedlings emerge in the spring. A cherry tree will take three to four years in the field to produce its first crop of fruit, and seven years to attain full maturity, because of the cold-weather requirement, none of the Prunus genus can grow in tropical climates. Cherries have a growing season and can grow in most temperate latitudes. Cherries blossom in April and the season for the cherry harvest is in the summer
27.
Burgundy (region)
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Burgundy is a historical territory and a former administrative region of east-central France, entities that trace their name from the Burgundians, a Germanic people. Historically, Burgundy has referred to political entities, including kingdoms. The first known inhabitants of the area that became Burgundy were Celts, during the 4th century, the Burgundians, a Germanic people, who may have originated in Bornholm, settled in the western Alps. They founded the Kingdom of the Burgundians, which was conquered in the 6th century by another Germanic tribe, under Frankish dominion, the Kingdom of Burgundy continued for several centuries. Later, the region was divided between the Duchy of Burgundy and the Free County of Burgundy, burgundys modern existence is rooted in the dissolution of the Frankish Empire. In the 880s, there were four Burgundies, which were the Kingdom of Upper and Lower Burgundy, the duchy, during the Middle Ages, Burgundy was the seat of some of the most important Western churches and monasteries, among them Cluny, Cîteaux, and Vézelay. During the Hundred Years War, King John II of France gave the duchy to his youngest son, the duchy soon became a major rival to the crown. The court in Dijon outshone the French court both economically and culturally, in 1477, at the battle of Nancy during the Burgundian Wars, the last duke Charles the Bold was killed in battle, and the Duchy itself was annexed by France and became a province. However the northern part of the empire was taken by the Austrian Habsburgs, with the French Revolution in the end of the 18th century, the administrative units of the provinces disappeared, but were reconstituted as regions during the Fifth Republic in the 1970s. The modern-day administrative region comprises most of the former duchy, as of he region of Burgundy is both larger than the old Duchy of Burgundy and smaller than the area ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy, from the modern Netherlands to the border of Auvergne. Today, Burgundy is made up of the old provinces, Burgundy, Côte-dOr, Saône-et-Loire and this corresponds to the old duchy of Burgundy. However, the old county of Burgundy is not included inside the Burgundy region, also, a small part of the duchy of Burgundy is now inside the Champagne-Ardenne region. Nivernais, now the department of Nièvre, the climate of this region is essentially oceanic, with a continental influence. The regional council of Burgundy is the legislative assembly, the council has been chaired by the Socialist François Patriat since 2004. The councils seat is in the capital city Dijon, at 17 boulevard de la Trémouille, Burgundy is one of Frances main wine producing areas. The region is divided into the Côte-dOr, where the most expensive and prized Burgundies are found, and Beaujolais, Chablis, with regard to cuisine, the region is famous for the Burgundian dishes coq au vin, beef bourguignon, and époisses de Bourgogne cheese. Earlier, the part of Burgundy was heavily industrial, with coal mines near Montceau-les-Mines and iron foundries. These industries declined in the half of the twentieth century
28.
Tabard
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A tabard is a short coat common for men during the Middle Ages. Generally used while outdoors, the coat was either sleeveless or had short sleeves or shoulder pieces, in its more developed form it was open at the sides, and it could be worn with or without a belt. A tabard was originally a humble outer garment of tunic form, generally without sleeves, worn by peasants, monks, in this sense, the earliest citation recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary dates from c.1300. The Oxford English Dictionary first records this use of the word in English in 1450, tabards were apparently distinguished from surcoats by being open-sided, and by being shorter. Tabards became an important means of identification with the development of plate armour as the use of shields declined. They are frequently represented on tomb effigies and monumental brasses of the late 15th, a very expensive, but plain, garment described as a tabard is worn by Giovanni Arnolfini in the Arnolfini Portrait of 1434. This may be made of silk and or velvet, and is trimmed and fully lined with fur, at The Queens College, Oxford, the scholars on the foundation were called tabarders, from the tabard which they wore. A surviving garment similar to the medieval tabard is the monastic scapular and this is a wide strip of fabric worn front back of the body, with an opening for the head and no sleeves. It may have a hood, and may be worn under or over a belt, by the end of the 16th century, the tabard was particularly associated with officers of arms. John Stow wrote in 1598, Now these Tabardes are onely worne by the Heraults, in the case of Royal officers of arms, the tabard is emblazoned with the coat of arms of the sovereign. Private officers of arms, such as still exist in Scotland, in the United Kingdom the different ranks of officers of arms can be distinguished by the fabric from which their tabards are made. The tabard of a king of arms is made of velvet, the tabard of a herald of arms of satin, the oldest surviving English heralds tabard is that of Sir William Dugdale as Garter King of Arms. In the Diamond Jubilee year of the Queen of Canada, the Governor General unveiled a new tabard for the use of the Chief Herald of Canada. This new royal blue tabard, for exclusively Canadian use and of uniquely Canadian design, is a take on the traditional look
29.
Sable
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The sable is a marten species, a small carnivorous mammal inhabiting forest environments, primarily in Russia from the Ural Mountains throughout Siberia, northern Mongolia. Its habitat also leans the borders of eastern Kazakhstan, China, North and South Korea and its range in the wild originally extended through European Russia to Poland and Scandinavia. It has historically been hunted for its highly valued dark brown or black fur, while hunting of wild animals is still common in Russia, most fur in the market is now commercially farmed. The name sable appears to be of Slavic origin and to have entered most Western European languages via the medieval fur trade. The English and Medieval Latin word sabellum comes from the Old French sable or saible, the term has become a generic description for some black-furred animal breeds, such as sable cats or rabbits, and for the colour black in heraldry. Males measure 38–56 centimetres in length, with a tail measuring 9–12 centimetres. Females have a length of 35–51 centimetres, with a tail length of 7. 2–11.5 centimetres. The winter pelage is longer and more luxurious than the summer coat, different subspecies display geographic variation in fur colour, fur color ranges from light to dark brown, with individual fur color being lighter ventrally and darker on the back and legs. Japanese sables in particular are marked with black on their legs, individuals also display a light patch of fur on their throat which may be gray, white, or a pale yellow. The fur is softer and silkier than that of American martens, sables greatly resemble pine martens in size and appearance, but have more elongated heads, longer ears and proportionately shorter tails. Their skulls are similar to those of martens, but are larger. Sables inhabit dense forests dominated by spruce, pine, larch, cedar and they defend home territories that may be anything from 4 to 30 square kilometres in size, depending on the local terrain and availability of food. However, when resources are scarce they may move considerable distances in search of food, sables live in burrows near riverbanks and in the thickest parts of woods. These burrows are made more secure by being dug among tree roots. They are good climbers of cliffs and trees and they are primarily crepuscular, hunting during the hours of twilight, but become more active in the day during the mating season. Their dens are well hidden, and lined by grass and shed fur, but may be temporary, especially during the winter, sables are omnivores, and their diet varies seasonally. In the summer, they eat large numbers of hares and other small mammals, in winter, when they are confined in their retreats by frost and snow, they feed on wild berries, rodents, hares, and even small musk deer. They also hunt ermine, small weasels and birds, sometimes, sables follow the tracks of wolves and bears and feed on the remains of their kills
30.
Ermine
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Originally from Eurasia, it crossed into North America some half million years ago, where it naturalized and joined the notably larger closely related native long-tailed weasel. The name ermine is often, but not always, used for the stoat in its white winter coat. In the late 19th century, stoats were introduced into New Zealand to control rabbits, the stoat is classed by the IUCN as least concern, due to its wide circumpolar distribution, and because it does not face any significant threat to its survival. It was nominated as one of the worlds top 100 worst invaders, Ermine luxury fur was used in the 15th century by Catholic monarchs, who sometimes used it as the mozzetta cape. It was also used in capes on images such as the Infant Jesus of Prague, the root word for stoat is likely either the Dutch word stout or the Gothic word stautan. This seems to come from the Lithuanian word šarmu, in Ireland, the stoat is referred to as a weasel, while in North America it is called a short-tailed weasel. A male stoat is called a dog, hob, or jack, the collective noun for stoats is either gang or pack. The stoat is the product of a process begun 5–7 million years ago, the stoats ancestors were larger than the current form, and underwent a reduction in size as they exploited the new food source. The stoat first arose in Eurasia, shortly after the long-tailed weasel arose as its image in North America 2 million years ago. The stoat thrived during the Ice Age, as its size and long body allowed it to easily operate beneath snow. The stoat and the long-tailed weasel remained separated until half a million years ago, combined phylogenetic analyses indicate the stoats closest living relative is the mountain weasel, though it is also closely related to the least weasel and long-tailed weasel. Its next closest relatives are the New World Colombian weasel and the Amazon weasel, as of 2005,37 subspecies are recognized. The stoat has a neck, the head being set exceptionally far in front of the shoulders. The trunk is cylindrical, and does not bulge at the abdomen. The greatest circumference of body is more than half its length. The skull, although similar to that of the least weasel, is relatively longer. The projections of the skull and teeth are developed. The eyes are round, black and protrude slightly, the whiskers are brown or white in colour, and very long
31.
Straw Plaiting
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Straw plaiting is a method of manufacturing textiles by braiding straw and the industry that surrounds the craft of producing these straw manufactures. Straw is plaited to produce products including straw hats and ornaments, to plait comes from late 14c. Straw is also plaited to produce bonnets and hats, the districts around Luton in Bedfordshire and the neighbouring counties were, since the beginning of the 17th century, the British home of the straw-plait industry. The straw of certain varieties of wheat cultivated in that region is, in seasons, possessed of a fine bright color and due to tenacity. The straw is cut as in ordinary harvesting, but is allowed to dry in the sun, subsequently straws are selected from the sheaves, and of these the pipes of the two upper joints are taken for plaiting. The pipes are assorted into sizes by passing them through graduated openings in a wire frame. Spotted and discoloured straws are dyed either in pipe or in plait, the plaiters work up the material in a damp state, either into whole straw or split straw plaits. The straws were put through a small mangle to flatten them and they were then braided to produce a woven strip which was sold on to the makers of hats, baskets and other wares. The plaiting was carried out by women and children who were taught the skills in plait schools, at its peak in the early nineteenth century a woman could earn more by plaiting than a man could earn on the land. There was concern that the industry led to dissolution and idleness in the menfolk, the English industry was eventually killed by free trade from 1860 which allowed cheap imports of plait from Italy and later China and Japan. Worldwide, the most valuable straw for plaits is grown in Tuscany, the straw of Tuscany, specially grown for plaiting, is distinguished into three grades of quality. The highest quality is Pontederas Semone, the second highest is Mazzuolo, the bulk of the plaits are made from this grade of straw. The third grade, Santa Fioro, is used to plaite Tuscan pedals. The wheat-seed for these straws is sown very thickly on comparatively elevated and arid land, the pipe of the upper joint alone is selected for plaiting, the remainder of the straw being used for other purposes. These pipes are made up in bundles, bleached in sulfur fumes in a closed chest, assorted into sizes. Straw-plaiting is a domestic industry among the women and young children of Tuscany, the finest work is excessively trying to the eyes of the plaiters, who can at most give to it two or three hours labor daily. Friedrich Ratzel in The History of Mankind reported as follows, - The art of plaiting is diligently practised, for the coarser mats coco-nut fibre is employed, for the finer, pandanus leaves and rushes. An intelligent Fijian can always tell you from which island a mat came, the coarser kinds are used as floorcloths and hangings to the huts, the finer as sails, or sleeping-mats, or for children
32.
Damask
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Damask is a reversible figured fabric of silk, wool, linen, cotton, or synthetic fibres, with a pattern formed by weaving. Damasks are woven with one warp yarn and one weft yarn, usually with the pattern in warp-faced satin weave, twill damasks include a twill-woven ground or pattern. The production of damask was one of the five basic weaving techniques—the others being tabby, twill, lampas, damasks derive their name from the city of Damascus—in that period a large city active both in trading and in manufacture. Damasks became scarce after the 9th century outside of Islamic Spain, the word damask first appeared in records in a Western European language in the mid-14th century in French. By the 14th century, damasks were being woven on draw looms in Italy, from the 14th to 16th century, most damasks were woven in one colour with a glossy warp-faced satin pattern against a duller ground. Two-colour damasks had contrasting colour warps and wefts, and polychrome damasks added gold, medieval damasks were usually woven in silk, but weavers also produced wool and linen damasks. Modern damasks are woven on computerized Jacquard looms, Damask weaves are commonly produced in monochromatic weaves in silk, linen, or synthetic fibres such as rayon and feature patterns of flowers, fruit, and other designs. The long floats of satin-woven warp and weft threads cause soft highlights on the fabric which reflect light differently according to the position of the observer, Damask weaves appear most commonly in table linens and furnishing fabrics, but they are also used for clothing. The Damask weave is used throughout the fashion industry due to its versatility and high-quality finish. Damask is usually used for mid-to-high-quality garments, meaning the label tends to have a higher definition and a more “expensive” look
33.
Chandelier
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A chandelier /ˌʃæn. dəlˈɪər/ is a decorative ceiling-mounted light fixture, a distinct type of pendant light. Chandeliers are often ornate, and normally use incandescent light bulbs, crystal chandeliers have more or less complex arrays of crystal prisms to illuminate a room with refracted light. Chandeliers are often located in hallways, living rooms, dining rooms, the word chandelier was first known in the English language in the 1736, borrowed from the Old French word chandelier, which comes from the Latin candelabrum. The earliest candle chandeliers were used by the wealthy in medieval times, from the 15th century, more complex forms of chandeliers, based on ring or crown designs, became popular decorative features in palaces and homes of nobility, clergy and merchants. Its high cost made the chandelier a symbol of luxury and status, by the early 18th century, ornate cast ormolu forms with long, curved arms and many candles were in the homes of many in the growing merchant class. Neoclassical motifs became a common element, mostly in cast metals. Chandeliers made in style also drew heavily on the aesthetic of ancient Greece and Rome, incorporating clean lines, classical proportions. During the 18th century glass chandeliers were produced by Bohemiens and Venetian glassmakers who were masters in the art of making chandeliers. Bohemian style was successful across Europe and its biggest draw was the chance to obtain spectacular light refraction due to facets. As a reaction to this new taste Italian glass factories in Murano created new kinds of light sources. Since Murano glass was not suitable for faceting, typical work realized at the time in countries where crystal was used. Typical features of a Murano chandelier are the intricate arabeques of leaves, flowers and fruits that would be enriched by coloured glass, made possible by the specific type of glass used in Murano. This glass they worked with was so unique, as it was glass and was a complete contrast to all different types of glass produced in the world at that time. An incredible amount of skill and time was required to precisely twist and this new type of chandelier was called ciocca literally bouquet of flowers, for the characteristic decorations of glazed polychrome flowers. One of the use of the huge Murano Chandeliers was the interior lighting of theatres. In the mid-19th century, as gas lighting caught on, branched ceiling fixtures called gasoliers were produced, by the 1890s, with the appearance of electric light, some chandeliers used both gas and electricity. As distribution of electricity widened, and supplies became dependable, electric-only chandeliers became standard, Another portmanteau word, electrolier, was formed for these, but nowadays they are most commonly called chandeliers. Some are fitted with bulbs shaped to imitate candle flames, for example those shown below in Epsom and Chatsworth, the worlds largest English Glass chandelier, is located in the Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul
34.
Pulley
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A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction of a taut cable, supporting shell is referred to as a block. A pulley may also be called a sheave or drum and may have a groove or grooves between two flanges around its circumference. The drive element of a system can be a rope, cable, belt. Hero of Alexandria identified the pulley as one of six simple machines used to lift weights, pulleys are assembled to form a block and tackle in order to provide mechanical advantage to apply large forces. Pulleys are also assembled as part of belt and chain drives in order to power from one rotating shaft to another. A set of pulleys assembled so that they rotate independently on the axle from a block. Two blocks with an attached to one of the blocks. A block and tackle is assembled so one block is attached to fixed mounting point, the ideal mechanical advantage of the block and tackle is equal to the number of parts of the rope that support the moving block. This system is included in the list of simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists, if the rope and pulley system does not dissipate or store energy, then its mechanical advantage is the number of parts of the rope that act on the load. This can be shown as follows, consider the set of pulleys that form the moving block and the parts of the rope that support this block. If there are p of these parts of the supporting the load W. This means the force on the rope is T=W/p. Thus, the block and tackle reduces the force by the factor p. The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the pulleys and lines are weightless, and it is also assumed that the lines do not stretch. In equilibrium, the forces on the block must sum to zero. In addition the tension in the rope must be the same for each of its parts and this means that the two parts of the rope supporting the moving block must each support half the load. These are different types of systems, Fixed, A fixed pulley has an axle mounted in bearings attached to a supporting structure. A fixed pulley changes the direction of the force on a rope or belt that moves along its circumference, mechanical advantage is gained by combining a fixed pulley with a movable pulley or another fixed pulley of a different diameter
35.
Convex mirror
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A curved mirror is a mirror with a curved reflecting surface. The surface may be convex or concave. Most curved mirrors have surfaces that are shaped like part of a sphere, one advantage that mirror optics have over lens optics is that mirrors do not introduce chromatic aberration. A convex mirror, fish eye mirror or diverging mirror, is a mirror in which the reflective surface bulges toward the light source. Convex mirrors reflect light outwards, therefore they are not used to focus light, such mirrors always form a virtual image, since the focal point and the centre of curvature are both imaginary points inside the mirror, that cannot be reached. As a result, images formed by these mirrors cannot be projected on a screen, the image is smaller than the object, but gets larger as the object approaches the mirror. A collimated beam of light diverges after reflection from a convex mirror, the passenger-side mirror on a car is typically a convex mirror. In some countries, these are labeled with the safety warning Objects in mirror are closer than they appear, convex mirrors are preferred in vehicles because they give an upright, though diminished, image. Also they provide a field of view as they are curved outwards. These mirrors are often found in the hallways of buildings, including hospitals, hotels, schools, stores. They are usually mounted on a wall or ceiling where hallways intersect each other and they are useful for people accessing the hallways, especially at locations having blind spots or where visibility may be limited. They are also used on roads, driveways, and alleys to provide safety for motorists where there is a lack of visibility, especially at curves and turns. Convex mirrors are used in automated teller machines as a simple and handy security feature. Similar devices are sold to be attached to ordinary computer monitors, convex mirrors make everything seem smaller but cover a larger area of surveillance. Round convex mirrors called Oeil de Sorcière were a luxury item from the 15th century onwards. With 15th century technology, it was easier to make a curved mirror than a perfectly flat one. They were also known as bankers eyes due to the fact that their field of vision was useful for security. Famous examples in art include the Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck, the image on a convex mirror is always virtual, diminished, and upright
36.
Passion (Christianity)
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Those parts of the four Gospels that describe these events, as well as the non-canonical Gospel of Peter, are known as the Passion narratives. In the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church, the Passion is commemorated in Holy Week, beginning on Friday of Sorrows, the Palm Sunday and culminating on his death on Good Friday. The word passion has taken on a more general application and now may also apply to accounts of the suffering and death of Christian martyrs. The accounts of the Passion are found in the four gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke. Three of these, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, known as the Synoptic Gospels, the Gospel of John accounts varies slightly. The events include, The conspiracy against Jesus by the Jewish Sanhedrin priests, triumphal entry into Jerusalem, his anger and outburst at the Cleansing of the Temple A meal a few days before Passover. He says that for this she always be remembered. In Jerusalem, the Last Supper shared by Jesus and his disciples, Jesus gives final instructions, predicts his betrayal, and tells them all to remember him. On the path to Gethsemane after the meal, Jesus tells them they will all fall away that night, after Peter protests he will not, Jesus says Peter will deny him three times before the cock crows. Gethsemane, later that night, Jesus prays, meanwhile, the disciples rest, during the arrest in Gethsemane, someone takes a sword and cuts off the ear of the high priests servant, Malchus. The high priests palace, later that night, According to Matthews Gospel, the court then spat in his face and struck him with their fists. They then send him to Pontius Pilate, According to the synoptic gospels, the high priest who examines Jesus is Caiaphas, in John, Jesus is also interrogated by Annas, Caiaiphas father-in-law. The courtyard outside the high palace, the same time. Peter has followed Jesus and joined the mob awaiting Jesus’ fate, they suspect he is a sympathizer, suddenly, the cock crows and Peter remembers what Jesus had said. Pilate, the Roman governor, examines Jesus, decides he is innocent, the Jewish leaders and the crowd demand Jesus’ death, Pilate gives them the choice of saving Barabbas, in response to the screaming mob Pilate sends Jesus out to be crucified. According to the Gospel of Matthew, Judas, the betrayer, is filled with remorse, when the high priests say that that is his affair, Judas throws the money into the temple, goes off, and hangs himself. Golgotha, a hill outside Jerusalem, later morning through mid afternoon, the Gospel of Luke states that Pilate sends Jesus to be judged by Herod Antipas because as a Galilean he is under his jurisdiction. Herod is excited at first to see Jesus and hopes Jesus will perform a miracle for him, he asks Jesus several questions, Herod then mocks him and sends him back to Pilate after giving him an elegant robe to wear
37.
Orange (fruit)
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The orange is the fruit of the citrus species Citrus × sinensis in the family Rutaceae. It is also called orange, to distinguish it from the related Citrus × aurantium. The sweet orange reproduces asexually, varieties of sweet orange arise through mutations, the orange is a hybrid between pomelo and mandarin. It has genes that are ~25% pomelo and ~75% mandarin, however, it is not a simple backcrossed BC1 hybrid, the chloroplast genes, and therefore the maternal line, seem to be pomelo. The sweet orange has had its genome sequenced. Earlier estimates of the percentage of pomelo genes varying from ~50% to 6% have been reported, sweet oranges were mentioned in Chinese literature in 314 BC. As of 1987, orange trees were found to be the most cultivated fruit tree in the world, orange trees are widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates for their sweet fruit. The fruit of the tree can be eaten fresh, or processed for its juice or fragrant peel. As of 2012, sweet oranges accounted for approximately 70% of citrus production, in 2014,70.9 million tonnes of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 24% of the world total followed by China and India. All citrus trees belong to the single genus Citrus and remain almost entirely interfertile and this includes grapefruits, lemons, limes, oranges, and various other types and hybrids. The fruit of any citrus tree is considered a hesperidium, a kind of modified berry, different names have been given to the many varieties of the genus. Orange applies primarily to the sweet orange – Citrus sinensis Osbeck, the orange tree is an evergreen, flowering tree, with an average height of 9 to 10 m, although some very old specimens can reach 15 m. Its oval leaves, alternately arranged, are 4 to 10 cm long and have crenulate margins, when unripe, the fruit is green. The grainy irregular rind of the fruit can range from bright orange to yellow-orange. Like all other fruits, the sweet orange is non-climacteric. The Citrus sinensis group is subdivided into four classes with distinct characteristics, common oranges, blood or pigmented oranges, navel oranges, other citrus groups also known as oranges are, Bitter orange, also known as Seville orange, sour orange, bigarade orange and marmalade orange. Like the sweet orange, it is a pomelo x mandarin hybrid, bergamot orange, grown mainly in Italy for its peel, producing a primary essence for perfumes, also used to flavor Earl Grey tea. It is a hybrid, probably bitter orange x limetta, trifoliate orange, sometimes included in the genus
38.
Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting
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More depictions of Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting survive than actual carpets produced before the 17th century, though the number of these known has increased in recent decades. Therefore, comparative art-historical research has from its onset in the late 19th century relied on carpets represented in datable European paintings, Western comparative research resulted in an ever more detailed cultural history of the Oriental art of carpet weaving. This has in turn renewed and inspired the scientific interest in their countries of origin, comparative research based on Renaissance paintings and carpets preserved in museums and collections continues to contribute to the expanding body of art historical and cultural knowledge. Visually, the serve to draw attention either to an important person. In parallel with the development of Renaissance painting, initially mainly Christian saints, later on, the carpets were integrated into secular contexts, but always served to represent the idea of opulence, exoticism, luxury, wealth, or status. First, their use was reserved for the most powerful and most wealthy, later on, as more people gained sufficient wealth to afford goods of luxury, Oriental carpets appeared on the portraits of merchants and wealthy burghers. During the late 17th and 18th century, the interest in depicting carpets declined, in parallel, the paintings pay less attention to detail. The richly designed Oriental carpets appealed strongly to Western painters, the rich and various colours may have influenced the great Venetian painters of the Quattrocento. It has been suggested that the representation of carpets is linked to the development of the linear perspective. The depiction of oriental carpets in Renaissance paintings is regarded as an important contribution to a history of art. In turn, European market demands also affected the production in their countries of origin. In 1871, Julius Lessing published his book on oriental carpet design, village or nomadic rugs did not reach Europe during the Renaissance, and were not depicted in paintings. Pile carpets with geometric design are known to have produced from the 13th century among the Seljuks of Rum in eastern Anatolia. Carpets were also produced in Islamic Spain, and one is shown in a fresco of the 1340s in the Palais des Papes, Avignon. The vast majority of carpets in 15th- and 16th-century paintings are either from the Ottoman Empire, or possibly European copies of these types from the Balkans, Spain, or elsewhere. In fact these were not the finest Islamic carpets of the period, even finer than these, Persian carpets do not appear until the end of the 16th century, but become increasingly popular among the very wealthy in the 17th century. The very refined Mamluk carpets from Egypt are occasionally seen, mostly in Venetian paintings, one of the first uses of an oriental carpet in a European painting is Simone Martinis Saint Louis of Toulouse Crowning Robert of Anjou, King of Naples, painted in 1316-1319. Most European depictions of Oriental carpets were extremely faithful to the originals and their larger scale also allows more detailed and accurate depictions than those shown in miniature paintings from Turkey or Persia
39.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
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Las Meninas
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Las Meninas is a 1656 painting in the Museo del Prado in Madrid, by Diego Velázquez, the leading artist of the Spanish Golden Age. Its complex and enigmatic composition raises questions about reality and illusion, because of these complexities, Las Meninas has been one of the most widely analyzed works in Western painting. Some look out of the canvas towards the viewer, while others interact among themselves, the young Infanta Margaret Theresa is surrounded by her entourage of maids of honour, chaperone, bodyguard, two dwarfs and a dog. Just behind them, Velázquez portrays himself working at a large canvas, Velázquez looks outwards, beyond the pictorial space to where a viewer of the painting would stand. In the background there is a mirror that reflects the upper bodies of the king, Las Meninas has long been recognised as one of the most important paintings in Western art history. In 17th-century Spain, painters rarely enjoyed high social status, Painting was regarded as a craft, not an art such as poetry or music. Nonetheless, Velázquez worked his way up through the ranks of the court of Philip IV, the post brought him status and material reward, but its duties made heavy demands on his time. During the remaining eight years of his life, he painted only a few works, when he painted Las Meninas, he had been with the royal household for 33 years. Philip IVs first wife, Elizabeth of France, died in 1644, lacking an heir, Philip married Mariana of Austria in 1649, and Margaret Theresa was their first child, and their only one at the time of the painting. Subsequently, she had a short-lived brother Philip Prospero, and then Charles arrived, Velázquez painted portraits of Mariana and her children, and although Philip himself resisted being portrayed in his old age he did allow Velázquez to include him in Las Meninas. In the early 1650s he gave Velázquez the Pieza Principal of the late Balthasar Charless living quarters, by serving as the palace museum. It is here that Las Meninas is set, Philip had his own chair in the studio and would often sit and watch Velázquez at work. Although constrained by rigid etiquette, the king seems to have had an unusually close relationship with the painter. After Velázquezs death, Philip wrote I am crushed in the margin of a memorandum on the choice of his successor, during the 1640s and 1650s, Velázquez served as both court painter and curator of Philip IVs expanding collection of European art. He seems to have given an unusual degree of freedom in the role. He supervised the decoration and interior design of the holding the most valued paintings, adding mirrors. He was also responsible for the sourcing, attribution, hanging, by the early 1650s, Velázquez was widely respected in Spain as a connoisseur. Much of the collection of the Prado today—including works by Titian, Raphael, the painting was referred to in the earliest inventories as La Familia
41.
Portrait of a Man (Self Portrait?)
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Portrait of a Man is an oil painting by the Early Netherlandish painter Jan van Eyck, from 1433. It has been in the National Gallery, London since 1851, having been in England since Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel acquired it, the panel contains an inscription at the top reading Als Ich Can which was intended as as I/Eyck can. It is, along with the unusually confrontational gaze, taken as an indication that the work is a self-portrait, the original frame survives, and has the painted inscription JOHES DE EYCK ME FECIT ANO MCCCC.33. OCTOBRIS at the bottom and at the top the motto AlC IXH XAN, which appears on other van Eyck paintings, always written in Greek letters, as on other van Eyck frames, the letters are painted to appear carved. Like all van Eycks portraits, it shows a sharp and detailed analysis of the physical lines, the subject is often thought to be van Eyck himself, though there is no direct evidence for this. In none of these is it as prominent as here, a reason, along with the very direct but bloodshot gaze. Some art historians view the work as a form of calling card for prospective clients, a similar chaperon is worn by a figure in the background of van Eycks Rolin Madonna, and it has also been suggested that this is a self-portrait. Depicting the lines and folds of a chaperon would allow an artist to display his skill. More so, the positioning of its long cornette may directly refer to his occupation as a painter - it is rolled up, the emphasis on the sitters sharp and keenly intelligent shot eyes is a further subtle clue, one found again later in Albrecht Dürer 1500 Self-Portrait. Typically for van Eyck, the head is a large in relation to the torso. The technique shows the skill, economy and speed of van Eycks best work, campbell describes the painting of the left eye as follows, The white of the eye is laid in white mixed with minute quantities of red and blue. A very thin scumble of red is brought over the underlayer, the veins are painted in vermilion into the wet scumble. The iris is ultra-marine, fairly pure at its circumference but mixed with white, there are black flecks near the circumference and the pupil is painted in black over the blue of the iris. ISBN 0-19-284269-2 National Gallery Jan van Eyck, Portrait of a Man in a Red Turban,1433, Smarthistory
42.
Madonna with Chancellor Rolin
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The Madonna of Chancellor Rolin is an oil painting by the Early Netherlandish master Jan van Eyck, dating from around 1435. After a period in Autun Cathedral, it was moved to the Louvre in 1805, the scene depicts the Virgin Mary crowned by a hovering Angel while she presents the Infant Jesus to Rolin. It is set within a spacious Italian-style loggia with a decoration of columns. In the background is a landscape with a city on a river, probably intended to be Autun in Burgundy, a wide range of well detailed palaces, churches, an island, a towered bridge, hills and fields is portrayed, subject to a uniform light. Perhaps some of the Chancellors many landholdings around Autun are included in the vista, a haze covers a mountain range in the far distance. As in many Early Netherlandish paintings, the steepness of the hills and mountains is shown as greater than that found locally. The small garden with many flowers identifiable, visible just outside the columns, beyond, two male figures wearing chaperons are looking through the crenellations of what looks to be a fortified balcony or bridge. There has been speculation that they may represent van Eyck and an assistant, the figure on the right wears a similar red chaperon to the probable van Eyck self-portrait in the National Gallery, London. Near to them are two peacocks, symbols both of immortality and of pride, to even a powerful man as Rolin might succumb. The interior has complex light sources, typical of van Eyck, the chancellor, whose strong character is well rendered by the artist, is wearing a fur-lined, elegant garment, the Virgin, the same size as Rolin, is instead covered by a red mantle. The Infant Jesus holds a cross in his left hand, as in other van Eycks, the depiction of the space is not as straightforward as it first appears. Many van Eycks show an interior space that is very small, but the depiction is subtly managed to retain a sense of intimacy. Infrared reflectograms have disclosed a number of changes from the underdrawing, Rolin had a large purse hanging from his belt, since he had grown very rich in public office he probably felt that would be inappropriate. The infant Christ was originally pointing at the floor, old descriptions from Autun tell us that the painting originally had a wooden frame painted illusionistically with inscriptions seemingly carved, like van Eycks two portraits in London. The Virgin sits with the infant Christ on her knee, which make a platform for the infant and this very traditional motif is known as the Throne of Wisdom, and was often used by Jan van Eyck, who elaborated the meaning in complex allusions. The Virgins body was often compared to an altar, on which Christ was present as he was believed to be during the Mass. This painting may have originally hung to the left of Rolins place at the front of his chapel in his parish church, to Rolin, or a viewer of the real and painted Rolins together, the Virgin is painted in the position of the altar in the chapel. The illuminated manuscript in front of Rolin is open to a page with a large initial D, which probably indicates Domine, labia mea aperies, the opening of Matins, this is therefore a Book of Hours
43.
Brussels griffon
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The Griffon Bruxellois or Brussels Griffon is a breed of toy dog, named for their city of origin, Brussels, Belgium. The Griffon Bruxellois may refer to three different breeds, the Griffon Bruxellois, the Griffon Belge and the Petit Brabançon, identical in standard except for coat and colour differences, in some standards they are considered varieties of the same breed, much like Belgian Sheepdogs. The little wire-haired dog in the foreground of the Jan van Eyck painting The Arnolfini Marriage is thought to be a form of this breed. In Belgium coachmen were fond of their alert little Griffons d’Ecurie and in the 19th century, they bred their Griffons with imported toy dogs. Breeding with the Pug and King Charles Spaniel brought about the current breed type, but also brought the black coat that led to the Petits Brabançon. The spaniels also brought the red and black and tan colour of the modern Griffon Bruxellois. The Griffon Bruxellois grew in popularity in the late 19th century with both workers and noblemen in Belgium, the first Griffon Bruxellois was registered in 1883 in the first volume Belgiums kennel club studbook, the Livre des Origines Saint-Hubert. Many dogs were exported to countries, leading to Griffon Bruxellois clubs in England. The First World War and Second World War proved to be a time for the breed. War time is difficult on any dog breed, and the numbers after the First World War were set back by increased vigilance in breeding away from faults such as webbed toes. By the end of the Second World War, Belgium had almost no native Griffon Bruxellois left, the breed has never been numerous or popular, but had a brief vogue in the late 1950s, and now is generally an uncommon breed. There has been a recent increase in interest in the United States due to the appearance of a Griffon in the movie, As Good as It Gets, the Brussels Griffon is typically a small breed with a sturdy frame. The average adult Griffon stands between 9 and 11 inches tall weighing between 8 and 10 pounds and they have domed heads, short noses, and an underbite. Their human-like facial features are often likened to that of an Ewok, the Griffon comes in two coat variants, wiry/rough and smooth coat. Their hair can be red, black and tan, or black, the short hair Griffon requires little grooming while the wiry/rough coat Griffon requires weekly grooming attention. The Griffon Bruxellois is known to have a heart. They display a visible air of self-importance, a Griffon should not be shy or aggressive, however, they are very emotionally sensitive, and because of this, should be socialized carefully at a young age. Griffons should also be alert, inquisitive and interested in their surroundings, Griffons tend to bond with one human more than others
44.
Trompe l'oeil
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Trompe-lœil is an art technique that uses realistic imagery to create the optical illusion that the depicted objects exist in three dimensions. Forced perspective is an illusion in architecture. It was often employed in murals, instances from Greek and Roman times are known, for instance in Pompeii. A typical trompe-lœil mural might depict a window, door, or hallway, a version of an oft-told ancient Greek story concerns a contest between two renowned painters. Zeuxis produced a still life painting so convincing that birds flew down to peck at the painted grapes, a rival, Parrhasius, asked Zeuxis to judge one of his paintings that was behind a pair of tattered curtains in his study. Parrhasius asked Zeuxis to pull back the curtains, but when Zeuxis tried, he could not and this type of trompe lœil illusionism as specifically applied to ceiling paintings is known as di sotto in sù, meaning from below, upward in Italian. The elements above the viewer are rendered as if viewed from true vanishing point perspective, well-known examples are the Camera degli Sposi in Mantua and Antonio da Correggios Assumption of the Virgin in the Duomo of Parma. Similarly, Vittorio Carpaccio and Jacopo de Barbari added small trompe-lœil features to their paintings, in a 1964 seminar, the psychoanalyst and theorist Jacques Lacan observed that the myth of the two painters reveals an interesting aspect of human cognition. While animals are attracted to superficial appearances, humans are enticed by the idea of things that are hidden, examples include Pietro da Cortonas Allegory of Divine Providence in the Palazzo Barberini and Andrea Pozzos Apotheosis of St Ignatius on the ceiling of the Roman church of SantIgnazio. An example of a perfect architectural trompe-lœil is the dome in the Jesuit church, Vienna, by Andrea Pozzo. Trompe-lœil paintings became popular in Flemish and later in Dutch painting in the 17th century arising from the development of still life painting. The Flemish painter Cornelis Norbertus Gysbrechts created a painting showing an easel holding a painting. Chantourné literally means cutout and refers to a trompe lœil representation designed to stand away from a wall. Trompe-lœil can also be painted on tables and other items of furniture, on which, for example. The American 19th-century still-life painter William Harnett specialized in trompe-lœil, the Spanish painter Salvador Dalí utilized the technique for a number of his paintings. Trompe-lœil, in the form of forced perspective, has long used in stage-theater set design. A famous early example is the Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza, with Vincenzo Scamozzis seven forced-perspective streets, trompe-lœil is employed in Donald OConnors famous Running up the wall scene in the film Singin in the Rain. During the finale of his Make em Laugh number he first runs up a real wall, then he runs towards what appears to be a hallway, but when he runs up this as well we realize that it is a large trompe-lœil mural
45.
Portrait of Giovanni di Nicolao Arnolfini
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Thus, the work is van Eycks second portrait of Giovanni di Nicolao Arnolfini, a wealthy merchant from Lucca, a city in Tuscany in central Italy, who spent most of his life in Flanders. It was only later that the current work was associated with Arnolfini and it is today in the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. Arnolfini wears a green gown, with dark brown fur lining. He wears a red chaperon with cornette tied on top of the head and he is depicted with exacting realism, no attempt is made to gloss over his facial imperfections. He has small, slightly oriental eyes, a large nose, the meaning and significance of the scroll held in his left hand is unknown. It may relate to finance and trade, it might be a type of international credit note that was then just being introduced to European banking, arnolfinis folded arms would have rested on the original, but now lost, frame. As with van Eycks other single head portraits, the frame would have contained inscriptions giving the date of completion, opinion as to the date of the painting has varied, with the likely dates ranging from 1434 to 1438. Today the later date is generally accepted and that van Eyck painted two portraits of Arnolfini has led to speculation he was a friend of the artist. For many years the two works were not associated, and the identity of the sitters was unknown, often the London double portrait was taken as a portrait of the artist and his wife, Margaret
46.
Joseph Archer Crowe
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Their multi-volume A New History of Painting in Italy continued to be revised and republished until 1909, after both were dead. Though now outdated, these are often cited by modern art historians. Crowe was born at 141 Sloane Street, London, the son of the journalist Eyre Evans Crowe and he returned to England with his father in 1843, following him into journalism as a correspondent for the Morning Chronicle and the Daily News. During the Crimean War he worked as a correspondent for the Illustrated London News, on his return from the Crimea he received an offer to direct an art school in India. He went there, but when the post did not materialise he turned to journalism again, illness cut his time in India short, and he returned to England. He was a correspondent for the Times during the Austro-Italian War in 1858, in 1872 he was appointed consul-general for Westphalia and the Rhenish Provinces in Dusseldorf and in 1880 commercial attaché to the embassies at Berlin and Vienna. In 1882 he was promoted to be commercial attaché for the whole of Europe, in 1883 he was secretary to the Danube Conference in London, in 1889 plenipotentiary at the Samoa Conference in Berlin and in 1890 British envoy at the Telegraph Congress in Paris. For these services he was created a C. B. on 14 March 1885, in 1846, at the suggestion of his father, Crowe began to collect materials for a history of the early Flemish painters. The next year, while travelling between Berlin and Vienna, Crowe made an acquaintance with a young Italian art student. This acquaintance was renewed later, and cemented into friendship in London and they decided to collaborate on the work on Flemish painters, which Crowe had in hand. They visited collections and searched manuscripts together, and no detail was decided until it had been debated between them. The text itself was written by Crowe and they went on to colloborate on histories of Italian painting, and monographs on Titian and Raphael. Crowe married Asta von Barby, daughter of Baron Gustav von Barby and Eveline von Ribbentrop, in Gotha and they had of three sons, including Sir Eyre Crowe and four daughters. He died at Schloss Gamburg in Franconia on 6 September 1896, with Cavacaselle, J. A. Crowe and G. B. The Early Flemish Painters, Notices of their Lives and Works, Joseph Archer Crowe and Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle. A New History of Painting in Italy, from the Second to the Sixteenth Century, Joseph Archer Crowe and Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle. A History of Painting in North Italy, Venice, Padua, Vicenza, Verona, Ferrara, Milan, Friuli, Brescia, from the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century, Joseph Archer Crowe and Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle. A History of Painting in North Italy, Venice, Padua, Vicenza, Verona, Ferrara, Milan, Friuli, Brescia, from the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century, in 1865 he published an autobiography, Reminiscences of Thirty-five Years of my Life
47.
Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle
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Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle was an Italian writer and art critic, best known as part of Crowe and Cavalcaselle, for the many works in English on art history he co-authored with Joseph Archer Crowe. Their multi-volume A New History of Painting in Italy continued to be revised and republished until 1909, though now outdated, these are still often cited by modern art historians. Cavalcaselle was born in Legnago, Veneto and he studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Venice. Cavalcaselle participated in the Revolution of 1848 and in the Roman Republic, after the fall of the republic he lived in England for several years. There he published, together with Joseph A. Crowe, their first joint work, Early Flemish Painters, other important works by Crowe and Cavalcaselle are The Life of Titian, and The Life of Raphael. He worked as a consultant on acquisitions to the National Gallery, by the late 1850s he was able to revisit Rome. In 1867 he was inspector of the Bargello museum in Florence. He returned to Rome in 1875 to become the chief of the art department at ministerial level under the Minister of Public Instruction, with Crowe, J. A. Crowe and G. B. The Early Flemish Painters, Notices of their Lives and Works, Joseph Archer Crowe and Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle. A New History of Painting in Italy, from the Second to the Sixteenth Century, Joseph Archer Crowe and Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle. A History of Painting in North Italy, Venice, Padua, Vicenza, Verona, Ferrara, Milan, Friuli, Brescia, from the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century, Joseph Archer Crowe and Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle. A History of Painting in North Italy, Venice, Padua, Vicenza, Verona, Ferrara, Milan, Friuli, Brescia, from the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century, Volume 2. Titian, his Life and Times Raphael, his Life and Works Dictionary, Biography from the Dictionary of Art Historians
48.
Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy
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Archduchess Margaret of Austria, Princess of Asturias and Duchess of Savoy by her two marriages, was Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands from 1507 to 1515 and again from 1519 to 1530. Margaret was born on 10 January 1480, as the child and only daughter of Maximilian of Austria and Mary of Burgundy. She was named after her stepgrandmother, Margaret of York, Dowager Duchess of Burgundy, who was especially close to Duchess Mary. In 1482, Margarets mother died and her brother, Philip the Handsome. In 1482, her father and the King Louis XI of France signed the Treaty of Arras, the engagement took place in 1483. Margaret, with Franche-Comté and Artois as her dowry, was transferred to the guardianship of King Louis XI of France and she was educated at the French royal court and prepared for her future role as queen of France. She was raised as a fille de France by Madame de Segré, under the supervision of her fiancés sister and regent, several French noble children had their education overseen by Anne as well, amongst which Louise of Savoy, with whom she would later negotiate peace. Margaret developed genuine affection for Charles, however, in the autumn of 1491, he renounced the treaty and married Margarets stepmother Anne, Duchess of Brittany, for political reasons. The French court had ceased treating Margaret as queen early in 1491, the Duchess of Brittany had been married to Margarets father by proxy but their marriage was annulled. Margaret was not returned to her stepgrandmothers court until June 1493, Margaret was hurt by Charless action and was left with a feeling of enduring resentment towards France. Margaret left the Netherlands for Spain late in 1496, the marriage took place in 1497. John died after six months, on 4 October. Margaret was left pregnant, but on 2 April 1498 she gave birth to a stillborn daughter. The Dowager Princess of Asturias returned to the Netherlands early in 1500, in 1501, Margaret married Philibert II, Duke of Savoy. This marriage was childless as well, and he died three years. A grief-stricken Margaret threw herself out of a window, but was saved, after being persuaded to bury her husband, she had his heart enbalmed so she could keep it with her forever. She vowed never to marry again and her court historian and poet Jean Lemaire de Belges gave her the title Dame de deuil. During a remarkably successful career lasting from 1506 until her death in 1530, after the early death of her brother Philip of Spain, in November 1506 she became the only woman elected as its ruler by the representative assembly of Franche-Comté
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Van Eyck's Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and his Wife, Smarthistory
