1.
Prime Minister of Romania
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The Prime Minister of Romania is the head of the Government of Romania. Initially, the office was styled President of the Council of Ministers, when the term Government included more than the Cabinet, the title was officially changed to Prime Minister during the communist regime. Sorin Grindeanu has been the incumbent prime minister since 4 January,2017, one of the roles of the President of the Republic is to designate a candidate for the office of Prime Minister. The President must consult with the party that has the majority in the Parliament or, if no such majority exists, once designated, the candidate assembles a proposal for the governing program and the cabinet. The proposal must be approved by the Parliament within ten days, both the program and the cabinet membership are debated by the Parliament in a joint session of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The proposal is accepted if a majority of all Deputies. Once the vote of confidence is obtained, the candidate becomes the Prime Minister, the Prime Minister, the Ministers, and other members of the Government take an oath before the President, as stipulated under Article 82 of the Constitution. The Government as a whole and each of its members exercise their mandate from the date of the oath, the Prime Minister directs Government actions and co-ordinates the activities of its members. He submits to the Chamber of Deputies or the Senate reports and statements on Government policy, the President cannot dismiss the Prime Minister, but the Parliament can withdraw its support through a vote of no-confidence. List of Prime Ministers of Romania Nicolae C
2.
Alexandru Vaida-Voevod
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He was born to a Greek-Catholic family in the Transylvanian village of Bobâlna. Initially, Voevod was supportive of a plan to federalize the domains of the Habsburgs along the lines of a United States of Greater Austria, and was close to Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Vaida-Voevod joined the Romanian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, during the conference, he joined the Masonic Grand Orient de France in order to secure a more advantageous position for his country. The elections of November 1919 were successful for his party, brătianu as Prime Minister and Nicolae Mișu as Foreign Minister. He secured the lines by ordering Romanian troops to fight off the Hungarian Soviet Republic. However, his approach toward the land reforms made King Ferdinand dissolve his government in March 1920. Vaida-Voevods party emerged as the National Peasants Party in 1926, and he also served twice as Interior Minister. Vaida-Voevods second cabinet existed from 11 August until the 17 October 1932, after Maniu resigned as Prime Minister in January 1933, Vaida-Voevod returned as Prime Minister. Vaida and his supporters, who formed the National Peasants Partys right wing, were acting more like Liberals than Peasantists and his second government fell because of Armand Călinescu, who was a staunch opponent of the Legionary Movement. It was dissolved after 1944 when Communist Party gained influence with Soviet backing, nevertheless, the party never eluded obscurity in front of competition from the Legionaries, and its members were victims of the repression carried out by the communist regime after 1948. Vaida-Voevod was arrested on March 24,1945, in 1946, he was put under house arrest in Sibiu, where he spent the remainder of his life. Antologie de texte, Editura Noua Alternativă, Social Theory Institute of the Romanian Academy, Bucharest,1994 Ioan Scurtu, Mit și realitate
3.
Ministry of National Defence (Romania)
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The Ministry of National Defence is one of the fifteen ministries of the Government of Romania. Since 17 November 2015, the Minister of National Defence has been Mihnea Motoc, the Ministry of National Defence is structured on central structures. Armaments Department Is in charge with military acquisitions and coordinates the research in its area of responsibility, the General Staff is headed by the chief of the General Staff, named by the President of Romania at the suggestion of the minister of National Defense and the Prime Ministers approval. The chief of the General Staff is the highest military rank in the Armed Forces, a Committee of chiefs of staffs with deliberative role is established at the General Staff level. Its organization and function are established by the approved by order of the minister of National Defense. Inspectorate of the Ministry of National Defense The structure through which the minister of National Defense exercises the control, the Inspectorate organizes and controls the environment and labor protection, technical and metrological overwatch. The Inspectorate is managed by the general inspector designated by order of minister of National Defense, the General Secretariat is headed by the general secretary, a civil servant, nominalized by order of minister of National Defense. Defense Intelligence General Directorate is headed by a director appointed by the decision of the Prime Minister at the recommendation of the Minister of National Defense. Human Resources Management Directorate The specialised structure in elaborating the politics, financial-Accounting Directorate The MoND specialized structure ensuring the fulfillment of economic, financial-accounting activities of the minister as the chief accountant. The minister of National Defense also has in his subordination, - counselors of minister, - diplomatic counselor, - ministers cabinet, the Ministry of National Defence subordinates the service staffs, commands, directorates, education and research institutes, formations and other structures. The Ministry of National Defence is led and represented by the minister of National Defence, the minister of National Defence in exercising the leadership is assisted by State Secretaries and chief of the General Staff. At the Ministry of National Defence level exist, - College of Ministry of National Defence with consultative role, Romania used the Julian calendar until 1919, but all dates are given in the Gregorian calendar
4.
Izmail
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For the class of Russian warships, see Izmail-class battlecruiser. Izmail is a city on the Danube river in Odessa Oblast in south-western Ukraine. Administratively, Izmail is incorporated as a town of oblast significance and it also serves as the administrative center of Izmail Raion, one of twenty-six districts of Odessa Oblast, though it is not a part of the district. It is the largest Ukrainian port on the Danube, as such, it is a center of the food processing industry and a popular regional tourist destination. It is also a base of the Ukrainian Navy and the Ukrainian Sea Guard units operating on the river, the World Wildlife Funds Isles of Izmail Regional Landscape Park is located nearby. Population,72, 471 Ethnic Russians form about 42. 7% of the population of Izmail, while 38% are Ukrainians, 10% Bessarabian Bulgarians, the fortress of Izmail was built by Genoese merchants in the 12th century. It belonged for a period of time to Wallachia – as the territory north of the Danube was one of the possessions of the Basarabs. The town was first mentioned with the name Ismailiye, derived from the name of the Ottoman Grand Vizier Izmail, from the end of the 14th century, Izmail was under the rule of Moldavia. In 1484, the Ottoman state conquered the territory, which became from that moment an Ottoman protectorate, since the early 16th century it was the main Ottoman fortress in the Budjak region. In 1569 Sultan Selim II settled Izmail with his Nogai subjects, after Russian general Nicholas Repnin took the fortress of Izmail in 1770, it was heavily refortified by the Turks, so as never to be captured again. The Sultan boasted that the fortress was impregnable, but during the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792 the Russian Army commander Alexander Suvorov successfully stormed it on 22 December 1790, Ottoman forces inside the fortress had the orders to stand their ground to the end, haughtily declining the Russian ultimatum. The defeat was seen as a catastrophe in the Ottoman Empire, while in Russia it was glorified in the countrys first national anthem, for all his bluffness, Suvorov later told an English traveller that when all was over he went back to his tent and wept. At the end of the war, Izmail was returned to the Ottoman Empire, after it was ceded to Russia with the rest of Bessarabia by the 1812 Treaty of Bucharest, the town was rebuilt thoroughly. The Intercession Cathedral, the churches of Nativity, St. Nicholas, after Russia lost the Crimean War, the town returned to the Principality of Moldavia, which would soon become part of the Romanian Principalities. Russia gained control of Izmail again after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. With the breakup of the Russian Empire in 1917 and in the aftermath of World War I, later that year, the Sfatul Țării of Chișinău, which claimed to be the representative of the whole of Bessarabia, voted to formally unite the region with Romania. This union was recognized by the United Kingdom, France and Italy in the Treaty of Paris, during the Soviet period following World War II, many Russians and Ukrainians migrated to the town, gradually changing its ethnic composition. Izmail Oblast was formed in 1940 and the town remained its administrative centre until the oblast was merged to Odessa Oblast in 1954, since 24 August 1991, Izmail has been part of independent Ukraine
5.
United Principalities
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On 24 January 1862, the Principality of Moldavia and the Principality of Wallachia formally united to create the Romanian United Principalities, the core of the Romanian nation state. In 1866 a new constitution came into effect, giving the country the name of Romania, Transylvania was added after the First World War. It was subsequently used by Romanian historians as an alternative to the older term Romanian Lands. English use of Romanian Principalities is documented from the half of the 19th century. In the period between the late 18th century and the 1860s, Danubian Principalities was used, a term that sometimes included Serbia, in contrast, use of Romanian Principalities sometimes included Transylvania but never Serbia. Though internationally formally recognized only after the period of Cuzas reign, following the 1877-8 war of independence, Romania shook off formal Ottoman rule, but eventually clashed with its Russian ally over its demand for the Budjak region. Ultimately, Romania was awarded Northern Dobruja in exchange for southern Bessarabia, the Kingdom of Romania subsequently emerged in 1881 with Prince Carol being crowned as King Carol I of Romania. Alexandru Ioan Cuza took steps to unify the administrations of the two Romanian Principalities and gain recognition for the Union. Opposition from the large-land-owners dominated parliament to Cuza resulted in a coup against him in 1864 and he subsequently instituted authoritarian rule but his popular support, strong at the time of the coup, gradually waned as the land reform failed to bring prosperity to the peasant majority. Cuza was forced to abdicate in 1866 by the two political groups, the Conservatives and the Liberals, who represented the interests of former large-land-owners. Although the event sparked some anti-unionist turmoil in Cuzas native province of Moldavia, the new governing coalition appointed Carol of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as the new Ruling Prince of Romania in a move initially rejected by the European powers but later on accepted. In the first year of Carols reign Romania adopted its first constitution and this instrument provided for a hereditary constitutional monarchy, with a Parliament being elected through censitary suffrage although the country remained under Ottoman suzerainty. Carol was not unanimously accepted, and a rise in republican sentiment culminated with an uprising in Ploieşti in 1870 and a revolt in Bucharest in 1871, both of which were quelled by the army. In April 1877, in the wake of a new Russo-Turkish war, on May 9, the Romanian parliament declared the independence of the principality, and joined the war on the Russian side. After several Romanian victories south of the Danube and the victory of the Russian-led side in the war. Nevertheless, Romania was made to exchange Southern Bessarabia for Northern Dobruja, in 1881, the countrys parliament proclaimed Romania a kingdom. Danubian Principalities Romanian Old Kingdom Keith M. Hitchins, The Romanians, 1774–1866 online
6.
Bucharest
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Bucharest is the capital and largest city of Romania, as well as its cultural, industrial, and financial centre. It is located in the southeast of the country, at 44°25′57″N 26°06′14″E, on the banks of the Dâmbovița River, less than 60 km north of the Danube River, Bucharest was first mentioned in documents in 1459. It became the capital of Romania in 1862 and is the centre of Romanian media, culture and its architecture is a mix of historical, interbellum, communist-era and modern. In the period between the two World Wars, the citys elegant architecture and the sophistication of its elite earned Bucharest the nickname of Little Paris. Although buildings and districts in the city centre were heavily damaged or destroyed by war, earthquakes. In recent years, the city has been experiencing an economic, in 2016, the historical city centre was listed as endangered by the World Monuments Watch. According to the 2011 census,1,883,425 inhabitants live within the city limits, the urban area extends beyond the limits of Bucharest proper and has a population of about 1.9 million people. Adding the satellite towns around the area, the proposed metropolitan area of Bucharest would have a population of 2.27 million people. According to Eurostat, Bucharest has an urban zone of 2,183,091 residents. According to unofficial data, the population is more than 3 million, Bucharest is the sixth-largest city in the European Union by population within city limits, after London, Berlin, Madrid, Rome, and Paris. Economically, Bucharest is the most prosperous city in Romania and is one of the industrial centres. The city has big convention facilities, educational institutes, cultural venues, traditional shopping arcades, the Romanian name București has an uncertain origin. Tradition connects the founding of Bucharest with the name of Bucur, who was a prince, an outlaw, a fisherman, in Romanian, the word stem bucurie means joy, and it is believed to be of Dacian origin. Other etymologies are given by scholars, including the one of an Ottoman traveler, Evliya Çelebi. A native or resident of Bucharest is called a Bucharester, Bucharests history alternated periods of development and decline from the early settlements in antiquity until its consolidation as the national capital of Romania late in the 19th century. First mentioned as the Citadel of București in 1459, it became the residence of the famous Wallachian prince Vlad III the Impaler, the Ottomans appointed Greek administrators to run the town from the 18th century. A short-lived revolt initiated by Tudor Vladimirescu in 1821 led to the end of the rule of Constantinople Greeks in Bucharest, the Old Princely Court was erected by Mircea Ciobanul in the mid-16th century. Under subsequent rulers, Bucharest was established as the residence of the royal court
7.
Socialist Republic of Romania
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The Socialist Republic of Romania refers to Romania under Marxist-Leninist one-party Communist rule that existed officially from 1947 to 1989. From 1947 to 1965, the state was known as the Romanian Peoples Republic, the country was a Soviet-aligned Eastern Bloc state with a dominant role for the Romanian Communist Party enshrined in its constitutions. As World War II ended, Romania, a former Axis member, was occupied by the Soviet Union, gradually, more members of the Communist Party and communist-aligned parties gained control of the administration and pre-war political leaders were steadily eliminated from political life. In December 1947, King Michael was induced to abdicate and the Peoples Republic of Romania was declared, at first, Romanias scarce post-war resources were drained by the SovRoms, new tax-exempt Soviet-Romanian companies that allowed the Soviet Union to control Romanias major sources of income. Another drain was the war reparations paid to the Soviet Union, in the 1950s, however, Romanias communist government began to assert more independence, inducing, for example, the withdrawal of all Soviet troops from Romania by 1958. In the 1960s and 1970s, Nicolae Ceaușescu became General Secretary of the Communist Party, Chairman of the State Council, Ceaușescus denunciation of the 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia and a brief relaxation in internal repression helped give him a positive image both at home and in the West. However, rapid growth fueled by foreign credits gradually gave way to an austerity. A large number of people were executed or died in custody during communist Romanias existence, while judicial executions between 1945 and 1964 numbered 137, deaths in custody are estimated in the tens or hundreds of thousands. Many more were imprisoned for political, economical or other reasons and suffered abuse, geographically, it bordered the Black Sea to the east, the Soviet Union to the north and east, Hungary to the north, Yugoslavia to the west and Bulgaria to the south. Romanian forces fought under Soviet command, driving through Northern Transylvania into Hungary proper and this changed in March 1945, when Dr. Petru Groza of the Ploughmens Front, a party closely associated with the Communists, became prime minister. His government was broad-based on paper, including members of most major parties except the Iron Guard. However, the Communists held the key ministries, and most of the ministers nominally representing non-Communist parties were, like Groza himself, despite the Kings disapproval, the first Groza government brought land reform and womens suffrage. However, it brought the beginnings of Soviet domination of Romania. In the elections of 19 November 1946, the Communist-led Bloc of Democratic Parties claimed 84% of the votes, a show trial of their leadership was then arranged, and they were put in jail. Other parties were forced to merge with the Communists, in 1946 and 1947, hundreds of participants in the pro-Axis government were executed as war criminals, primarily for their involvement in the Holocaust and for attacking the Soviet Union. Antonescu himself was executed 1 June 1946, by 1947, Romania remained the only monarchy in the Eastern Bloc. On 30 December that year, Michael was at his palace in Sinaia when Groza and they presented him with a pretyped instrument of abdication and demanded that he sign it. With pro-Communist troops surrounding his palace and his lines cut
8.
National Liberal Party (Romania)
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The National Liberal Party is a conservative-liberal political party in Romania. Founded in 1990, it claims the legacy of the political party of the same name. Based on this legacy, it presents itself as the first formally constituted political party in the country. It is the second-largest party in the Romanian Parliament, with 102 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 51 in the Senate, until 2014, the PNL was a member of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe. The party statutes adopted in June 2014 dropped any reference to international affiliation, on 12 September 2014, it was admitted as a full member of the European Peoples Party, and subsequently merged with the Democratic Liberal Party. The party is also a member of the Liberal International and Centrist Democrat International, the PNL contested the 1996 general election as part of the successful Democratic Convention of Romania electoral alliance. The 2004 general election was fought by the PNL under the Justice and Truth Alliance banner, in April 2007, then Prime Minister Călin Popescu-Tăriceanu, who was also the party leader, formed a minority government only with the UDMR. In the 2009 Romanian presidential elections its new leader, Crin Antonescu, finished third, on 5 February 2011, the PNL formed the Social Liberal Union political alliance with the PSD, National Union for the Progress of Romania and Conservative Party. The PNL exited the USL on 25 February 2014, disbanding the alliance, on 26 May 2014, following the 2014 European elections, PNL party president Crin Antonescu announced that he was seeking membership of the European Peoples Party. At the beginning of the 8th European Parliament,5 of the PNL MEPs sat with the EPP Group, and 1 with the ALDE Group, who later became an independent MEP within ALDE. In late May 2014 the party agreed to a merger with the Democratic Liberal Party. The PNL-PDL presidential candidate was agreed to run under a banner called the Christian Liberal Alliance. On 27 June 2014, former PNL leader Călin Popescu-Tăriceanu announced his intention to found a liberal party to run for president. The breakaway party, called the Liberal Reformist Party, was founded by Popescu-Tăriceanu on 3 July 2014, on 26 July 2014, a joint party congress of the PNL and PDL approved the merger. In the first round of the 2014 presidential election on 2 November 2014, ACL presidential candidate Klaus Iohannis, PNL party president, Iohannis won the runoff election held on 16 November 2014 with 54. 5% of the vote. The party adheres to the doctrine of liberalism, advocating economic and social liberalization. In recent years, it has focused more on economic liberalism, for example, one of its main election promises for the 2004 legislative election was the introduction of a flat tax rate of 16% for personal income and corporate profits. Because the Liberal Party became part of the coalition, it managed to introduce this change
9.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
10.
University of Bucharest
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The University of Bucharest offers study programmes in Romanian and English and is classified as an advanced research and education university by the Ministry of Education. In the 2012 QS World University Rankings, it was included in the top 700 universities of the world, in 1694 Constantin Brâncoveanu, ruler of Wallachia, had founded the Princely Academy of Saint Sava in Bucharest with lectures delivered in Greek. In 1776, Alexander Ypsilantis, ruler of Wallachia, reformed the curriculum of the Saint Sava Academy, in 1859, the Faculty of Law was created. In 1857, Carol Davila created the Carol Davila University of Medicine, in 1857, the foundation stone of the University Palace in Bucharest was laid. On July 4/161864 Prince Alexander John Cuza created the University of Bucharest, bringing together the Faculties of Law, Sciences, in 1956, student leaders, mainly from this university, planned a peaceful protest against Romanias Communist regime but were forcibly prevented from carrying it out. For a while, it was called the C. I, during the months of April–June 1990, the University of Bucharest was the centre of anti-communist protests. In 1996, Emil Constantinescu, the rector of the University of Bucharest, was elected President of Romania. It has partnership agreements with over 50 universities in 40 countries and it is an accredited Cisco Academy, has Microsoft curriculum, and is accredited by Red Hat for its academic programme. The University of Bucharest has been awarded the 2000 National Academic Excellence Diploma, all of the degrees and diplomas awarded by the university are internationally recognised. The University of Bucharest has a number of buildings throughout Bucharest, the Kogălniceanu Building, near the Opera House, housing the Administrative section and the Faculty of Law. The Faculty of Physics, in the town of Măgurele. The Faculty of Political Science, on Sfântu Ştefan Street, the Faculty of Orthodox Theology, in the Unirii Square The Faculty of Medicine Carol Davila in Eroilor Sanitari The University prints a yearly guide for freshmen. List of modern universities in Europe Official site
11.
Kingdom of Romania
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The Kingdom of Romania was a constitutional monarchy which existed between 13 March 1881 and 30 December 1947, specified by the first three Constitutions of Romania. As such, it is distinct from the Romanian Old Kingdom. From 1859 to 1877, Romania evolved from a union of two vassal principalities under a single prince to a full-fledged independent kingdom with a Hohenzollern monarchy. During 1918-20, at the end of World War I, Transylvania, Eastern Moldavia, in 1947 King Michael was compelled to abdicate and a socialist republic ruled by the Romanian Communist Party replaced the monarchy. The 1859 ascendancy of Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince of both Moldavia and Wallachia under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire united an identifiably Romanian nation under a single ruler. On 5 February 1862 the two principalities were united to form the Principality of Romania, with Bucharest as its capital. On 23 February 1866 a so-called Monstrous coalition, composed of Conservatives and radical Liberals, the German prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was appointed as Prince of Romania, in a move to assure German backing to unity and future independence. He immediately adopted the Romanian spelling of his name, Carol, on 15 March 1881, as an assertion of full sovereignty, the Romanian parliament raised the country to the status of a kingdom, and Carol was crowned as king on 10 May. Abstaining from the Initial Balkan War against the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Romania entered the Second Balkan War in June 1913 against the Tsardom of Bulgaria,330,000 Romanian troops moved across the Danube and into Bulgaria. One army occupied Southern Dobrudja and another moved into northern Bulgaria to threaten Sofia, Romania thus acquired the ethnically-mixed territory of Southern Dobrudja, which it had desired for years. In 1916 Romania entered World War I on the Entente side, the term came into use after World War I, when the Old Kingdom was opposed to Greater Romania, which included Transylvania, Banat, Bessarabia, and Bukovina. Nowadays, the term mainly has a historical relevance, and is used as a common term for all regions in Romania included in both the Old Kingdom and present-day borders. Romania delayed in entering World War I, but ultimately declared war on the Central Powers in 1916, War with the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919 resulted in the occupation of Budapest by Romanian troops and the end of Béla Kuns Bolshevik regime. At the Paris Peace Conference, Romania received territories of Transylvania, part of Banat, Bessarabia, thus, Romania in 1920 was more than twice the size it had been in 1914. Although the country was satisfied and had no territorial claims, it aroused the enmity of Bulgaria, and especially Hungary. Greater Romania now encompassed a significant minority population, especially of Hungarians, by contrast, the prewar Romanian state had only one real minority, Jews, but nonetheless anti-Semitism was widespread. Transylvania had significant Hungarian and German population, and with a contemptuous attitude towards Romanians. Both groups were excluded from politics as the postwar Romanian regime passed an edict stating that all personnel employed by the state had to speak Romanian
12.
Romanian Land Forces
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The Romanian Land Forces is the army of Romania, and the main component of the Romanian Armed Forces. In recent years, full professionalisation and a major equipment overhaul have transformed the nature of the force, the Romanian Land Forces were founded on 24 November 1859. They participated in World War I, together with the Russian Empire forces in actions against the Central Powers and, despite initial setbacks, during most of World War II Romanian forces supported the Axis powers, fighting against the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front. From August 1944 until the end of the war, Romania fought against Germany under the control of the Soviet Union, when the communists seized power after the Second World War, the army underwent reorganisation and sovietization. Following the Romanian Revolution, due to shortage of funds, many units were disbanded, likewise, Romanian military capability declined because of a lack of fuel as well as training.8 billion dollars in 2007. Conscription has been abolished and professionalisation has been completed, the first attempt to create an independent Romanian army was made by Gheorghe Magheru during the 1848 Wallachian Revolution, and it was based at Râureni. However, Magheru rapidly ordered his troops to disband when the Ottoman forces swept into Bucharest to stop the revolution and they participated in the Siege of Plevna and several other battles. The Romanians won the war, but suffered about 27,000 casualties, until World War I, the Romanian army didnt face any other serious actions. The Romanian Army entered the Second Balkan War against Bulgaria, allowing Romania to annex Southern Dobruja, although some 330,000 troops were mobilised, the Romanians met little resistance in Bulgaria and as such this is not considered a major conflict in Romanian history. This was due to claims on land. This area no longer belongs to Romania, on July 6,1916, Romania declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary, following the initial success of the Brusilov Offensive. The Romanian armies entered Transylvania, together with Russian forces, however, German forces under the command of General Erich von Falkenhayn stalled the attack in November,1916, and drove back the Romanians. At the same time, Austrian and Turkish troops invaded southern Romania, the Central Powers drove deep into Romania and conquered the south of the country by the end of 1916. The Romanian forces, led by Marshal Constantin Prezan, retreated into the north-east part of Romania, General Alexandru Averescu led the Second Army in the victories of the Battle of Mărăşti and the Battle of Mărăşeşti. As a result of the Russian Revolution, Romania was left isolated and unable to continue the war, later on, in 1919, Germany agreed, in the Treaty of Versailles Article 259, to renounce all the benefits provided to it by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1918. After the successful offensive on the Thessaloniki front, which put Bulgaria out of the war, Romania re-entered the war on November 10,1918, after World War I, Transylvania proclaimed union with the Kingdom of Romania. As a result, in April 1919, the newly established Hungarian Soviet Republic vowed to retake the region by force, the Romanian Army defeated the Hungarians and conquered Budapest in August 1919. From 1921 to 1939 in Transylvania Inspectorate General of Army no.3 had subordinate the 6th and 7th Army Corps, after 1 April 1921 to 23 March 1939, C.6 A
13.
Romania during World War I
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The Romanian campaign was part of the Balkan theatre of World War I, with Romania and Russia allied against the armies of the Central Powers. Romania entered the war in an attempt to seize Transylvania, a region with majority Romanian population, despite initial successes, the Romanian forces suffered several setbacks, and by the end of 1916 only Moldavia remained under Allied control. On 10 November 1918, just one day before the German armistice and after all the other Central Powers had already capitulated, by then, about 220,000 Romanian soldiers had been killed, about 6% of total Entente military deaths. The Kingdom of Romania was ruled by kings of the House of Hohenzollern from 1866, while Carol wanted to enter World War I as an ally of the Central Powers, the Romanian public and the political parties were in favor of joining the Triple Entente. Romania remained neutral when the war started, arguing that Austria-Hungary itself had started the war and, consequently, in the same time, Germany started encouraging Austro-Hungary to make territorial concessions to Romania and Italy in order to keep both states neutral. In return for entering the war on Allied side, the Romania demanded support for its claims to parts of Transylvania. The Romanians greatest concerns in negotiations were the avoidance of a conflict that would have to be fought on two fronts and written guarantees of Romanian territorial gains after the war, the Allies were to send 300 tons of provisions on a daily basis. According to the Romanian account, most of these clauses, with the exception of those imposed on Romania, according to British military historian John Keegan, before Romania entered the war, the Allies had secretly agreed not to honour the territorial expansion of Romania when the war ended. In 1915, Lieutenant-Colonel Christopher Thomson, a fluent speaker of French, was sent to Bucharest as British military attaché on the initiative of Lord Kitchener to bring Romania into the war. Once there, he formed the view that an unprepared and ill-armed Romania facing a war on two fronts would be a liability, not an asset, to the Allies. This view was brushed aside by Whitehall, and Thomson signed a Military Convention with Romania on 13 August 1916, within a few months, he had to alleviate the consequences of Romania’s setbacks and supervise the destruction of the Romanian oil wells to deny them to Germany. The Romanian government signed a treaty with the Allies on 17 August 1916 that pledged to declare war on Austria-Hungary by 28 August, the Romanian ambassador in Vienna actually transmitted the declaration of war on 27 August. Germany, caught by surprise, responded with a declaration of war on Romania the next day, the dates of the Bulgarian and Ottoman declarations of war are disputed. Ian Beckett says that Bulgaria did not issue a declaration of war prior to its attack of 31 August, other sources place the declaration on 30 August or 1 September. The Ottoman declaration took place either on 29 August,30 August or 1 September, within two days of her own declaration, according to one source, Romania found herself at war with all the Central Powers. The Romanian army was large, with over 650,000 men in 23 divisions. Meanwhile, the German Chief of Staff, General Erich von Falkenhayn, had correctly reasoned that Romania would side with the Allies, thus everything seemed to depend on whether Rumania was ready to make any sort of use of her momentary advantage. The Romanians in Austria-Hungary entered the war from the very beginning, although most Transylvanian Romanians were loyal to the Empire, over time, reactionary sentiments emerged, especially after Romania joined the war
14.
Prahova Valley
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Prahova Valley is the valley where the Prahova river makes its way between the Bucegi and the Baiu Mountains, in the Carpathian Mountains, Romania. It is a tourist region, situated about 100 km north of the city of Bucharest. During World War I, the area was the site of fighting between Austro-Hungarian and German forces on one side and Romanian forces on the other. The strategic objective of the Central Powers was to reach Bucharest via the shortest route, geographically, the Prahova river separates the Eastern Carpathians chain from the Southern Carpathians. Historically, the corridor was the most important passageway between the principalities of Wallachia and Transylvania, the present DN1 road, linking Bucharest with the city of Braşov and the future A3 will be built along the Prahova Valley. After failing to take part in the hosting of the 2013 European Youth festival, the region is a popular destination for mountaineers and for winter sports fans
15.
Romania
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Romania is a sovereign state located in Southeastern Europe. It borders the Black Sea, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia and it has an area of 238,391 square kilometres and a temperate-continental climate. With over 19 million inhabitants, the country is the member state of the European Union. Its capital and largest city, Bucharest, is the sixth-largest city in the EU, the River Danube, Europes second-longest river, rises in Germany and flows in a general southeast direction for 2,857 km, coursing through ten countries before emptying into Romanias Danube Delta. The Carpathian Mountains, which cross Romania from the north to the southwest are marked by one of their tallest peaks, Moldoveanu, modern Romania was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877, at the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the sovereign Kingdom of Romania. Romania lost several territories, of which Northern Transylvania was regained after the war, following the war, Romania became a socialist republic and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began a transition back towards democracy and it has been a member of NATO since 2004, and part of the European Union since 2007. A strong majority of the population identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox Christians and are speakers of Romanian. The cultural history of Romania is often referred to when dealing with artists, musicians, inventors. For similar reasons, Romania has been the subject of notable tourist attractions, Romania derives from the Latin romanus, meaning citizen of Rome. The first known use of the appellation was attested in the 16th century by Italian humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia, after the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the word rumân gradually fell out of use and the spelling stabilised to the form român. Tudor Vladimirescu, a leader of the early 19th century. The use of the name Romania to refer to the homeland of all Romanians—its modern-day meaning—was first documented in the early 19th century. The name has been officially in use since 11 December 1861, in English, the name of the country was formerly spelt Rumania or Roumania. Romania became the predominant spelling around 1975, Romania is also the official English-language spelling used by the Romanian government. The Neolithic-Age Cucuteni area in northeastern Romania was the region of the earliest European civilization. Evidence from this and other sites indicates that the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture extracted salt from salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage
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Greater Romania
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The term Greater Romania usually refers to the borders of the Kingdom of Romania in the interwar period. It also refers to a pan-nationalist idea, as concept, the main goal is the re-creation of a nation-state which would incorporate all Romanian speakers. The phrase is associated with the Kingdom of Romania between 1918 and 1940, often considered the realization of the pan-Romanian goal. In 1918, after the incorporation of Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia, nowadays, the concept serves as a guiding principle for the unification of Romania and Moldova. The idea is comparable to other similar such as Greek Megali Idea, Greater Hungary, Greater Bulgaria, Greater Serbia. The theme of national identity had always a key concern for Romanian culture. The Romanian national ideology in the first decades of the century was a typical example of ethnocentric nationalism. The concept of Greater Romania shows similarities to the idea of national state, the Romanian territorial claims were based on primordial racial modalities, the essential goal of them was to unify the biologically defined Romanians. The nation-building based on the French model of a unitary nation-state became an all time priority especially in the interwar and this theory became a point of reference for nationalists, as well as a catalyst for various Romanian forces to achieve a single Romanian state. The concept owes its life to Dumitru Brătianu, who introduced the term Greater Romania in 1852, the concept became a political reality when, in 1881, the Romanian National Party of Transylvania gathered Romanians on a common political platform to fight together for Transylvanias autonomy. According to Livezeanu the creation of Greater Romania with a concept of nationhood started to evolve in the late 1910s. The Word War One played a part in the development of Romanian national consciousness. The Treaty of Bucharest was signed between Romania and the Entente Powers on 4 /17 August 1916 in Bucharest, the treaty stipulated the conditions under which Romania agreed to join the war on the side of the Entente, particularly territorial promises in Austria-Hungary. The signatories bound themselves to keep secret the contents of the treaty until a peace was concluded. The war which for the last two years has been encircling our frontiers more and more closely has shaken the ancient foundations of Europe to their depths and it is the day of the union of all branches of our nation. For us the mountains and plains of Bukowina, where Stephen the Great has slept for centuries, part of the proclamation by King Ferdinand,28 August 1916 The concept of Greater Romania materialized as a geopolitical reality after the First World War. Romania gained control over Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania, the borders established by the treaties concluding the war did not change until 1940. Its constitution, proclaimed in 1923, largely ignored the new ethnic, in January 1918, the Sfatul Ţării called on Romanian troops to protect the province from the Bolsheviks who were spreading the Russian Revolution
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Bessarabia
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Bessarabia is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. The acquisition was among the Empires last territorial acquisitions in Europe, the newly acquired territories were organised as the Governorate of Bessarabia, adopting a name previously used for the southern plains, between the Dniester and the Danube rivers. In 1917, in the wake of the Russian Revolution, the area constituted itself as the Moldavian Democratic Republic, bolshevik agitation in late 1917 and early 1918 resulted in the intervention of the Romanian Army, ostensibly to pacify the region. Soon after, the assembly declared independence, and then union with the Kingdom of Romania. The legality of acts was however disputed, most prominently by the Soviet Union. Axis-aligned Romania briefly recaptured the region in 1941 during the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, in 1947, the Soviet-Romanian border along the Prut was internationally recognised by the Paris Treaty that ended World War II. Part of the Gagauz-inhabited areas in the southern Bessarabia was organised in 1994 as a region within Moldova. According to the interpretation, the name Bessarabia derives from the Wallachian Basarab dynasty. Recent research has however cast doubt on this view, as the name was first applied to the territory by Western cartographers, showing up in local sources only in the second half of the 17th century. Furthermore, the use of the term to refer to the Moldavian lands near the Black Sea was explicitly rejected as a confusion by the early Moldavian chronicler Miron Costin. The confusion may have been caused by Polish references to Wallachia as Bessarabia, according to Dimitrie Cantemir, the name originally applied only to the part of the territory south of the Upper Trajanic Wall, somewhat bigger than current Budjak. The name Bessarabia may literally mean Bessi slaves after the Thracian tribe which was expelled by Trajan north of the Danube. The region is bounded by the Dniester to the north and east, the Prut to the west and the lower River Danube and it has an area of 45,630 km2. The area is mostly hilly plains with flat steppes and it is very fertile, and has lignite deposits and stone quarries. People living in the area grow sugar beet, sunflowers, wheat, maize, tobacco, wine grapes and they also raise sheep and cattle. Currently, the industry in the region is agricultural processing. The regions main cities are Chișinău, Izmail and Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, historically called Cetatea Albă / Akkerman, other towns of administrative or historical importance include, Khotyn, Reni and Kilia, and Lipcani, Briceni, Soroca, Bălți, Orhei, Ungheni, Bender/Tighina and Cahul. In the late 14th century, the newly established Principality of Moldavia encompassed what became known as Bessarabia
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Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
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World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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Allies of World War I
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The Allies of World War I were the countries that opposed the Central Powers in the First World War. The members of the original Triple Entente of 1907 were the French Republic, the British Empire, Belgium, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Romania were affiliated members of the Entente. The 1920 Treaty of Sèvres defines the Principal Allied Powers as the British Empire, French Republic, Italy, the Allied Powers comprised, together with the Principal Allied Powers, Armenia, Belgium, Greece, Hejaz, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serb-Croat-Slovene state and Czechoslovakia. The U. S. declaration of war on Germany, on 6th April 1917 was on the grounds that Germany had violated its neutrality by attacking international shipping and it declared war on Austria-Hungary in December 1917. The U. S. entered the war as a power, rather than as a formal ally of France. Although the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria severed relations with the United States, the Dominion governments did control recruiting, and removed personnel from front-line duties as they saw fit. From early 1917, the War Cabinet was superseded by the Imperial War Cabinet, in April 1918, operational control of all Entente forces on the Western Front passed to the new supreme commander, Ferdinand Foch of France. The Austrian Empire followed with an attack on the Serbian ally Montenegro on 8 August, on the Western Front, the two neutral States of Belgium and Luxembourg were immediately occupied by German troops as part of the German Schlieffen Plan. On 23 August Japan joined the Entente, which then counted seven members, the entrance of the British Empire brought Nepal into the war. In 1916, Montenegro capitulated and left the Entente, and two nations joined, Portugal and Romania, on 6 April 1917, the United States entered the war. Liberia, Siam and Greece also became allies and this was followed by Romanian cessation of hostilities, however the Balkan State declared war on Central Powers again on 10 November 1918. In response to the Germans invasion of neutral Belgium, the United Kingdom declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914, gibraltar, Cyprus and Malta were British dependencies in Europe. The UK held several colonies, protectorates, and semi-autonomous dependencies at the time of World War I, in Eastern Africa the East Africa Protectorate, Nyasaland, both Northern and Southern Rhodesia, the Uganda Protectorate, were involved in conflict with German forces in German East Africa. In Western Africa, the colonies of Gold Coast and Nigeria were involved in actions against German forces from Togoland. In Southwestern Africa, the dominion of South Africa was involved in military actions against German forces in German South-West Africa. Canada and Newfoundland were two autonomous dominions during the war that made major contributions to the British war effort. Other British dependent territories in the Americas included, British Honduras, the Falkland Islands, British Guiana, and Jamaica. The UK held large possessions in Asia, including the Indian Empire which was an assortment of British imperial authorities in the territory now defined as India, Bangladesh, Burma, australia and New Zealand were two autonomous dominions of the UK in Oceania during the war
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Central Powers
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The Central Powers, consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria – hence also known as the Quadruple Alliance – was one of the two main factions during World War I. It faced and was defeated by the Allied Powers that had formed around the Triple Entente, the Powers origin was the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1879. The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria did not join until after World War I had begun, the Central Powers consisted of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the beginning of the war. The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers later in 1914, in 1915, the Kingdom of Bulgaria joined the alliance. The name Central Powers is derived from the location of these countries, finland, Azerbaijan, and Lithuania joined them in 1918 before the war ended and after the Russian Empire collapsed. When Russia enacted a general mobilization, Germany viewed the act as provocative, the Russian government promised Germany that its general mobilization did not mean preparation for war with Germany but was a reaction to the events between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. The German government regarded the Russian promise of no war with Germany to be nonsense in light of its general mobilization, and Germany, in turn, mobilized for war. On August 1, Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia stating that since both Germany and Russia were in a state of military mobilization, a state of war existed between the two countries. After Germany declared war on Russia, France with its alliance with Russia prepared a general mobilization in expectation of war, on 3 August 1914, Germany responded to this action by declaring war on France. This plan was hoped to gain victory against the French. Belgium was a country and would not accept German forces crossing its territory. Germany disregarded Belgian neutrality and invaded the country to launch an offensive towards Paris, europe Upon its founding in 1871, the German Empire controlled Alsace-Lorraine as an imperial territory incorporated from France after the Franco-Prussian War. It was held as part of Germanys sovereign territory, Africa Germany held multiple African colonies at the time of World War I. All of Germanys African colonies were invaded and occupied by Allied forces during the war, cameroon, German East Africa, and German Southwest Africa were German colonies in Africa. Togoland was a German protectorate in Africa, Asia The Kiautschou Bay concession was a German dependency in East Asia leased from China in 1898. It was occupied by Japanese forces following the Siege of Tsingtao, Pacific German New Guinea was a German protectorate in the Pacific. It was occupied by Australian forces in 1914, German Samoa was a German protectorate following the Tripartite Convention. It was occuiped by the New Zealand Expeditionary Force in 1914, Austria-Hungary regarded the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand as being orchestrated with the assistance of Serbia
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Treaty of Bucharest (1918)
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It was signed at Buftea, near Bucharest, on 7 May 1918. Romania had to return Southern Dobruja and to cede the southern part of Northern Dobruja to Bulgaria, Romania had to give Austria-Hungary control of the passes of the Carpathian Mountains. Romania had to lease its oil wells to Germany for 90 years, Alexandru Marghiloman signed the treaty at Buftea on 7 May 1918 and it was ratified by the Chamber of Deputies on 28 June and by the Senate on 4 July 1918. However, King Ferdinand I of Romania refused to sign it, the treaty put Romania in a unique situation compared to the other German occupied countries. In compensation, Bulgaria agreed to cede the left bank of the Maritsa river to Turkey, however, this agreement was short-lived because after 4 days, on 29 September Bulgaria had to capitulate in the face of the advancing Allied forces. The treaty was denounced in October 1918 by the Alexandru Marghiloman government, in 1919, Germany was forced in the Treaty of Versailles to renounce all the benefits provided by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1918. The territorial transfers to Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria were annulled by the treaties of Saint-Germain, Neuilly and Trianon, respectively
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Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)
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The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye was signed on 10 September 1919 by the victorious Allies of World War I on the one hand and by the Republic of German-Austria on the other. The treaty signing ceremony took place at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, already on 21 October 1918,208 German-speaking delegates of the Austrian Imperial Council had convened in a provisional national assembly of German-Austria at the Lower Austrian Landtag. While the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Army culminated at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, in the course of the Aster Revolution on 31 October, the newly established Democratic Republic of Hungary under Minister President Mihály Károlyi declared the real union with Austria terminated. With the Armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918, the fate of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was sealed, moreover, South Tyrol and Trentino were occupied by Italian forces and Yugoslav troops entered the former Duchy of Carinthia, leading to violent fights. An Austrian Constitutional Assembly election was held on 16 February 1919, the Assembly re-elected Karl Renner state chancellor and enacted the Habsburg Law concerning the banishment of the House of Lorraine. When Chancellor Renner arrived at Saint-Germain in May 1919, he, upon an Allied ultimatum, Renner signed the treaty on 10 September. The Treaty of Trianon in June 1920 between Hungary and the Allies completed the disposition of the former Dual Monarchy, the treaty declared that the Austro-Hungarian Empire was to be dissolved. According to article 177, the Austrian side accepted responsibility for causing the war along with the Central Powers, the treaty included war reparations of large sums of money, directed towards the Allies. The Austrian Silesia province upon the Polish–Czechoslovak War of January 1919 was split between Czech Silesia and Polish Cieszyn Silesia incorporated into Silesian Voivodeship and these cessions concerned a large German-speaking population in German Bohemia and Sudetenland. The former Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, made up of the territory the Habsburg Monarchy had annexed in the 1772 First Partition of Poland, the adjacent Bukovina in the east passed to the Kingdom of Romania. Also Bosnia and Herzegovina was given to it, austria-Hungarys only overseas possession, its concession in Tianjin, was turned over to China. Burgenland, i. e. the predominantly German-speaking western parts of the Hungarian counties of Moson, Sopron, the affiliation of the Southern Carinthian territory with its Slovene-speaking share of population was to be decided in a Carinthian Plebiscite. Accordingly, the new republics initial self-chosen name of German-Austria had to be changed to Austria, many Austrians would come to find this term harsh, due to Austrias later economic weakness, which was caused by loss of land. The economic weakness of Austria would later lead to support for the idea of Anschluss with Nazi Germany, conscription was abolished and the Austrian Army was limited to a force of 30,000 volunteers. There were numerous provisions dealing with Danubian navigation, the transfer of railways, for a time, the countrys very unity was called into question. Unlike its former Hungarian partner, Austria had never been a nation in the sense of the word. While the Austrian state had existed in one form or another for over 700 years, it had no unifying force other than loyalty to the Habsburgs
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Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
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Hungary
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Hungary is a unitary parliamentary republic in Central Europe. With about 10 million inhabitants, Hungary is a member state of the European Union. The official language is Hungarian, which is the most widely spoken language in Europe. Hungarys capital and largest metropolis is Budapest, a significant economic hub, major urban areas include Debrecen, Szeged, Miskolc, Pécs and Győr. His great-grandson Stephen I ascended to the throne in 1000, converting the country to a Christian kingdom, by the 12th century, Hungary became a middle power within the Western world, reaching a golden age by the 15th century. Hungarys current borders were established in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon after World War I, when the country lost 71% of its territory, 58% of its population, following the interwar period, Hungary joined the Axis Powers in World War II, suffering significant damage and casualties. Hungary became a state of the Soviet Union, which contributed to the establishment of a four-decade-long communist dictatorship. On 23 October 1989, Hungary became again a democratic parliamentary republic, in the 21st century, Hungary is a middle power and has the worlds 57th largest economy by nominal GDP, as well as the 58th largest by PPP, out of 188 countries measured by the IMF. As a substantial actor in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds 36th largest exporter and importer of goods, Hungary is a high-income economy with a very high standard of living. It keeps up a security and universal health care system. Hungary joined the European Union in 2004 and part of the Schengen Area since 2007, Hungary is a member of the United Nations, NATO, WTO, World Bank, the AIIB, the Council of Europe and Visegrád Group. Well known for its cultural history, Hungary has been contributed significantly to arts, music, literature, sports and science. Hungary is the 11th most popular country as a tourist destination in Europe and it is home to the largest thermal water cave system, the second largest thermal lake in the world, the largest lake in Central Europe, and the largest natural grasslands in Europe. The H in the name of Hungary is most likely due to historical associations with the Huns. The rest of the word comes from the Latinized form of Medieval Greek Oungroi, according to an explanation the Greek name was borrowed from Proto-Slavic Ǫgǔri, in turn borrowed from Oghur-Turkic Onogur. Onogur was the name for the tribes who later joined the Bulgar tribal confederacy that ruled the eastern parts of Hungary after the Avars. The Hungarians likely belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance and it is possible they became its ethnic majority. The Hungarian endonym is Magyarország, composed of magyar and ország, the word magyar is taken from the name of one of the seven major semi-nomadic Hungarian tribes, magyeri
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Hungarian Soviet Republic
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The Hungarian Soviet Republic or Hungarian Republic of Councils was a short-lived independent communist state established in Hungary in the aftermath of World War I. It was the successor of the Hungarian Democratic Republic and lasted only from 21 March to 1 August 1919, the state was led by Béla Kun and was not recognized by France, the UK or the US. It was the second socialist state in the world to be formed after the October Revolution in Russia brought the Bolsheviks to power. De facto, the Hungarian Soviet Republic didnt have an independent foreign policy, it had to follow and fulfill the commands, instructions, the Hungarian Republic of Councils had military conflicts with the Kingdom of Romania, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the evolving Czechoslovakia. It collapsed on 1 August 1919 when Hungarians sent representatives to negotiate their surrender to the Romanian forces, as the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed in 1918, an independent Hungarian Democratic Republic was formed after the Aster Revolution. Official proclamation of the republic was on 16 November 1918 and its president became Mihály Károlyi, Károlyi struggled to establish the governments authority and to control the country. Led by Béla Kun, the first members returned to Hungary and it recruited members while propagating partys ideas, radicalising many Social Democrats in the process. By February 1919, the party numbered 30,000 to 40,000 members, including many unemployed ex-soldiers, young intellectuals, the Communists came to power as the only group with an organised fighting force, promising Hungary would be able to defend its territory without conscription. Kun founded a newspaper, called Vörös Újság and concentrated on attacking Károlyis liberal government, during the following months, the Communist Partys power-base rapidly expanded. Their supporters began to stage aggressive demonstrations against the media, in one crucial incident, a demonstration turned violent on 20 February and the protesters attacked the editorial office of the Social Democrats official paper, called Népszava. In the ensuing chaos, seven people—including policemen—were killed, the government arrested the leaders of the Communist party, banned Vörös Újság and closed down the partys buildings. The arrests were particularly violent, with police officers openly beating the communists and this resulted in a wave of public sympathy for the Communist Party. On 1 March, Vörös Újság was given permission to again. The leaders were permitted to receive guests in their prison, which allowed them to keep up with political affairs, on 20 March, Károlyi announced that Dénes Berinkey government would resign. Mihály Károlyi resigned on 21 March, president Károlyi, who was an outspoken anti-Communist, was not informed about the fusion of the communist and social democrat parties. Thus, while believing to have appointed a social democratic government, on 21 March, he informed the Council of Ministers that only Social Democrats could form a new government, as they were the party with the highest public support. Béla Kun and his communist friends were released from the Margit Ring prison on the night of 20 March,1919. Liberal president Károlyi was arrested by the new communist regime on the first day, later he could manage to escape
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Ultimatum
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An ultimatum is a demand whose fulfillment is requested in a specified period of time and which is backed up by a threat to be followed through in case of noncompliance. An ultimatum is generally the demand in a series of requests. As such, the time allotted is usually short, and the request is not to be open to further negotiation. The threat which backs up the ultimatum can vary depending on the demand in question and on the other circumstances, the word is used in diplomacy to signify the final terms submitted by one of the parties in negotiation for settlement of any subject of disagreement. It is accompanied by an intimation as to how refusal will be regarded and this opens up a variety of possibilities, such as good offices, mediation, the appointment of a commission of inquiry, arbitration, reprisals, pacific blockade and war. An ultimatum may also serve to provide legitimacy for military action, as reasons for a declaration of war are necessarily in the nature of an ultimatum, the ultimatum may now be regarded as an indispensable formality precedent to the outbreak of hostilities. The actor that presents the other side with an ultimatum should be prepared to make good on the threat, for instance, initiate military action, There are dangers if the threatened actor decides not to comply. On the other hand, the opponent may take the ultimatum seriously, the ultimatum may encourage the opponent to remain firm so as not to be seen as weak. One danger here is that the opponent may profess to accept the ultimatum, possibly with conditions, another danger is that the issuer may keep negotiating with the opponent when the requested period of time ends, thus making the issuer look like a laughable fool. A threat of force to defeat the opponent or deny him his objectives quickly with little cost, an assurance to the adversary against future demands. An offer of inducements for compliance, boulwarism Hobsons choice Byman, Daniel, Waxman, Matthew. The Dynamics of Coercion, American Foreign Policy and the Limits of Military Might, George, Alexander L. Art, Robert J. Cronin, Patrick M. eds. Forceful Persuasion, Coercive Diplomacy as an Alternative to War, in Art, Robert J. Cronin, Patrick M. The United States and coercive diplomacy, threats of Force, International Law and Strategy. Levy, Jack S. Deterrence and Coercive Diplomacy, The Contributions of Alexander George, the Use of Pauses in Coercion, An Explanation in Theory. School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, building a Psychological Strategy for the U. S. Leveraging the Informational Element of National Power, U. S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. Art, Robert J. Waltz, Kenneth Neal, eds, the Use of Force, Military Power and International Politics
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Budapest
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Budapest is the capital and most populous city of Hungary, one of the largest cities in the European Union and sometimes described as the primate city of Hungary. It has an area of 525 square kilometres and a population of about 1.8 million within the limits in 2016. Budapest became a single city occupying both banks of the Danube river with the unification of Buda and Óbuda on the west bank, the history of Budapest began with Aquincum, originally a Celtic settlement that became the Roman capital of Lower Pannonia. Hungarians arrived in the territory in the 9th century and their first settlement was pillaged by the Mongols in 1241–1242. The re-established town became one of the centres of Renaissance humanist culture by the 15th century, following the Battle of Mohács and nearly 150 years of Ottoman rule, the region entered a new age of prosperity, and Budapest became a global city after its unification in 1873. It also became the co-capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a power that dissolved in 1918. Budapest was the point of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Hungarian Republic of Councils in 1919, the Battle of Budapest in 1945. Budapest is an Alpha- global city, with strengths in arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts the Budapest Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks and it is the highest ranked Central and Eastern European city on Innovation Cities Top 100 index. Budapest attracts 4.4 million international tourists per year, making it the 25th most popular city in the world, further famous landmarks include Andrássy Avenue, St. It has around 80 geothermal springs, the worlds largest thermal water system, second largest synagogue. Budapest is home to the headquarters of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology, the European Police College, over 40 colleges and universities are located in Budapest, including the Eötvös Loránd University, Central European University and Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Budapest is the combination of the city names Buda and Pest, One of the first documented occurrences of the combined name Buda-Pest was in 1831 in the book Világ, written by Count István Széchenyi. The origins of the names Buda and Pest are obscure, according to chronicles from the Middle Ages, the name Buda comes from the name of its founder, Bleda, brother of the Hunnic ruler Attila. The theory that Buda was named after a person is also supported by modern scholars, an alternative explanation suggests that Buda derives from the Slavic word вода, voda, a translation of the Latin name Aquincum, which was the main Roman settlement in the region. There are also theories about the origin of the name Pest. One of the states that the word Pest comes from the Roman times. According to another theory, Pest originates from the Slavic word for cave, or oven, the first settlement on the territory of Budapest was built by Celts before 1 AD
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Paris Peace Conference, 1919
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It took place in Paris during 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities. The main result was the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on the aggression of Germany and this provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for the expensive reparations Germany was intended to pay. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, the conference opened on 18 January 1919. Key recommendations were folded into the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, the five major powers controlled the Conference. Amongst the Big Five, in practice Japan played a small role, the four met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by other attendees. The open meetings of all the approved the decisions made by the Big Four. The conference came to an end on 21 January 1920 with the inaugural General Assembly of the League of Nations, the main result was the Treaty of Versailles, with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on the aggression of Germany and her allies. This provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for very high reparations Germany was supposed to pay, republican Germany was not invited to attend the conference at Versailles. Representatives of White Russia were present, a central issue of the Conference was the disposition of the overseas colonies of Germany. The British dominions wanted their reward for their sacrifice, Australia wanted New Guinea, New Zealand wanted Samoa, and South Africa wanted South West Africa. Wilson wanted the League of Nations to administer all the German colonies until such time as they were ready for independence, Lloyd George realized he needed to support his dominions, and he proposed a compromise that there be three types of mandates. Mandates for the Turkish provinces were one category, they would be divided up between Britain and France, Wilson and the others finally went along with the solution. The dominions received Class C Mandates to the colonies they wanted, Japan obtained mandates over German possessions north of the equator. Wilson wanted no mandates for the United States, his top advisor Colonel House was deeply involved in awarding the others, Wilson was especially offended by Australian demands. He and Hughes had some clashes, with the most famous being, Wilson, But after all. Hughes, I represent sixty thousand dead, prior to Wilsons arrival in Europe in December 1918, no American president had ever visited Europe while in office. High hopes and expectations were placed on him to deliver what he had promised for the post-war era, in doing so, Wilson ultimately began to lead the foreign policy of the United States toward interventionism, a move strongly resisted in some domestic circles. Once Wilson arrived, however, he found rivalries, and conflicting claims previously submerged and he worked mostly trying to sway the direction that the French and British delegations were taking towards Germany and its allies in Europe, as well as the former Ottoman lands in the Middle East
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Parliament of Romania
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The Parliament of Romania is the national legislature of Romania, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies, and the Senate. Its meeting place is at the Palace of the Parliament in Bucharest, prior to the modification of the Constitution in 2003, the two houses had identical attributes. A text of a law had to be approved by both houses, if the text differed, a special commission was formed by deputies and senators, that negotiated between the two houses the form of the future law. The report of this commission had to be approved in a joint session of the Parliament. After the 2003 referendum, a law still has to be approved by both houses, but each house has designated matters it gets to deliberate before the other, in capacity of deciding chamber. If that first chamber adopts a law proposal, it is passed on to the other one, if it makes amendments, the bill is sent back to the deciding chamber, the decision of which is final. In 2009, a referendum was held to consult the population about turning the parliament into a unicameral body, although the referendum passed, the results are not binding, a referendum explicitly mentioning the modification of the constitution being required to achieve this. The organic regulation laid the foundations for the institution in the Romanian Principalities. Under the royal dictatorship, the parliament became merely a decorative body, carol abdicated in September 1940, and the succeeding National Legionary State suspended parliament. The National Legionary State as such lasted less than five months, but it was succeeded by Ion Antonescus military dictatorship, thanks to the documents issued by the provisional revolutionary power, Romania has returned to a bicameral parliamentary system. All these stipulations can be found in the countrys new Constitution, the 1866,1923, and 1938 Constitution of Romania state that the assembly presidents are elected at the beginning of each session. This tradition was kept in the years of the Peoples Republic. In modern times, both presidents of the Chamber of Deputies and of the Senate are elected for the duration of that houses term. Under special circumstances the presidents of the houses can be revoked, a text of a law had to be approved by both houses. If the text differed, a commission was formed by deputies and senators. The report of this commission had to be approved in a joint session of the Parliament and this French procedure proved to be extremely long and inefficient with respect to the expectations of the Romanians towards democracy. After the 2003 referendum, a law still has to be approved by both houses, but in some one is superior to the other, being called decision chamber. This eliminates the process of negotiation between the two houses, and keeps the Senate as the house and the Chamber as the lower house
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Peasants' Party (Romania)
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Through many of its leaders, the party was connected with Poporanism, a cultural and political trend in turn influenced by Narodnik ideas. In 1926, it united with the Romanian National Party to form the National Peasants Party, in the years between Romanias proclamation as a Kingdom and ca. 1919, local political life had been dominated by two parties, the National-Liberals and the Conservatives. This system was only once amended during its existence, under the PNL government of Ion Brătianu, in ideological terms too, the peasants were generally not given a voice, as the two main parties mainly stood for the either landowners or the emerging urban elite. The problems posed by the political structure were doubled by social issues culminating in the 1907 Peasants Revolt. In 1917, the need for a rapid mobilization had led to King Ferdinands promises of a new and major agricultural reform, and universal suffrage. The political foundation was shaken by the disappearance of the Conservative Party, due mainly to extended suffrage and the pro-German attitudes of the Party at the outbreak of the war. While this opened the political scene to other options, it further solidified the PNLs supremacy for the following years. The PȚ also described its position as a means to protect from both Bolshevism and the fate reserved to it by the parties to become a governmental dowry they aim to use for their own gains. However, the period was to prove a highly problematic one for the country at large, marked by violent incidents. The first truly representative Parliament was split over the question of land reform, the situation led to the dissolving of the Parliament and the end of the Vaida-Voevod cabinet in March–April 1920. These changes probably benefitted Ion I. C, Brătianu and his National Liberal Party. It was isolated for a while in 1921, when Nicolae Iorga attacked the PȚs Constantin Stere for his support of the Central Powers during the war, a criticism echoed by all political forces. To combat the Liberal hegemony, the PȚ had already started negotiations with opposition groups, including the Democratic Nationalist Party. After having absorbed most of the Bessarabian Peasants Party, the PȚ publicized an alliance with the PNR in June 1924, new talks ushered in by Averescus nomination in 1926 led to a compromise between Maniu and Mihalache. On October 10 of that year, the two parties joined into the National Peasants Party, todays Assemblies have deliberated and voted a so-called fundamental pact under the threat of the brutal force of machine guns and bayonets. The Peasant Partys legacy was claimed by splinter groups of the PNȚ, all of which situated themselves more to the left than the latter, in early 1927. A more left-wing tendency linked with the Peasants Party tradition remained present and it was represented by, among others, Ernest Ene, Mihail Ghelmegeanu, Petre Andrei, and Armand Călinescu
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Crypt
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A crypt is a stone chamber beneath the floor of a church or other building. It typically contains coffins, sarcophagi, or religious relics, originally, crypts were typically found below the main apse of a church, such as at the Abbey of Saint-Germain en Auxerre, but were later located beneath chancel, naves and transepts as well. Occasionally churches were raised high to accommodate a crypt at the level, such as St Michaels Church in Hildesheim. Crypt developed as a form of the Latin vault as it was carried over into Late Latin. It also served as a vault for storing important and/or sacred items, crypta, however, is also the female form of crypto hidden. The earliest known origin of both is in the Ancient Greek κρύπτω, the first person singular indicative of the verb to conceal, first known in the early Christian period, in particular North Africa at Chlef and Djemila in Algeria, and Byzantium at Saint John Studio in Constantinople. Where Christian churches have been built over mithraea, the mithraeum has often been adapted to serve as a crypt, crypts were introduced into Frankish church building in the mid-8th century, as a feature of its Romanization. Their popularity then spread widely in western Europe under Charlemagne. Examples from this period are most common in the early medieval West, for example in Burgundy at Dijon, after the 10th century the early medieval requirements of a crypt faded, as church officials permitted relics to be held in the main level of the church. By the Gothic period crypts were built, however burial vaults continued to be constructed beneath churches. In more modern terms, a crypt is most often a stone chambered burial vault used to store the deceased, crypts are usually found in cemeteries and under public religious buildings, such as churches or cathedrals, but are also occasionally found beneath mausolea or chapels on personal estates. Wealthy or prestigious families will often have a family crypt or vault in which all members of the family are interred, many royal families, for example, have vast crypts containing the bodies of dozens of former royalty. In some localities an above ground crypt is more commonly called a mausoleum, there was a trend in the 19th century of building crypts on medium to large size family estates, usually subtly placed on the edge of the grounds or more commonly incorporated into the cellar. After a change of owner these are often blocked up and the house deeds will not allow this area to be re-developed, catacomb Mausoleum Tumulus Ossuary Tomb Cemetery Media related to Crypt at Wikimedia Commons Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Crypt
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Barbu Catargiu
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Barbu Catargiu was a conservative Romanian politician and journalist. He was the first Prime Minister of Romania, in 1862 and he was a staunch defender of the great estates of the boyars, and notably originated the conservative doctrine that feudalism in Romania had never existed. Catargiu was born on 26 October 1807 to Ștefan Catargiu, a political activist and he lived abroad in Paris from 1825 to 1834, where he studied law, history, and philosophy. He returned to Wallachia for a time, and was a member of the Obsteasca Assembly of Wallachia. An opponent of violence and armed revolution, he resumed his travels during the Revolutions of 1848, working primarily as a journalist. After his return to Romania, Catargiu entered political life as a firm conservative and he believed that evolution, rather than violent revolution was the best way to modernize the Government, and would give the fledgling Romania the best chance at unity. He also advocated a republic as the best form of governance. Catargiu was appointed to the position of minister of finances by Alexandru Ioan Cuza and he quickly gained acclaim for his oratorical skills, and became the focal point of the Conservative Party. He did very little to organize the party, instead depending on his own charisma. On 15 February 1862, Catargiu was sworn in as the first prime minister of Romania, as prime minister, Catargiu hoped to reorganize and simplify the administration. He formed four divisions, two in what had been Wallachia and two in Moldavia. He placed the four divisions under the supervision of a minister of the interior, arguably the most important act of his rule was his order to begin a railroad in Moldavia that would link the two provinces and greatly aided unification. He also continued his support for the old order and claimed that large estates were historically sanctioned and were solely the property of the boyars and he also clamped down on rioting in the cities, censored the press, and refused to allow large assemblies to meet. He denied the right of the people to meet on the Bucharest Field of Liberty to commemorate the Revolution of 1848, one week after the Field of Liberty Incident, on 20 June 1862, Catargiu was shot and killed at close range when leaving a parliamentary meeting. The assassin was never apprehended, despite the efforts of the police force, the killing left the Conservative Party without a strong leader or sense of direction. They quickly lost power, as Catargiu was replaced by Nicolae Crețulescu, despite Catargius relative unpopularity, his memory was celebrated by the Romanians. A statue of him was placed near the Metropolitan Tower, close to where he was killed, russia and the Formation of the Romanian National State 1821-1878. New York, Arno Press & The New York Times, Romanian List of Notable Assassination Attempts Romanian Language Biography
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Apostol Arsache
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Apostol Arsache or Apostolos Arsakis was a Greek-Romanian politician and philanthropist. He was one of the benefactors of 19th century Greece. Arsache was born in the village of Hotovë, Përmet District, southern Albania, in 1800 Arsache moved together with his family to Vienna, there he was educated in a school of the local Greek diaspora. Among his teachers was Neophytos Doukas, prominent figure of the modern Greek Enlightenment, at 1807 Doukas published an epigram composed by Arsache about the work, Breviarium historiae Romanae, of historian Eutropius. He then went to the University of Halle and studied Medicine, Arsache composed a treatise under the title Έκθεσις συνοπτική της Ιατρικής ιστορίας in Ancient Greek, which was published at the Greek periodical Hermes o Logios, in Vienna. At 1807 he published his thesis De Piscium Celebro et Medulla Spinali in Latin, in 1814 he moved to Bucharest, Romania. In the Cabinet of Barbu Catargiu, he served as Minister of Foreign Affairs and following Catargius assassination on 20 June and he became one of the major benefactors of the newly established Greek state. In 1850 he offered large sums of money for the establishment of an educational institutions in the Greek capital, Athens. Arsache donated a total of 600,000 golden drachmas for this purpose and this institution bore the name Arsakeio after him. Because of his initiative the Greek Parliament gave him honorary Greek citizenship and he also managed to build a school in his home town in 1870
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Ion Ghica
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Ion Ghica was a Romanian revolutionary, mathematician, diplomat and politician, who was Prime Minister of Romania five times. He was a member of the Romanian Academy and its president many times. He was the brother and associate of Pantazi Ghica, a prolific writer. He was born in Bucharest, Wallachia, to the prominent Ghica boyar family, Ion Ghica was educated in Bucharest and in Western Europe, studying engineering and mathematics in France from 1837 to 1840. Ion Ghica became a lecturer on mathematics at the Academy which was founded by the same Prince Sturdza in Iași, while in Istanbul, he was appointed Prince of Samos, where he proved his leadership skills by extirpating local piracy. After completing the task, Ghica was awarded the title of Prince of Samos by Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid I in 1856. In 1859, after the union of Moldavia and Walachia had been effected, later, despite being trusted by Prince Cuza, Ghica took active part in the secret grouping that secured Cuzas overthrow. He was the first prime minister under Prince of Romania Carol of Hohenzollern, Ghica is also noted as one of the first major Liberal figures in the Kingdom of Romania, and one of the leaders of the incipient Liberal Party. The matter of the Liberals loyalty was ultimately settled 1876, with the exceptionally long Liberal Ministry of Ion Brătianu, in 1881, Ghica was appointed Romanian Minister in London, an office he retained until 1889, he died in Ghergani, Dâmbovița County. Beside his political distinction, Ion Ghica earned a reputation by writing his Letters, addressed to Vasile Alecsandri. Conceived and written during his residency in London, the letters depict the stage of Romanian society. He was also the author of Amintiri din pribegie, in 1848 and he was the first to advocate the favoring of local initiatives over foreign investments in industry and commerce - to a certain extent, this took the form of protectionism
