1.
Hudson Institute
–
The Hudson Institute is an American conservative non-profit think tank based in Washington, D. C. It was founded in 1961 in Croton-on-Hudson, New York, by futurist, military strategist, the Institute is committed to innovative research and analysis that promotes global security, prosperity and freedom. In March 2011, Kenneth R. Weinstein was appointed President, Hudson Institute was founded in 1961 by Herman Kahn, Max Singer, and Oscar M. Ruebhausen. In 1960, while employed at the RAND Corporation, Kahn had given a series of lectures at Princeton University on scenarios related to nuclear war, in 1960, Princeton University Press published On Thermonuclear War, a book-length expansion of Kahns lecture notes. Major controversies ensued, and in the end, Kahn and RAND had a parting of ways, Kahn moved to Croton-on-Hudson, New York, intending to establish a new think tank, less hierarchical and bureaucratic in its organization. Along with Max Singer, a government lawyer who had been a RAND colleague of Kahns. Kahn was the Hudsons driving intellect and Singer built up the institutes organization, Ruebhausen was an advisor to New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller. Kahn and his colleagues made pioneering contributions to nuclear deterrence theory, Kahn did not want Hudson to restrict itself to defense-related research, and along with Singer recruited a full-time professional staff with widely different academic backgrounds. Hudson Institute regularly involved a range of outside notables in their analytic projects. These included French philosopher Raymond Aron, African-American novelist Ralph Ellison, political scientist Henry Kissinger, Hudsons focus expanded to include geopolitics, economics, demography, anthropology, science and technology, education, and urban planning. Kahn eventually expanded the use of scenario planning from defense policy work to economics, Hudson Institutes publications soon became popular in Japan and Kahn developed close ties to numerous politicians and corporate leaders there. Hudson Institute used scenario-planning techniques to forecast long-term developments and became renowned for its future studies, in 1967, Hudson published The Year 2000, a bestselling book, commissioned by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Many of the came to pass, including technological developments like portable telephones and network-linked home. In 1970, The Emerging Japanese Superstate, elaborating Kahn’s predictions on the rise of Japan, was published, Kahn was among the first to foresee unconventional extraction techniques like hydraulic fracturing. Within 20 years, Hudson had become an international think tank with offices in Bonn, Paris, Brussels, Montreal, other research projects were related to South Korea, Singapore, Australia and Latin America. Following Kahns sudden death on July 7,1983, Hudson was restructured, actively recruited by the City of Indianapolis and the Lilly Endowment, Hudson relocated its headquarters to Indiana in 1984. In 1987, Mitch Daniels, an aide to Senator Richard Lugar. Daniels recruited new scholars and experts to the Institute, William Eldridge Odom, former Director of the National Security Agency, became Hudsons director of national security studies, economist Alan Reynolds became director of economic research
2.
Sanskrit
–
Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
3.
University of Minnesota
–
The University of Minnesota, Twin Cities is a public research university in Minneapolis and Saint Paul, Minnesota. The Minneapolis and St. Paul campuses are approximately 3 miles apart, and it is the oldest and largest campus within the University of Minnesota system and has the sixth-largest main campus student body in the United States, with 51,147 students in 2013–14. The university is the institution of the University of Minnesota system, and is organized into 19 colleges and schools, with sister campuses in Crookston, Duluth, Morris. Minnesota is one of Americas Public Ivy universities, which refers to top universities in the United States capable of providing a collegiate experience comparable with the Ivy League. Founded in 1851, The University of Minnesota is categorized as an R1 Doctoral University with the highest research activity in the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, Minnesota faculty, alumni, and researchers have won 25 Nobel Prizes and three Pulitzer Prizes. Notable University of Minnesota alumni include two Vice Presidents of the United States, Hubert Humphrey and Walter Mondale, and Bob Dylan, who received the 2016 Nobel Prize in Literature. The University of Minnesota Twin Cities is also a member of the Association of American Universities which is an association of the 62 leading research universities in the United States and Canada. In its 2017 edition, U. S. News & World Report ranked Minnesota 38th in their Best Global University Rankings, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings for 2015 ranks Minnesota 46th in the world. In 2015, Academic Ranking of World Universities ranked the university 11th in the world for mathematics, the University of Minnesota is ranked 14 over-all among the nations top research universities by the Center for Measuring University Performance. The U. S. News & World Reports 2016 rankings placed the program of the University as the 69th-best National University in the United States. Additionally, nineteen of the Universitys graduate-school departments have been ranked in the nations top-twenty by the U. S. National Research Council, in both 2008 and 2012 U. S. News & World Report ranked the College of Pharmacy 2nd in the nation. 2016 U. S. News & Report now rank the College of Pharmacy 2nd in the nation. In 2011, U. S. News & World Report ranked the School of Public Health 8th in the nation, the University of Minnesota ranked 19th in NIH funding in 2008. Minnesota is listed as a Public Ivy in 2001 Greenes Guides The Public Ivies, the university developed Gopher, a precursor to the World Wide Web which used hyperlinks to connect documents across computers on the internet. However, the produced by CERN was favored by the public since it was freely distributed. The University also houses the Charles Babbage Institute, a research, the department has strong roots in early days of supercomputing with Seymour Cray of Cray supercomputers. Notable faculty of the department are Yousef Saad, Vipin Kumar, Jaideep Srivastava, John Riedl, some notable alumni of the department are Ed Chi, Imrich Chlamtac, Leah Culver, Jeff Dean, Mark P. McCahill, Arvind Mithal, and Calvin Mooers. Puffed rice - Alexander P. Anderson led to the discovery of puffed rice, transistorized cardiac pacemaker - Earl Bakken founded Medtronic, where he developed the first external, battery-operated, transistorized, wearable artificial pacemaker in 1957
4.
Johns Hopkins University
–
The Johns Hopkins University is an American private research university in Baltimore, Maryland. Founded in 1876, the university was named for its first benefactor, the American entrepreneur, abolitionist and his $7 million bequest—of which half financed the establishment of The Johns Hopkins Hospital—was the largest philanthropic gift in the history of the United States at that time. Daniel Coit Gilman, who was inaugurated as the institutions first president on February 22,1876, led the university to revolutionize higher education in the U. S. by integrating teaching and research. Adopting the concept of a school from Germanys ancient Heidelberg University. Johns Hopkins is organized into 10 divisions on campuses in Maryland and Washington, D. C. with international centers in Italy, China, and Singapore. The two undergraduate divisions, the Krieger School of Arts and Sciences and the Whiting School of Engineering, are located on the Homewood campus in Baltimores Charles Village neighborhood. The medical school, the school, and the Bloomberg School of Public Health are located on the Medical Institutions campus in East Baltimore. Johns Hopkins was a member of the American Association of Universities. Over the course of almost 140 years, thirty-six Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Johns Hopkins, founded in 1883, the Blue Jays men’s lacrosse team has captured 44 national titles and joined the Big Ten Conference as an affiliate member in 2014. On his death in 1873, Johns Hopkins, a Quaker entrepreneur and childless bachelor, bequeathed $7 million to fund a hospital and university in Baltimore, Maryland. At that time this fortune, generated primarily from the Baltimore, the first name of philanthropist Johns Hopkins is the surname of his great-grandmother, Margaret Johns, who married Gerard Hopkins. They named their son Johns Hopkins, who named his own son Samuel Hopkins, Samuel named one of his sons for his father and that son would become the universitys benefactor. Milton Eisenhower, a university president, once spoke at a convention in Pittsburgh where the Master of Ceremonies introduced him as President of John Hopkins. Eisenhower retorted that he was glad to be here in Pittburgh, the original board opted for an entirely novel university model dedicated to the discovery of knowledge at an advanced level, extending that of contemporary Germany. Building on the German education model of Wilhelm von Humboldt, it dedicated to research. Johns Hopkins thereby became the model of the research university in the United States. Its success eventually shifted higher education in the United States from a focus on teaching revealed and/or applied knowledge to the discovery of new knowledge. The trustees worked alongside four notable university presidents – Charles W. Eliot of Harvard, Andrew D. White of Cornell, Noah Porter of Yale College and they each vouched for Daniel Coit Gilman to lead the new University and he became the universitys first president
5.
University of Edinburgh
–
The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century
6.
Scotland
–
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
7.
Sewanee: The University of the South
–
Sewanee, The University of the South, also known as Sewanee, is a private, residential, coeducational liberal arts college located in Sewanee, Tennessee, United States. It is owned by 28 southern dioceses of the Episcopal Church, the universitys School of Letters offers graduate degrees in American Literature and Creative Writing. The campus consists of 13,000 acres of scenic mountain property atop the Cumberland Plateau, the school was ranked 45th in the 2015 U. S. News & World Report list of liberal arts colleges. In 2016, Forbes ranked it 94th on its Americas Top Colleges list, Sewanee is a member of the Associated Colleges of the South. The goal was to create a Southern university free of Northern influences, as one of its founders, Bishop James Otey of Tennessee put it, the new university will materially aid the South to resist and repel a fanatical domination which seeks to rule over us. John Armfield, co-owner of Franklin and Armfield was by far the most influential in bankrolling the new university, today, Sewanee admits students from all backgrounds and downplays the short-lived role of this notorious slave trader in the Universitys founding. A few were donated back to the university, and a fragment was eventually installed in a wall of All Saints Chapel. Several figures later prominent in the Confederacy, notably Bishop-General Leonidas Polk, Bishop Stephen Elliott, generals Edmund Kirby Smith, Josiah Gorgas and Francis A. Shoup were prominent in the universitys postbellum revival and continuance. Because of the damage and disruptions during the Civil War, construction came to a temporary halt, in 1866 building was resumed, and this date is sometimes used as the re-founding of the university and the year from which it has maintained continuous operations. The universitys first convocation was held on September 18,1868, with nine students, rev. Quintard is known as the Re-Founder of the University of the South. Schools of dentistry, engineering, law, medicine, and nursing once existed, however, for financial reasons it was eventually decided to focus on the College and the School of Theology. In June 2006, Sewanee opened its School of Letters, a graduate school. The School of Letters offers a Master of Arts in American Literature, the institution has combined its two historical names in all university publications that are not official documents and bills itself as Sewanee, The University of the South. In the past, though, unorganized use of official name. To avoid confusion and to honor the history and character of the institution, so, for extended audiences unfamiliar with the institution, the naming convention Sewanee, The University of the South should be used on a first reference. Subsequent references may be to Sewanee or the University, when this naming system was proposed in 2004, it was misinterpreted by some alumni to reflect a change in the official name of the university. A minor scandal ensued, with more conservative commentators insinuating that the change was intended to distance the university from its association with Southern culture. The Sewanee campus overlooks the Tennessee Valley, consisting of 13,000 acres on the Cumberland Plateau and it includes many buildings constructed of various materials faced with local stone, most done in the Gothic style
8.
George Mason University
–
George Mason University, located in George Mason in Fairfax County, Virginia, United States, is the largest public research university in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The university was founded as a branch of the University of Virginia in 1949, today, Mason is recognized for its programs in economics, law, creative writing, computer science, and business. In recent years, George Mason faculty have won the Nobel Prize in Economics. The university enrolls 33,917 students, making it the largest university by head count in the Commonwealth of Virginia, the University of Virginia in Charlottesville created an extension center to serve Northern Virginia. … the University Center opened, on October 1,1949, the extension center offered both for credit and non-credit informal classes in the evenings in the Vocational Building of the Washington-Lee High School in Arlington, Virginia. By the end of 1952, enrollment increased to 1,192 students from 665 students the previous year, a resolution of the Virginia General Assembly in January 1956 changed the extension center into University College, the Northern Virginia branch of the University of Virginia. John Norville Gibson Finley served as director, seventeen freshmen students attended classes at University College in a small renovated elementary school building in Baileys Crossroads starting in September 1957. In 1958 University College became George Mason College, the City of Fairfax purchased and donated 150 acres of land just south of the city limits to the University of Virginia for the colleges new site, which is now referred to as the Fairfax Campus. In 1959, the Board of Visitors of the University of Virginia selected a permanent name for the college, George Mason College of the University of Virginia. The Fairfax campus construction planning that began in early 1960 showed visible results when the development of the first 40 acres of Fairfax Campus began in 1962, in the Fall of 1964 the new campus welcomed 356 students. The measure, known as H33, passed the Assembly easily and was approved on March 1,1966 making George Mason College a degree-granting institution. On Friday, April 7,1972, a contingent from George Mason College, led by Chancellor Lorin A. Thompson, in 1978, George W. Johnson was appointed to serve as the fourth president. Under his eighteen-year tenure, the university expanded both its size and program offerings at a tremendous rate. Shortly before Johnsons inauguration in April 1979, Mason acquired the School of Law, the university also became a doctoral institution. Toward the end of Johnsons term, Mason would be deep in planning for a campus in Prince William County at Manassas. Enrollment once again more than doubled from 10,767 during the fall of 1978 to 24,368 in the spring of 1996, Dr. Alan G. Merten was appointed president in 1996. He believed that the location made it responsible for both contributing to and drawing from its surrounding communities—local, national, and global. George Mason was becoming recognized and acclaimed in all of these spheres, Dr. Ángel Cabrera officially took office on July 1,2012
9.
Georgetown University
–
Georgetown University is a private research university in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D. C. the capital of the United States. Georgetowns main campus is located on a hill above the Potomac River, the campus is identifiable by its flagship Healy Hall, which is a National Historic Landmark. Georgetown offers degree programs in disciplines, enrolling an average of 7,500 undergraduate and 10,000 post-graduate students from more than 130 countries. The university is known for preparing leaders for careers in government. As of 2015, Georgetown produced more diplomats for the U. S, Foreign Service than any other school in the country, and has ranked second in the U. S. by the average number of graduates serving in the U. S. Congress. Georgetown is the oldest Catholic and Jesuit-affiliated institution of education in the United States. The Jesuits have participated in the academic life, both as scholars and as administrators, since 1805, however, the university has always been governed independently of the church. At present, the majority of Georgetown students are not Catholic, Georgetown is home to the countrys largest student-run business, as well as the largest student-run financial institution. Jesuit settlers from England founded the Province of Maryland in 1634, during most of the remainder of Marylands colonial period, Jesuits conducted Catholic schools clandestinely. It was not until after the end of the American Revolution that plans to establish a permanent Catholic institution for education in the United States were realized, Carroll began meetings of local clergy in 1783 near Annapolis, Maryland, where they orchestrated the development of a new university. On January 23,1789, Carroll finalized the purchase of the property in Georgetown on which Dahlgren Quadrangle was later built, future Congressman William Gaston was enrolled as the schools first student on November 22,1791, and instruction began on January 2,1792. During its early years, Georgetown College suffered from financial strain. The Maryland Society of Jesus began its restoration in 1805, and Jesuit affiliation, in the form of teachers and administrators, the school relied on private sources of funding and the limited profits from local lands which had been donated to the Jesuits. To raise money for Georgetown and other schools in 1838, Maryland Jesuits conducted a sale of some 272 slaves to two Deep South plantations from their six in Maryland, ending their slaveholding. In 1844, the received a corporate charter, under the name The President and Directors of Georgetown College. In response to the demand for an option for Roman Catholic students. The U. S. Civil War greatly affected Georgetown as 1,141 students and alumni enlisted in one army or the other, by the time of President Abraham Lincolns May 1861 visit to campus,1,400 troops were living in temporary quarters there. Due to the number of lives lost in the war, enrollment levels remained low until well after the war, only seven students graduated in 1869, down from over 300 in the previous decade
10.
Catholic University of America
–
The Catholic University of America is a private university located in Washington, D. C. in the United States. It is a university of the Catholic Church in the United States. Established in 1887 as a graduate and research center following approval by Pope Leo XIII on Easter Sunday, the university began offering undergraduate education in 1904. In addition, it was ranked in the top 10 of the best Catholic colleges in the country and it was described as one of the 25 most underrated colleges in the United States. CUAs programs emphasize the arts, professional education, and personal development. The school stays closely connected with the Catholic Church and Catholic organizations, the American Cardinals Dinner is put on by the residential U. S. cardinals each year to raise scholarship funds for CUA. The university has a history of working with the Knights of Columbus. The university has been visited three times by sitting popes, Pope John Paul II visited on October 7,1979. On April 16,2008, Pope Benedict XVI gave an address at the campus about Catholic education and academic freedom. Pope Francis visited on September 23,2015 during his trip to the United States, at the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore in 1866, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops first discussed the need for a national Catholic university. At the Third Plenary Council on January 26,1885, bishops chose the name The Catholic University of America for the institution. In 1882 Bishop John Lancaster Spalding went to Rome to obtain Pope Leo XIIIs support for the university, on April 10,1887 Pope Leo XIII sent James Cardinal Gibbons a letter granting permission to establish the university. By developing new leaders and new knowledge, the university was intended to strengthen, the founders wished to emphasize the Churchs special role in United States. They believed that scientific and humanistic research, informed by faith and they wanted to develop a national institution that would promote the faith in a context of religious freedom, spiritual pluralism, and intellectual rigor. The university was incorporated in 1887 on 66 acres of land next to the Old Soldiers Home. President Grover Cleveland was in attendance for the laying of the cornerstone of Divinity Hall, now known as Caldwell Hall, on May 24,1888, as were members of Congress, at the end of the second term, lectures on canon law were added. The first students were graduated in 1889, in 1876 with the opening of the Johns Hopkins University, American universities began dedicating themselves to graduate study and research in the Prussian model. CUA was the channel through which the modern university movement entered the American Catholic community
11.
Smithsonian Institution
–
The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
12.
Scottish Enlightenment
–
The Scottish Enlightenment was the period in 18th and early 19th century Scotland characterised by an outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments. By the eighteenth century, Scotland had a network of schools in the Lowlands. Among the fields that rapidly advanced were philosophy, political economy, engineering, architecture, medicine, geology, archaeology, law, agriculture, chemistry, the Scottish Enlightenment of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was a natural development of this earlier engagement and advancement of knowledge. Union with England in 1707 meant the end of the Scottish Parliament, the parliamentarians, politicians, aristocrats, and placemen moved to London. Scottish law, however, was separate from English law, so the civil law courts, lawyers. The headquarters and leadership of the Church of Scotland also remained, as did the universities, at the union of 1707, England had about five times the population of Scotland and about 36 times as much wealth. Scotland experienced the beginnings of economic expansion that allowed it to close this gap, contacts with England led to a conscious attempt to improve agriculture among the gentry and nobility. Although some estate holders improved the quality of life of their workers, enclosures led to unemployment. The major change in trade was the rapid expansion of the Americas as a market. Glasgow particularly benefited from this new trade, initially supplying the colonies with manufactured goods, it emerged as the focus of the tobacco trade, the merchants dealing in this lucrative business became the wealthy tobacco lords, who dominated the city for most of the eighteenth century. Banking also developed in this period, the Bank of Scotland, founded in 1695 was suspected of Jacobite sympathies, and so a rival Royal Bank of Scotland was founded in 1727. Local banks began to be established in burghs like Glasgow and Ayr and these made capital available for business, and the improvement of roads and trade. By the late 17th century there was a complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands. By the 17th century, Scotland had five universities, compared with Englands two, all saw the establishment or re-establishment of chairs of mathematics. Observatories were built at St. Andrews and at Kings and Marischal colleges in Aberdeen, Robert Sibbald was appointed as the first Professor of Medicine at Edinburgh, and he co-founded the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1681. These developments helped the universities to major centres of medical education. By the 18th century, access to Scottish universities was probably more open than in contemporary England, attendance was less expensive and the student body more socially representative. In the eighteenth century Scotland reaped the benefits of this system
13.
How the Scots Invented the Modern World
–
How the Scots Invented the Modern World, The True Story of How Western Europes Poorest Nation Created Our World & Everything in It is a non-fiction book written by American historian Arthur Herman. The book examines the origins of the Scottish Enlightenment and what impact it had on the modern world, the book was published as a hardcover in November 2001 by Crown Publishing Group and as a trade paperback in September 2002. Critics found the thesis to be over-reaching but descriptive of the Scots disproportionate impact on modernity, in the American market, the trade paperback peaked at #3 on The Washington Post bestseller list, while in the Canadian market it peaked at #1. At the time of publication, the author was the coordinator of the Western Civilization Program at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, the book grew out of a class topic at the Smithsonian regarding intellectual life in Edinburgh in the 18th century. Herman was impressed by the fact that so many prominent individuals who had a significant impact on modernity had come from such a specific geographic location, Herman had only once been to Scotland as a teenager when his father, a professor, spent a semester at Edinburgh University. Though born and raised in the Midwestern United States, his ancestry back to Norway. The book is divided into two parts, the first part, Epiphany, consists of eight chapters and focuses on the roots, development, and impact of the Scottish Enlightenment on Scotland and Great Britain. The roots come from an appreciation for democracy and literacy that developed from the Scottish Reformation and he preached that God ordained power into the people and that it was for the people to administer and enforce Gods laws, not the monarchy. The defeat of the 1745 Jacobite rising decimated the antiquated social structure based around clans lorded over by chieftains and this liberalized the Scottish way of life by allowing citizens to own land and keep the profits instead of giving all profits to the chieftains who owned all the land. Their literate foundation allowed the Scots to become literate and take advantage of trade. Edinburgh and Glasgow became epicenters of intellectual thought, Herman presents biographies of Francis Hutcheson, Henry Home, Robert Adam, Adam Smith, and others to illustrate the Scottish development. The second part, Diaspora, focuses on the impacts of Scots on events, the world, Herman claims that the Scottish School of Common Sense influenced much of the American declaration of independence and constitution. Herman claims that Sir Walter Scott invented the historical novel, giving modernity a self-conscious antidote, in science and industry Herman states that James Watts steam engine gave capitalism its modern face, which has persisted down to today. It permitted business to choose its location, like in cities close to inexpensive labor, Scots contribution to modern society is illustrated with biographies of Scots like Dugald Stewart, John Witherspoon, John McAdam, Thomas Telford, and John Pringle, among others. Herman wrote the book for an American audience which may not have very familiar with Scottish history. He provides an overview and short biographies of the most prominent Scots. The historical approach uses the Great Man Theory, that a narrative can be told through the lives of a few prominent figures. One reviewer noted the books almost complete dependence on secondary sources, Herman provides a section, at the end of the book, listing sources used and suggestions for further reading on each chapter
14.
The New York Times
–
The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
15.
Charlottesville, Virginia
–
Charlottesville, colloquially Cville and formally the City of Charlottesville, is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 48,210 and it is the county seat of Albemarle County, which surrounds the city, though the two are separate legal entities. It is named after the British Queen Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the Bureau of Economic Analysis combines the City of Charlottesville with the County of Albemarle for statistical purposes, bringing its steadily growing population to approximately 150,000. Charlottesville is the heart of the Charlottesville metropolitan area, which includes Albemarle, Fluvanna, Greene, Charlottesville was the home of two Presidents, Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe. While both served as Governor of Virginia, they lived in Charlottesville, and traveled to and from Richmond, Orange, located 26 miles northeast of the city, was the hometown of President James Madison. The University of Virginia, founded by Thomas Jefferson and one of the original Public Ivies, straddles the citys border with Albemarle. Monticello, located 3 miles southeast of the city, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, located on a hilltop overlooking Charlottesville, Monticello attracts thousands of tourists every year. At the time of European encounter, part of the area that became Charlottesville was occupied by a Monacan village called Monasukapanough, Charlottesville was formed in 1762 by an Act of the Assembly of Albemarle County. Thomas Walker was named its first trustee and it was along a trade route called Three Notched Road which led from Richmond to the Great Valley. It was named for Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, queen consort of the United Kingdom as the wife of King George III, during the American Revolutionary War, the Convention Army was imprisoned in Charlottesville between 1779 and 1781 at the Albemarle Barracks. Unlike much of Virginia, Charlottesville was spared the brunt of the American Civil War, the only battle to take place in Charlottesville was the skirmish at Rio Hill, an encounter in which George Armstrong Custer briefly engaged local Confederate home guards before he retreated. The mayor surrendered the city to Custers men to keep the town from being burned, 1820–30, was accidentally burnt during General Sheridans 1865 raid through the Shenandoah Valley. The factory had taken over by the Confederacy and used to manufacture woollen clothing for the soldiers. It caught fire when some coals taken by Union troops to burn the railroad bridge had been dropped on the floor. The factory was rebuilt immediately and was known as the Woolen Mills until its liquidation in 1962, the first black church in Charlottesville was established in 1864. Previously, it was illegal for African-Americans to have their own churches, a current predominantly African-American church can trace its lineage to that first church. Congregation Beth Israels 1882 building is the oldest synagogue building standing in Virginia. The closures were required by a series of laws collectively known as the Stanley plan
16.
Great man theory
–
The theory was popularized in the 1840s by Scottish writer Thomas Carlyle. Thus subsequent social history, economic history, and political history have de-emphasized the primacy of great men, Carlyle stated that The history of the world is but the biography of great men, reflecting his belief that heroes shape history through both their personal attributes and divine inspiration. Carlyle also felt that the study of men was profitable to ones own heroic side. Along with Carlyle the Great Man theory was supported by American scholar Frederick Adams Woods, for example, all information on the post-Roman Migrations Period of European History is compiled under the biography of Attila the Hun. This heroic view of history was strongly endorsed by some philosophical figures such as Hegel, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Spengler. In Untimely Meditations, Nietzsche writes that. the goal of humanity lies in its highest specimens, in Fear and Trembling, Kierkegaard writes that. Hegel, proceeding from providentialist theory, argued that what is real is reasonable, Hegel opined, Such are great historical men—whose own particular aims involve those large issues which are the will of the World-Spirit. Thus, according to Hegel, a man does not create historical reality himself. He believed that the men Carlyle called great men were merely products of their social environment, before he can remake his society, his society must make him. Tolstoys War and Peace features criticism of Great Man Theories as a theme in the philosophical digressions. According to Tolstoy, the significance of great individuals is imaginary, so, he concludes that the role of Great Man depends on a number of factors, not none at all. Twilight of the Idols, by Peter Dizikes, from The New York Times, do changes in science mean the traditional great-man science biography is going the way of the dodo
17.
Sidney Hook
–
Sidney Hook was an American philosopher of the Pragmatist school known for his contributions to the philosophy of history, the philosophy of education, political theory, and ethics. After embracing Communism in his youth, Hook was later known for his criticisms of totalitarianism, a pragmatic social democrat, Hook sometimes cooperated with conservatives, particularly in opposing Communism. Hook was born in Brooklyn, New York City, to Jennie and Isaac Hook, Sidney Hook became a supporter of the Socialist Party during the Debs era when he was in high school. Hook earned his Bachelors degree at the City College of New York in 1923, then his Ph. D. degree at Columbia University in 1927, where he was a student of the noted pragmatist philosopher John Dewey. After Columbia, Hook became a professor of philosophy at New York University and and he retired from the University in 1972. At the beginning of his career, Hook was a prominent expert on Karl Marxs philosophy and was himself a Marxist and he attended the lectures of Karl Korsch in Berlin in 1928 and conducted research at the Marx-Engels Institute in Moscow in the summer of 1929. At first, he wrote enthusiastically about the Soviet Union, and, in 1932, supported the Communist Partys candidate, William Z. Foster, however, Hook broke completely with the Comintern in 1933, holding its policies responsible for the triumph of Nazism in Germany. He accused Joseph Stalin of putting the needs of the Russian state over the needs of the international revolution, however, Hook remained active in some of the causes of the far Left during the Great Depression. In 1933, with James Burnham, Hook was one of the organizers of the American Workers Party, Hook also debated the meaning of Marxism with radical Max Eastman in a series of public exchanges. Eastman, like Hook, had studied under John Dewey at Columbia University, the Great Purge encouraged Hooks increasing ambivalence toward Marxism. In 1939, Hook formed the Committee for Cultural Freedom, a organization that set the stage for his postwar politics by opposing totalitarianism on the left. By the Cold War, Hook had become a prominent anti-Communist and he was, therefore, an anti-Communist socialist. In 1973 he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto II, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, Hook helped found Americans for Intellectual Freedom, the Congress for Cultural Freedom, and the American Committee for Cultural Freedom. In the 1960s, Hook was a frequent critic of the New Left, Hook was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1965 and ended his career in the 1970s and 1980s as a fellow of the conservative Hoover Institution in Stanford, California. The National Endowment for the Humanities selected Hook for the 1984 Jefferson Lecture, Hooks lecture was entitled Education in Defense of a Free Society. In 1984 the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry awarded Hook their highest honor and it was presented by CSICOP Chairman Paul Kurtz. On May 23,1985, Hook was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Ronald Reagan. In October 2002, a conference marking the centennial of Hooks birth was organized by Matthew Cotter and Robert Talisse and he married Carrie Katz in 1924, with whom he had one son
18.
Friedrich Nietzsche
–
He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest ever to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869, Nietzsche resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life, and he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and he lived his remaining years in the care of his mother, and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, and died in 1900. Nietzsches body of work touched widely on art, philology, history, religion, tragedy, culture, and science, and drew inspiration from figures such as Schopenhauer, Wagner. His writing spans philosophical polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, and fiction while displaying a fondness for aphorism, born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of Röcken, near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who turned forty-nine on the day of Nietzsches birth, Nietzsches parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler, married in 1843, the year before their sons birth. They had two children, a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph. Nietzsches father died from an ailment in 1849, Ludwig Joseph died six months later. The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsches maternal grandmother, after the death of Nietzsches grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche-Haus, a museum and Nietzsche study centre. Nietzsche attended a school and then, later, a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug, Rudolf Wagner. In 1854, he began to attend Domgymnasium in Naumburg, because his father had worked for the state the now-fatherless Nietzsche was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognized Schulpforta. He transferred and studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and he also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. Nietzsche led Germania, a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German, a 2a in Greek and Latin, a 2b in French, History, and Physics, while at Pforta, Nietzsche had a penchant for pursuing subjects that were considered unbecoming. The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid. After graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies in theology, for a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester, he stopped his studies and lost his faith. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith
19.
Michel Foucault
–
Michel Foucault was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, social theorist, philologist and literary critic. His theories addressed the relationship between power and knowledge, and how they are used as a form of control through societal institutions. Though often cited as a post-structuralist and postmodernist, Foucault rejected these labels and his thought has been highly influential both for academic and for activist groups, especially those working within contemporary sociology, cultural studies, and critical theory. After several years as a cultural diplomat abroad, he returned to France and published his first major book and these first three histories exemplified a historiographical technique Foucault was developing called archaeology. In 1970 he was admitted to the Collège de France, membership of which he retained until his death and he also became active in a number of left-wing groups involved in anti-racist campaigns, anti-human rights abuses movements, and the struggle for penal reform. He went on to publish The Archaeology of Knowledge, Discipline and Punish, in these books he developed archaeological and genealogical methods which emphasized the role which power plays in the evolution of discourse in society. Paul-Michel Foucault was born on 15 October 1926 in the city of Poitiers, west-central France and he had been named after his father, Dr. His father was a local surgeon, having been born in Fontainebleau before moving to Poitiers. She was the daughter of prosperous surgeon Dr. Prosper Malapert, Paul Foucault eventually took over his father-in-laws medical practice, while his wife took charge of their large mid-19th-century house, Le Piroir, in the village of Vendeuvre-du-Poitou. Together the couple had three children, a girl named Francine and two boys, Paul-Michel and Denys, all of whom shared the same hair and bright blue eyes. The children were raised to be nominal Roman Catholics, attending mass at the Church of Saint-Porchair, in later life, Foucault would reveal very little about his childhood. Describing himself as a delinquent, he claimed his father was a bully who would sternly punish him. In 1930, Foucault began his two years early at the local Lycée Henry-IV. Here he undertook two years of education before entering the main lycée, where he stayed until 1936. He then undertook his first four years of education at the same establishment, excelling in French, Greek, Latin and history but doing poorly at arithmetic. In 1939, the Second World War broke out and France was occupied by Nazi Germany until 1945, his parents opposed the occupation and the Vichy regime, in 1940, Foucaults mother enrolled him in the Collège Saint-Stanislas, a strict Roman Catholic institution run by the Jesuits. Lonely, he described his years there as the ordeal, but excelled academically, particularly in philosophy, history, in 1942, he entered his final year, the terminale, where he focused on the study of philosophy, earning his baccalauréat in 1943. Returning to the local Lycée Henry-IV, he studied history and philosophy for a year, aided by a personal tutor and these ideas influenced Foucault, who adopted Hyppolites conviction that philosophy must be developed through a study of history
20.
Henry Adams
–
Henry Brooks Adams was an American historian and member of the Adams political family, being descended from two U. S. Presidents. After the American Civil War, he became a political journalist who entertained America’s foremost intellectuals at his homes in Washington and Boston. In his lifetime, he was best known for his History of the United States During the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, a 9-volume work, praised for its literary style. His posthumously published memoirs, The Education of Henry Adams, won the Pulitzer Prize and he was born in Boston, the son of Charles Francis Adams, Sr. and Abigail Brooks into one of the countrys most prominent families. After his graduation from Harvard University in 1858, he embarked on a tour of Europe. He was initiated into the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity as honorary member at the 1893 Columbian Exposition by Harris J. Ryan, through that organization, he was a member of the Irving Literary Society. He tried his hand again at law, taking employment with Judge Horace Grays Boston firm, Henry shouldered the responsibility reluctantly and with much self-doubt. Had little to do, he reflected later, and knew not how to do it rightly, during this time, Adams was the anonymous Washington correspondent for Charles Hales Boston Daily Advertiser. On March 19,1861, Abraham Lincoln appointed Charles Francis Adams, Henry accompanied his father to London as his private secretary. He also became the anonymous London correspondent for the New York Times, the two Adamses were kept very busy, monitoring Confederate diplomatic intrigues and trying to obstruct the construction of Confederate commerce raiders by British shipyards. Henrys writings for the Times argued that Americans should be patient with the British, while in Britain, Adams was befriended by many noted men, including Charles Lyell, Francis T. Palgrave, Richard Monckton Milnes, James Milnes Gaskell, and Charles Milnes Gaskell. He worked to introduce the young Henry James to English society, with the help of his closest and lifelong friend Charles Milnes Gaskell, while in Britain, Henry read and was taken with the works of John Stuart Mill. Henry wrote to his brother Charles that Mill demonstrated to him that democracy is still capable of rewarding a conscientious servant and his years in London led Adams to conclude that he could best provide that knowledgeable and conscientious leadership by working as a correspondent and journalist. In 1868, Henry Adams returned to the United States and settled in Washington, DC, Adams saw himself as a traditionalist longing for the democratic ideal of the 17th and 18th centuries. Accordingly, he was keen on exposing political corruption in his journalism, Adams said, I think that Lee should have been hanged. It was all the worse that he was a good man and its always the good men who do the most harm in the world. In 1870, Adams was appointed professor of history at Harvard. As an academic historian, Adams is considered to have been the first to conduct historical seminar work in the United States, among his students was Henry Cabot Lodge, who worked closely with Adams as a graduate student
21.
Brooks Adams
–
Peter Chardon Brooks Adams was an American historian, political scientist and a critic of capitalism. He graduated from Harvard University in 1870 and studied at Harvard Law School in 1870 and 1871, Adams believed that commercial civilizations rise and fall in predictable cycles. First, masses of people together in large population centers. As their desire for wealth grows, they discard spiritual and creative values and their greed leads to distrust and dishonesty, and eventually the society crumbles. In The Law of Civilization and Decay, Adams noted that as new population centers emerged in the west and he predicted in Americas Economic Supremacy that New York would become the center of world trade. His maternal grandfather was Peter Chardon Brooks, the wealthiest man in Boston at the time of his death and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1918. The 1900 US Census shows Brooks Adams as living in Quincy, the Census report also shows he married Evelyn Davis around 1890. The census does not show the couple having any children, the Emancipation of Massachusetts, The Dream and the Reality, Houghton Mifflin Company,1919. The Gold Standard, An Historical Study, Alfred Mudge & Son,1894, the Law of Civilization and Decay, An Essay on History, The Macmillan Company,1895. Americas Economic Supremacy, The Macmillan Co.1900, the New Empire, The Macmillan Company,1902. Railways as Public Agents, A Study in Sovereignty, Boston,1910, theory of Social Revolutions, The Macmillan Company,1913. The Spanish War and the Equilibrium of the World, The Forum 25, the New Struggle for Life Among Nations, McClures Magazine 12, April 1899. Englands Decadence in the West Indies, The Forum, June 1899, War and Economic Competition, Scribners 31, March 1902. John Hay, McClures Magazine 19, June 1902, Legal Supervision of the Transportation Tax, The North American Review, September 1904. Nature of Law, Methods and Aim of Legal Education, in, Centralization and the Law, Scientific Legal Education. Boston, Little, Brown & Company,1906, in, Centralization and the Law, Scientific Legal Education. Boston, Little, Brown & Company,1906, a Problem in Civilization, The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. CVI,1910. The Collapse of Capitalistic Government, The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. CXI,1913, Henry Adams, The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma, with an introduction by Brooks Adams
22.
Oswald Spengler
–
Oswald Arnold Gottfried Spengler was a German historian and philosopher of history whose interests included mathematics, science, and art. He is best known for his book The Decline of the West, published in 1918 and 1922, Spenglers civilization model postulates that any civilization is a superorganism with a limited and predictable lifespan. He wrote extensively throughout World War I and the interwar period and his other writings made little impact outside Germany. In 1920 Spengler produced Prussiandom and Socialism, which argued for an organic, Oswald Spengler was born in 1880 in Blankenburg as the second child of Bernhard and Pauline Spengler. Oswalds elder brother was born prematurely in 1879, when his mother tried to move a heavy laundry basket, Oswald was born ten months after his brothers death. His younger sisters were Adele, Gertrud, and Hildegard, oswalds paternal grandfather, Theodor Spengler, was a metallurgical inspector in Altenbrak. On 26 May 1799, Friedrich Wilhelm Grantzow, an apprentice in Berlin. Shortly before the wedding, Bräunchen Moses was baptized as Johanna Elisabeth Anspachin, like the Grantzows in general, Pauline was of a Bohemian disposition, and, before marrying Bernhard Spengler, accompanied her dancer sister on tours. She was the least talented member of the Grantzow family, in appearance, she was plump and a bit unseemly. Her temperament, which Oswald inherited, complemented her appearance and frail physique, she was moody, irritable, when Oswald was ten years of age, his family moved to the university city of Halle. Here he received an education at the local Gymnasium, studying Greek, Latin, mathematics. Here, too, he developed his propensity for the poetry, drama. He even experimented with a few artistic creations, some of which still survive, of Goethe and Nietzsche, Spengler later stated that I feel urged to name once more those to whom I owe practically everything, Goethe and Nietzsche. Goethe gave me method, Nietzsche the questioning faculty, after his fathers death in 1901 Spengler attended several universities as a private scholar, taking courses in a wide range of subjects. In 1903, he failed his doctoral thesis on Heraclitus because of insufficient references and he eventually received his Ph. D. from Halle on 6 April 1904. In December 1904, he set to write the secondary dissertation necessary to qualify as a school teacher. This became The Development of the Organ of Sight in the Higher Realms of the Animal Kingdom and it was approved and he received his teaching certificate. In 1905 Spengler suffered a nervous breakdown, biographers report his life as a teacher was uneventful
23.
Arnold Toynbee
–
Arnold Toynbee was a British economic historian also noted for his social commitment and desire to improve the living conditions of the working classes. Toynbee was born in London, the son of the physician Joseph Toynbee, Toynbee was the uncle, via his brother Harry Valpy Toynbee, of universal historian Arnold Joseph Toynbee. The two are often confused for each other due to the similarity of their names, Toynbee attended public schools in Blackheath and Woolwich. In 1873 he began to study economy at Oxford University, first at Pembroke College and from 1875 at Balliol College. He married Charlotte Atwood,12 years his senior and a cousin of Harold Davidson, Toynbee died in 1883, at age 30. His health had deteriorated, probably due to exhaustion by excessive work. Of weak physique, but full of a passionate spiritual enthusiasm and he died for truth as he knew it, and those who knew him felt that his death was a national loss. For example, he argued that, despite commonly held beliefs, free trade was not generally advantageous in itself, but only certain circumstances. Toynbee considered few laws as universally true, such as the law of diminishing returns, therefore, there were no universal rules as to how strongly the state should interfere in the marketplace, all depended on the situation and varying degrees of regulation could be appropriate. Toynbee did not equate a struggle for existence and a struggle for a particular kind of existence. From the very beginning of history, he argued, all human civilisation was essentially designed to interfere with this brute struggle and we intend to modify the violence of the fight, and to prevent the weak being trampled under foot. This kind of competition has to be checked, there is no instance of its having lasted long without being modified either by combination or legislation. In England both remedies are in operation, the former through Trades Unions, the latter through factory legislation, however, in the early phase of industrial capitalism it came to be believed in as a gospel, from which it was regarded as little long of immoral to depart. He read for workers in industrial centres and encouraged the creation of trade unions. A focal point of his commitment was the slum of Whitechapel, in East London, Toynbee also encouraged his students to offer free courses for working-class audiences in their own neighbourhoods. Inspired by his ideas, Samuel Augustus Barnett and Henrietta Barnett founded the first university settlement in 1884, shortly after Toynbees death, a centre for social reform, Toynbee Hall was on Commercial Street, Whitechapel. The concept was to bring upper and middle class students into lower-class neighbourhoods, not only to education and social aid. This soon inspired a movement of university settlements
24.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
25.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
26.
C-SPAN
–
C-SPAN, an acronym for Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network, is an American cable and satellite television network that was created in 1979 by the cable television industry as a public service. C-SPAN televises many proceedings of the United States federal government, as well as public affairs programming. Its coverage of political and policy events is unedited, thereby providing viewers with unfiltered information about politics, non-political coverage includes historical programming, programs dedicated to non-fiction books, and interview programs with noteworthy individuals associated with public policy. The network operates independently, and neither the cable industry nor Congress has control of the content of its programming, Congress and other public affairs event and policy discussions. Lamb shared his idea with several executives, who helped him launch the network. Among them were Bob Rosencrans who provided $25,000 of initial funding in 1979 and John D. Evans who provided the wiring and access to the headend needed for the distribution of the C-SPAN signal. C-SPAN was launched on March 19,1979, in time for the first televised session made available by the House of Representatives, upon its debut, only 3.5 million homes were wired for C-SPAN, and the network had just three employees. The second C-SPAN channel, C-SPAN2, followed on June 2,1986 when the U. S. Senate permitted itself to be televised, C-SPAN Radio began operations on October 9,1997, covering similar events as the television networks and often simulcasting their programming. The station broadcasts on WCSP in Washington, D. C. is also available on XM Satellite Radio channel 120 and is streamed live at c-span. org and it was formerly available on Sirius Satellite Radio from 2002 to 2006. Lamb semi-retired in March 2012, coinciding with the channels 33rd anniversary, on January 12,2017, the online feed for C-SPAN1 was interrupted and replaced by a feed from the Russian television network RT for approximately 10 minutes. C-SPAN announced that they were troubleshooting the incident and were operating under the assumption that it was an internal routing issue, C-SPAN celebrated its 10th anniversary in 1989 with a three-hour retrospective, featuring Lamb recalling the development of the network. Five years later, the series American Presidents, Life Portraits, in 2004, C-SPAN celebrated its 25th anniversary, by which time the flagship network was viewed in 86 million homes, C-SPAN2 was in 70 million homes and C-SPAN3 was in eight million homes. Also included in the 25th anniversary was an essay contest for viewers to write in about how C-SPAN has influenced their life regarding community service. For example, one essay contest winner wrote about how C-SPANs non-fiction book programming serves as a resource in his mission to record non-fiction audio books for people who are blind. The network also had an essay contest, the winner of which was invited to host an hour of the broadcast from C-SPANs Capitol Hill studios. C-SPAN continues to expand its coverage of government proceedings, with a history of requests to government officials for greater access, in December 2009, Lamb wrote to leaders in the House and Senate, requesting that negotiations for health care reform be televised by C-SPAN. Committee meetings on health care were broadcast subsequently by C-SPAN and may be viewed on the C-SPAN website, in November 2010, Lamb wrote to incoming House Speaker John Boehner requesting changes to restrictions on cameras in the House. In particular, C-SPAN asked to add some of its own robotically operated cameras to the existing government-controlled cameras in the House chamber, in February 2011, Boehner denied the request
27.
Bibsys
–
BIBSYS is an administrative agency set up and organized by the Ministry of Education and Research in Norway. They are a provider, focusing on the exchange, storage and retrieval of data pertaining to research. BIBSYS are collaborating with all Norwegian universities and university colleges as well as research institutions, Bibsys is formally organized as a unit at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, located in Trondheim, Norway. The board of directors is appointed by Norwegian Ministry of Education, BIBSYS offer researchers, students and others an easy access to library resources by providing the unified search service Oria. no and other library services. They also deliver integrated products for the operation for research. As a DataCite member BIBSYS act as a national DataCite representative in Norway and thereby allow all of Norways higher education, all their products and services are developed in cooperation with their member institutions. The purpose of the project was to automate internal library routines, since 1972 Bibsys has evolved from a library system supplier for two libraries in Trondheim, to developing and operating a national library system for Norwegian research and special libraries. The target group has expanded to include the customers of research and special libraries. BIBSYS is an administrative agency answerable to the Ministry of Education and Research. In addition to BIBSYS Library System, the product consists of BISBYS Ask, BIBSYS Brage, BIBSYS Galleri. All operation of applications and databases is performed centrally by BIBSYS, BIBSYS also offer a range of services, both in connection with their products and separate services independent of the products they supply
28.
Integrated Authority File
–
The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
29.
National Diet Library
–
The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences
30.
Virtual International Authority File
–
The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
