1.
Atacama Desert
–
The Atacama Desert is a plateau in South America, covering a 1, 000-kilometre strip of land on the Pacific coast, west of the Andes mountains. It is the driest non-polar desert in the world, according to estimates, the Atacama Desert proper occupies 105,000 square kilometres, or 128,000 square kilometres if the barren lower slopes of the Andes are included. Most of the desert is composed of terrain, salt lakes, sand. The National Geographic Society considers the area of southern Peru to be part of the Atacama Desert. Peru borders it on the north and the Chilean Matorral ecoregion borders it on the south, to the east lies the less arid Central Andean dry puna ecoregion. The drier portion of this ecoregion is located south of the Loa River between the parallel Sierra Vicuña Mackenna and Cordillera Domeyko, to the north of the Loa lies the Pampa del Tamarugal. The Coastal Cliff of northern Chile west of the Chilean Coast Range is the topographic feature of the coast. The geomorphology of the Atacama Desert has been characterized as a low-relief bench similar to a giant uplifted terrace by Armijo and co-workers. The intermediate depression forms a series of basins in much of Atacama Desert south of latitude 19°30’ S. North of this latitude the intermediate depression drains into the Pacific Ocean. Although the almost total lack of precipitation is the most prominent characteristic of the Atacama Desert, in 2012, the altiplano winter brought floods to San Pedro de Atacama. On 25 March 2015, heavy rainfall affected the part of the Atacama desert. Resulting floods triggered mudflows that affected the cities of Copiapo, Tierra Amarilla, Chile, Chanaral, the Atacama Desert is commonly known as the driest non-polar place in the world, especially the surroundings of the abandoned Yungay town. The average rainfall is about 15 mm per year, although some locations, such as Arica and Iquique, moreover, some weather stations in the Atacama have never received rain. Periods of up to four years have been registered with no rainfall in the sector, delimited by the cities of Antofagasta, Calama and Copiapó. Evidence suggests that the Atacama may not have had any significant rainfall from 1570 to 1971, the Atacama Desert may be the oldest desert on earth, and has experienced extreme hyperaridity for at least 3 million years, making it the oldest continuously arid region on earth. The long history of aridity raises the possibility that supergene mineralisation, under the conditions, can form in arid environments. This desert is so arid, many mountains higher than 6,000 m are free of glaciers. Only the highest peaks have some permanent snow coverage, the southern part of the desert, between 25 and 27°S, may have been glacier-free throughout the Quaternary, though permafrost extends down to an altitude of 4,400 m and is continuous above 5,600 m
2.
Regions of Chile
–
Chile is divided into 15 regions, which are the countrys first-level administrative division. Each region is headed by an intendant, appointed by the President, regions are divided into provinces, each headed by a governor, appointed by the President. There are 54 provinces, in total, Provinces are further divided into communes, which are governed by municipalities. Each region is given a Roman numeral, followed by a name, when the regional structure was created, Roman numerals were assigned in ascending order from north to south, with the northernmost region designated as I and the southernmost region as XII. With the creation of regions XIV in the south and XV in the north in 2007, the administrative divisions of Chile were created in 1974 and limited to 13 regions. Previously, Chile was divided into 25 provinces, which were divided into departments. The new territorial organization was implemented in phases with some initial pilot regions beginning to operate in 1974, the Santiago Metropolitan Region began to operate in April 1980. Both regions became operative in October 2007, communes of Chile ISO 3166-2, CL Provinces of Chile
3.
Flag of Atacama
–
The Flag of Atacama Region is one of the regional symbols of the Chilean Atacama Region. This emblem was created in 1859 during the Revolution of 1859, after the revolutionaries were defeated, the flag went out of use until recent times. The design is a field with a yellow star in the center. This is not clear who was the creator, but is attributed to Pedro León Gallo Goyenechea, the star and colours would represent the laicist and liberal ideology that was defended in the rebellion. This flag was adopted officially in 1997 by the Regional Government of Atacama, the regional flag must be hoisted on the building of the Regional Government and any other where he performs his duties, according to the regional rules. Flag of Valdivia About the Atacama Flag
4.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Chile
–
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
6.
Capital (political)
–
A capital city is the municipality exercising primary status in a country, state, province, or other region, usually as its seat of government. A capital is typically a city that encompasses the offices and meeting places of its respective government. In some jurisdictions, including countries, the different branches of government are located in different settlements. In some cases, a distinction is made between the capital and the seat of government, which is in another place. The word capital derives from the Latin caput, meaning head, in several English-speaking states, the terms county town, county seat, and borough seat are also used in lower subdivisions. In unitary states, subnational capitals are known as administrative centres. The capital is often, but not necessarily, the largest city of its constituent, historically, the major economic centre of a state or region often becomes the focal point of political power, and becomes a capital through conquest or federation. Examples are Ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, Ancient Athens, Rome, Constantinople, Changan, Ancient Cusco, Madrid, Paris, London, Moscow, Beijing, Tokyo, Vienna, and Berlin. Some of these cities are or were also religious centres, e. g. Constantinople, Rome, Jerusalem, Ancient Babylon, Moscow, Belgrade, Paris, and Peking. A capital city that is also the economic, cultural. The convergence of political and economic or cultural power is by no means universal, traditional capitals may be economically eclipsed by provincial rivals, e. g. Nanking by Shanghai, Quebec City by Montreal, and numerous US state capitals. The decline of a dynasty or culture could also mean the extinction of its city, as occurred at Babylon. Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation, many long-time capitals have no legal designation as such, for example Bern, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London, Paris, are located in or near them. In Canada, there is a capital, while the ten provinces. The states of such countries as Mexico, Brazil, and Australia all have capital cities, for example, the six state capitals of Australia are Adelaide, Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney. In Australia, the capital cities is regularly used, to refer to the aforementioned state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra and Darwin. Abu Dhabi is the city of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. In unitary states which consist of multiple constituent countries, such as the United Kingdom or the Kingdom of Denmark, the national capitals of Germany and Russia, the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the Federal City of Moscow, are also constituent states of both countries in their own right
7.
Provinces of Chile
–
A province is the second largest administrative division in Chile with 54 in total. The largest administrative division in Chile is that of a region with 15 in total, each provincial government is headed by a governor appointed by the president. The governor exercises their powers in accordance with instructions from the regional intendant, the governor is advised by the Provincial Economic and Social Council. The only exception is the Santiago Province, which makes no provision for provincial government in its regulations, the countrys provinces are further divided into 346 communes which are administered by an alcalde and municipal council. Communes of Chile Regions of Chile Decreto Ley 2.868 Provinces of Chile
8.
Huasco Province
–
Huasco Province is one of three provinces of the northern Chilean region of Atacama. According to the 2012 census by the National Statistics Institute, the province spans an area of 18,201.5 km2 and had a population of 72,145, giving it a population density of 3. 7/km2. The province had a 2002 population of 66,491 Of these,53,664 lived in areas and 12,827 in rural areas. Between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, the population grew by 2. 7%, as a province, Huasco is a second-level administrative division of Chile, which is further divided into four communes. The province is administered by an appointed governor. Fernando Flores Fredes was appointed by president Sebastián Piñera, vallenar Freirina Huasco Alto del Carmen
9.
Christian Democratic Party (Chile)
–
The Christian Democratic Party is a political party in Chile and governs as part of the Nueva Mayoría coalition. In the 2009 election it won 19 congress seats and 9 senate seats and it is led by Ignacio Walker. The incumbent president of Chile, Michelle Bachelet is from another party in the coalition, there have been three Christian Democrat presidents in the past, Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, Patricio Aylwin, and Eduardo Frei Montalva. Customarily, the PDC backs specific initiatives in an effort to bridge socialism and this economic system has been called social capitalism and is heavily influenced by Catholic social teaching or, more generally, Christian ethics. In addition to this objective, the PDC also supports a national government. However, after Pinochets military regime ended the PDC embraced classical economic policies, the current president of the PDC is Ignacio Walker. The origins of the party go back to the 1930s, when the Conservative Party became split between traditionalist and social-Christian sectors, in 1935, the social-Christians split from the Conservative Party to form the Falange Nacional, a more socially oriented and centrist group. The Falange Nacional showed their centrist policies by supporting leftist Juan Antonio Ríos in the 1942 presidential elections, Frei lost the elections, but presented his candidacy again in 1964, this time also supported by the right-wing parties. That year, Frei triumphed with 56% of the vote, despite right-wing backing for his candidacy, Frei declared his planned social revolution would not be hampered by this support. In 1970, Radomiro Tomic, leader of the faction of the party, was nominated to the presidency. The Christian Democrat vote was crucial in the Congressional confirmation of Allendes election, although the Christian Democratic Party voted to confirm Allendes election, they declared themselves as part opposition because of Allendes economic policy. By 1973, Allende has lost the support of most Christian Democrats, by the time of Pinochets coup, most Christian Democrats applauded the military takeover, believing that the government would quickly be turned over to them by the military. Once it became clear that Pinochet had no intention of relinquishing power, during the 1981 plebiscite where Chilean voted to extend Pinochets term for eight more years, Eduardo Frei Montalva led the only authorized opposition rally. This coalition later became Coalition of Parties for Democracy once Pinochet stepped down from power, during the first years of the return to democracy, the Christian Democrats enjoyed wide popular support. Presidents Patricio Aylwin and Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle were both from that party, and it was also the largest party in Congress, however, the Christian Democrat Andres Zaldívar lost the Coalition of Parties for Democracy 1999 primaries to socialist Ricardo Lagos. In the parliamentary elections of 2005, the Christian Democrats lost eight seats in Congress,1964 - Eduardo Frei Montalva 1990 - Patricio Aylwin 1994 - Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle The following is a list of the presidential candidates supported by the Christian Democratic Party. Religious parties in Chile, The Christian Democratic Party and the Independent Democratic Union, media related to Christian Democrat Party of Chile at Wikimedia Commons Official web site
10.
Spanish language
–
Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
11.
Administrative division
–
Administrative divisions are granted a certain degree of autonomy and are usually required to manage themselves through their own local governments. Countries are divided up into smaller units to make managing their land. For example, a country may be divided into provinces, which, in turn, are divided into counties, which, in turn, may be divided in whole or in part into municipalities, and so on. Administrative divisions are separate from dependent territories, with the former being an integral part of the state. However, the administrative division can include dependent territories as well as accepted administrative divisions. For clarity and convenience the standard reference for the largest administrative subdivision of a country is called the first-level administrative division or first administrative level. Next smaller is called second-level administrative division or second administrative level, there is no fixed rule, for all politics is local as is perhaps well demonstrated by their relative lack of systemic order. In the realm of self-government, any of these can and does occur along a stretch of road—which for the most part is passing through rural unsettled countryside. In British cultural legacy, most territorial entities begin with fairly expansive counties which encompass a large area. Within those entities are the large and small cities or towns, many sister cities share a water boundary which quite often serves as a border of both cities and counties. For example, Cambridge and Boston, Massachusetts appear to the traveler as one large city, while locally they each are quite culturally different. Sovereign state, a national or supra-national division, country, a national or sub-national division. Administrative division codes of the Peoples Republic of China GADM, a database of country administrative areas. ISO 3166-2, specifically Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions — Part 2
12.
Antofagasta Region
–
The II Antofagasta Region is one of Chiles fifteen first-order administrative divisions. It comprises three provinces, Antofagasta, El Loa and Tocopilla and it is bordered to the north by Tarapacá and by Atacama to the south and is the second-largest region of Chile. To the east it borders Bolivia and Argentina, the capital of the region is the port city of Antofagasta, another important city being Calama. The main economic activity is mining in the giant porphyry copper systems located inland. Climate is extremely arid albeit somewhat milder near the coast, nearly all of the region is devoid of vegetation except close to the Loa River or at oases such as San Pedro de Atacama. Much of the inland is covered by salt flats, tephra, the region was sparsely populated by indigenous Changos and Atacameños until massive Chilean immigration in conjunction with a saltpeter boom in the later 19th century. The region used to be Bolivian until the War of the Pacific broke out in 1879, antofagastas history is divided, as the territory, in two sections, the coastal region and the highlands plateau or altiplano around the Andes. In pre-Columbian times, the coastline was populated by nomadic fishing clans of Changos Indians, of very little is known. The Atacaman culture was influenced by Tiwanaku culture and later fell under Inca rule. Atacamans harvested mainly corn and beans and developed trade as far as the Amazon basin, the arrival of the Spaniards in the 16th century did not destroy the culture but transformed it deeply through the process of mestizaje, in which both cultures mixed. At the time of independence general Simón Bolívar integrated it into the new Republic of Bolivia and this decision was disputed by the Chilean Government and has been a source of conflict until present times. Chile claimed that according to the Uti possidetis of the Spanish crown, Chileans explorers such as Juan López and José Santos Ossa discovered rich nitrate and guano deposits which produced a massive Chilean colonization of the coastline. Friction between the new settlers from both countries grew until 1879 when the War of the Pacific erupted, Antofagasta was permanently annexed by the Chilean government at the end of the war. Colonization by Chileans followed mainly from the Little North, into the new territories of Antofagasta and Tarapacá, in the early 20th century the region became a significant base of Chiles union-organizing movements. It continued to depend economically on the industry until its replacement by copper mining. Two of the largest and richest open pit mines in the world are located in Antofagasta, La Escondida, each province in the region is further subdivided into communes. The main river is the Loa, the average rainfall in the Antofagasta is just 1 millimetre per year. From the coast, east to the Chilean Coast Range, is the part of the Atacama Desert
13.
Coquimbo Region
–
The IV Coquimbo Region is one of Chiles 15 first order administrative divisions. It is some 400 km north of the capital, Santiago, the capital and largest city is La Serena, other important cities include the seaport Coquimbo and the agricultural centre Ovalle. The Coquimbo Region forms the narrowest part, or waist of Chile, the region has notable marine species as well as taxa that are associated with the mountainous regions. With respect to marine organisms, the upwelling areas encourage bioproductivity off of this Pacific Coast area of Chile, the Elqui Valley is home to a number of astronomical observatories, owing to the regions clear skies. It is also home to a 600-meter-long dam, the Puclaro, mining and agricultural activities account for the location of various places in the region, around the transverse valleys and mineral deposits. Originally this organization was structured according to the location of Indian villages of the Diaguitas, a high percentage of inhabitants are of Mestizo background, higher than any other region in Chile. Other indigenous peoples include the Aymara, Atacameno, Mapuche and Quechua whom were themselves from Peru. Recent high population growth stresses the conurbation La Serena-Coquimbo, which half the regional population. In terms of population, major cities are, La Serena Coquimbo Ovalle Illapel Vicuña Salamanca and this region is a very popular travel destination. Visitors are mainly attracted to its beaches, many of fine white sand, bathed by a calm sea. Along with tourism, the main industries are agriculture and fishing. The Los Pelambres copper mine, near Salamanca in Choapa is one of the largest in the world with some 2,100 million tonnes of reserves, the first newspaper published in this region was El Minero de Coquimbo in 1828. In La Serena is published the newspaper El Día and the Weekly Tiempo, while in the Coquimbo is printed La Región, in television TVN Red Coquimbo began on June 28,1993, news segments broadcast signal within the country. Then conduct small programs with reports in the local accent, in Ovalle, the council passed on UHF channel 63 of the Cable Color Ovalle TV, originally called Cultura Televisión. This channel will broadcast news and documentaries from Limarí, and have now ceased to exist several regional signals as Telenorte launched in the 1960s, and had a studio in La Serena in 1993, which ended in 1998. The signal issued from Arica continued until 2001, when it was closed forever, another regional channel, now gone, was the Canal 8 UCV TV. Identified as a local affiliate signal UCV TV, received support from the Valparaíso station and, with technical support, made soap operas. This channel in 1994 changed to signal the signal 9, until in 2002 finally closed its doors, leaving the memory of more than 25 years of history of local communications
14.
Catamarca Province
–
Catamarca is a province of Argentina, located in the northwest of the country. The province has a population of 334,568 as per the 2001 census, neighbouring provinces are, Salta, Tucumán, Santiago del Estero, Córdoba, and La Rioja. To the west it borders Chile, the capital is San Fernando del Valle de Catamarca, usually shortened to Catamarca. Other important cities include Andalgalá, Tinogasta, and Belén, located in an arid and semi-arid climate zone, the scarce water resources determine the human settlement pattern. Agricultural activities are concentrated in the pockets and valleys between the mountains, in the east the population is concentrated around a number of water courses, water being distributed by canals and irrigation ditches. The province is located with the region of Argentina. Mean annual precipitation of the province is around 400 to 500 millimetres which decreases significantly to the west, the province is characterized by the presence of different microclimates based on variations in altitude. In general, there are three different climatic zones found within the province, the northeastern parts of the province has a subtropical highland climate that is characterized by abundant rainfall and high temperatures. Summers are hot while winters are mild with abundant humidity, at the highest peaks of Sierra del Aconquija, snow cover is permanment. Most of the province and its valleys have an arid climate. Within these valleys includes the provincial capital, the climate is characterized by its extreme aridity, large thermal amplitudes. The region is characterized by abundant sunshine with winds predominantly coming from the northeast and southeast, nonetheless, there is large variation between different locations owing to differences in altitude and differences in the relief and altitudes of the surrounding mountains that enclose the valleys. Mean annual precipitation ranges from 500 to 700 millimetres in the parts of the region to less than 150 millimetres in the west. In the arid valleys, mean precipitation is around 160 millimetres. Most of the precipitation occurs during summer, falling as short, mean annual temperatures range between 16 to 18 °C with eastern and central parts having mean annual temperatures of 20 °C. In summer, the temperature is 25 °C although they can reach up to 45 °C. Winters, with a temperature of 10 °C are characterized by frequent frosts. Locations in the west experience colder winters due to their higher altitudes with temperatures that can decrease to −30 °C, during winter, the Zonda Wind occasionally occurs, leading to very dry conditions that can lead to dust storms
15.
La Rioja Province, Argentina
–
La Rioja is one of the provinces of Argentina and is located in the west of the country. Neighboring provinces are from the north clockwise Catamarca, Córdoba, San Luis, the dinosaur Riojasaurus is named after the province. Petroglyphs created by indigenous peoples at the Talampaya National Park are dated around 10,000 years BC. Succeeding cultures of indigenous peoples developed here, the Diaguita, Capayan and the Olongasta peoples inhabited the territory of present-day La Rioja Province at the time of encounter with the Spanish colonists in the 16th century. Juan Ramírez de Velazco founded Todos los Santos de la Nueva Rioja in 1591 under the government of Tucumán of the Viceroyalty of Peru, in 1630 the Calchaquí people revolted against the Spanish, but the governor Albornoz suppressed them. In 1783, after the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, the province acquired independence from Córdoba in 1820. Following attempts by Bernardino Rivadavia, the first elected President of Argentina, to impose a centralist constitution and he represented their preference for more autonomy, for which they continued to press following Quirogas 1835 assassination. After a period of instability in Argentina, the province finally joined the Argentine Confederation in 1853. La Rioja attracted fewer immigrants from Europe than did other Argentine provinces from 1890 to the 1930s, some Syrian and Lebanese immigrants did settle in the province, among whom the most well-known are probably the Menem family. Coming from what had been the Ottoman Empire, Saul Menem and his wife were of Armenian and he prospered as a traveling salesman and sent his eldest son, Carlos Menem, to Spain for college. Removed and imprisoned following the ouster of President Isabel Perón in March 1976. He was reportedly tortured during this time, the dictatorship repressed people in the province and was responsible for the brutal murder in August 1976 of Bishop Angelelli. After democracy was restored in 1983, Menem was overwhelmingly re-elected to office, elected president of Argentina in 1988, Menem served until 1999. During those years, he steered billions in federal public works spending into La Rioja, although the province remains less developed than the average in the nation, its economy today compares favorably with those of its neighbors. Located in the Argentine Northwest area, its landscape is arid to semi-arid, from the Andes at the west, with peaks of up to 6,795 meters, the reliefs height descents towards the sierras of the neighbouring dry Pampas zone. Most ranges in La Rioja are oriented in a north-south fashion. The provinces two largest cities, La Rioja and Chilecito are separated by Sierra de Velasco and west of Chilecito, the Talampaya National Park is a dry red-soil canyon of the ancient extinguished Talampaya river, which contains many walls and rock formations that make it an interesting tourist destination. La Riojas economy, estimated at US$1.822 billion in 2006, is the second-smallest among Argentinas provinces and its per capita output of US$6,283, though about 30% below the national average, makes it the most well-developed in northern Argentina
16.
San Juan Province, Argentina
–
San Juan is a province of Argentina, located in the western part of the country. Neighbouring provinces are, moving clockwise from the north, La Rioja, San Luis and it borders with Chile at the west. The province has an area of 89,651 km2, covering a region with scarce vegetation, fertile oases. Throughout the entire province there are an important number of paleontological sites, similar to other regions in Argentina, agriculture is one of the most important economic activities, highlighting wine production and olive oil. Additionally, a variety of fruits and vegetables are produced in the fertile valleys irrigated by artificial channels in the western part and this is the second province in volume of wine production at the national level and in South America, and possesses outstanding varietal wines. It is also an important center of mining and oil production, before the arrival of Spanish conquistadores, different tribes like Huarpes, Diaguitas, Capazanes, Olongastas and Yacampis, highly influenced by the Inca empire, inhabited the area. The city of San Juan de la Frontera was founded by Juan Jufré y Montesa in 1562, in 1776, San Juan was annexed to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, becoming one of the cities of the Province of Cuyo. In the same year, the first recorded earthquake caused damage to the city. The father of Argentine independence, Gen. Jose de San Martin, was appointed Governor of the Province of Cuyo in 1814, from there, San Martin began his legendary crossing of the Andes, one of military historys great tactical decisions. San Juan, then a town, was a great supporter of the expedition supplying gold, men. In 1820, San Juan was granted autonomy from the Province of Cuyo, the remainder of Cuyo region became Mendoza Province. Following an era of isolation for Argentina, the advent of new. Among these, was a San Juan military officer and novelist named Domingo Sarmiento, Sarmiento was eventually elected governor in 1862, pursuing sorely needed public investments and enacting Argentinas first law mandating compulsory education. Once elected President of Argentina in 1868, those policies became national law, in 1944 a moderate, yet highly destructive earthquake near the capital destroyed most of the city and killed 10,000 people. A fundraiser was organized to raise money for the victims of the quake where Colonel Juan Perón met his eventual wife, a more powerful earthquake stuck the same city in 1977, however new construction codes put in effect following the 1944 incident kept damage to a relative minimum. The most noteworthy loss following this event was the destruction of the Cathedral of San Juan, a new, modernist house of worship was quickly put up in its place and inaugurated in 1979. Among the most rapidly growing provinces in Argentina after 1945, the government began the construction of the National University of San Juan. Inaugurated in 1980, it has contributed to the production of irrigated desert crops, like olives, figs and, most importantly
17.
Argentina
–
Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
18.
Pacific Ocean
–
The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
19.
Santiago
–
Santiago de Chile, or simply Santiago, is the capital and largest city of Chile as well as one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is the center of Chiles largest and the most densely populated conurbation, the city is entirely located in the countrys central valley, at an elevation of 520 m above mean sea level. Founded in 1541, Santiago has been the city of Chile since colonial times. The city has a core of 19th century neoclassical architecture and winding side-streets, dotted by art deco, neo-gothic. Santiagos cityscape is shaped by several hills and the fast-flowing Mapocho River. The Andes Mountains can be seen from most points in the city and these mountains contribute to a considerable smog problem, particularly during winter. The city outskirts are surrounded by vineyards and Santiago is within a few hours of both the mountains and the Pacific Ocean, Santiago is the cultural, political and financial center of Chile and is home to the regional headquarters of many multinational corporations. The Chilean executive and judiciary are located in Santiago, but Congress meets mostly in nearby Valparaíso, Santiago is named after the biblical figure St. James. In Chile, there are entities which bear the name of Santiago that are often confused. The Commune of Santiago, sometimes referred to as downtown or Central Santiago, is a division that comprises roughly the area occupied by the city during its colonial period. The city and regions demonym is santiaguinos and santiaguinas, according to certain archaeological investigations, it is believed that the first human groups of the X millennium settled in the Santiago basin. The groups were mainly nomadic hunter-gatherers, who traveled from the coast to the interior in search of guanacos during the time of the Andean snowmelt. The villages established in the belonging to picunches groups or promaucaes, were subject to the Inca Empire throughout the late fifteenth century. The Incas settled in the valley of mitimaes, the main installation settled in the center of the present city, with strengths as Huaca de Chena, the area would have served as a basis for the failed Inca expeditions southward road junction as the Inca Trail. Having been sent by Francisco Pizarro from Peru and having made the journey from Cuzco. The hosts of Valdivia camped by the river in the slopes of the Tupahue hill, the natives accepted and even recommended the foundation of the town on a small island between two branches of the river next to a small hill called Huelén. On 12 February 1541, Valdivia officially founded the city of Santiago del Nuevo Extremo in honor of St. James, patron saint of Spain, near the Huelén, renamed by the conqueror as St. Lucia. Following colonial rule, Valdivia entrusted the layout of the new town to master builder Pedro de Gamboa, in the center of the city, Gamboa designed a Plaza Mayor, around which various plots for the Cathedral and the governors house were selected
20.
Norte Grande
–
The Norte Grande is one of the five natural regions into which CORFO divided continental Chile in 1950. It borders Peru to the north, the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Altiplano, Bolivia and Argentina to the east, and the Copiapó River to the south, beyond which lies the Norte Chico natural region. The Norte Grande, which extends from the Peruvian border to about 27° south latitude and it contains the Atacama Desert, one of the driest areas in the world, in certain sections, this desert does not register any rainfall at all. Average monthly temperatures range at sea level between about 20.5 °C during the summer and about 14 °C during the winter, most of the population lives in the coastal area, where the temperatures are more moderate and the humidity higher. The desert region is an arid plateau descending gradually from the Andes towards the coast. From the sea this plateau escarpment has the appearance of a range of flat topped hills closely following the coast line. This topography generates coastal microclimates because the fog that frequently forms over the ocean waters. This airborne moisture condenses in the spines and leaves of the vegetation, droplets that fall to the ground, the fog of this area is known locally as Camanchaca. Beyond the coastal bluffs, there is an area of rolling hills that encompasses the driest desert land and it is very rich in mineral and saline deposits, however. This area is broken by ranges of barren hills having the appearance of spurs from the Andes, within the mountain ranges parallel to the main chain of the Andes, the main one is the Cordillera Domeyko and among the salt flats the greater is the Salar de Atacama. Most of those forests were cut down to fuel the fires of the many foundries established since colonial times to exploit the abundant deposits of copper, silver, the result was the creation of even drier surface conditions. The eastern parts of this region lie within the ranges of the Andes. This arid, bleak area is apparently a continuation southward of the great Altiplano and its average elevation is estimated at 11,000 to 12,000 ft. A line of volcanoes crosses it from north to south, the chief summits being those of Licancabur, Acamarachi, Láscar, Miñiques, Pular, Socompa, Llullaillaco. Large shallow saline lakes are also features of this region. However, some rivers do manage to reach into the Pacific, including the Loa River, the water rights for one of the rivers, the Lauca River, remain a source of dispute between Bolivia and Chile. These narrow rivers have carved fertile valleys in which an exuberant vegetation creates a stark contrast to the bone-dry hills, in such areas, known locally as Quebradas, roads usually are built halfway up the arid elevations in order to maximize the intensive agricultural use of the irrigated land. They offer spectacular vistas, along with the harrowing experience of driving along the edges of cliffs
21.
Magallanes Region
–
The Region of Magallanes, officially the XII Region of Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica, is one of Chiles 15 first order administrative divisions. It is the southernmost, largest, and second least populated region of Chile and it comprises four provinces, Última Esperanza, Magallanes, Tierra del Fuego, and Antártica Chilena. Magallanes has many known places and geographical features including Torres del Paine, Cape Horn, Tierra del Fuego island. It also includes the Antarctic territory claimed by Chile, despite its large area, much of the land in the region is rugged or closed off for sheep farming, and is thus not suitable for settlement. 80% of the lives in the capital Punta Arenas, a major market city. The main economic activities are farming, oil extraction. It is also the region with the least amount of poverty in Chile and this region contains mountainous peaks and glaciers in the far north, including elements of the Patagonian Ice Sheet. Further south there are mountain ranges such as the Cerro Toro and numerous surface waters including the Seno Última Esperanza, Eberhard Fjord. Protected areas include the Torres del Paine National Park and the Cueva del Milodon Natural Monument, at the latter, remains have been discovered of the extinct ground sloth as well as of prehistoric man dating to circa 10,000 BC. The region is characterized by low temperatures and strong throughout the year. The region has 5 different climatic types, owing to the diversity in altitudes, owing to its proximity to 60oS, frontal system regularly pass through the region. The westernmost islands have a cold, humid and rainy climate, being exposed to strong winds and low temperatures throughout the year. Precipitation averages 3,500 mm per year, while the annual temperature on these islands is 9 °C with a low thermal amplitude due to the maritime influences. Precipitation decreases eastwards while temperatures increases eastwards and these islands are the wettest places in Chile, particularly on Guarello Island where it can record 9,000 mm during the wettest years. Precipitation is high throughout the year though fall tends to be the wettest season, immediately to the east of the westernmost islands, east of the Andes and bordered by the Cordillera Paine to the north and the Brunswick Peninsula to the south, the climate is much drier. The Andes to the west block most of the precipitation, causing most of the air coming in to be dry, mean annual precipitation ranges between 250 to 400 mm which is fairly evenly distributed through the year. During winters, precipitation falls as snow. Mean annual temperatures are between 6 to 7 °C, due to the close proximity to the ocean, winters are not cold and snow cover does not last long
22.
Vallenar
–
Vallenar is a city and commune in Atacama Region, Chile. It is the capital of the Huasco Province and is located in the valley of the Huasco River and its main activities are farming and mining. It was founded as San Ambrosio de Ballenary by Ambrose OHiggins in 1789, after his birthplace in Ballynary in County Sligo, llanos de Challe National Park is located 60 km northwest of the city of Vallenar. According to the 2002 census by the National Statistics Institute, Vallenar had 48,040 inhabitants, of these,43,750 lived in urban areas and 4,290 in rural areas. The population grew by 1. 7% between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, as a commune, Vallenar is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2008-2012 alcalde is Cristian Tapia Ramos, within the electoral divisions of Chile, Vallenar is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Mr. Alberto Robles and Mr. Giovanni Calderón as part of the 6th electoral district. The commune is represented in the Senate by Isabel Allende Bussi and Baldo Prokurica Prokurica as part of the 3rd senatorial constituency
23.
Caldera, Chile
–
Caldera is a port city and commune in the Copiapó Province of the Atacama Region in northern Chile. It has an excellent harbor, protected by breakwaters, being the city for the productive mining district centering on Copiapó to which it is connected by the first railroad constructed in Chile. Caldera lies about 75 km west of Copiapó at the Pacific, the climate is mostly warm and extremely dry, because of its location on the Atacama deserts coast. But the temperatures are moderated by the sea currents. However, lately the climate has become colder due to the climatic change, the commune spans an area of 4,666.6 km2. In 1687, Englishman Edward Davis reached the Playa Bahia Inglesa 6 km south of Caldera, in 1840, William Wheelwright of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company visited the region of Caldera. On his proposal the first railway was created in the year of 1851 from Caldera to Copiapó and its inauguration was on Christmas Day in 1851. Caldera became an important port for the exportation of minerals, the city itself was officially founded on 23 September 1850. The city has been struck by earthquakes and tsunamis several times the major ones being that of 1868,1877 and 1922. During the 1891 Chilean Civil War, Caldera Bay outside the city became the site of the Battle of Caldera Bay where torpedo boats loyal to Manuel Balmaceda sunk the rebel ironclad Blanco Encalada, in 1903,2,130 people lived in Caldera. According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Caldera had 13,734 inhabitants, of these,13,540 lived in urban areas and 194 in rural areas. The population grew by 13. 9% between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, former Railway Station, first in Chile, its construction dates back to 1850, with the beginnings of the works for the railway Caldera-Copiapó, first in Chile and third one in South America. It was designed to house inside a train in order to protect valuable minerals brought from Chañarcillo. The walls, meanwhile, were made of mud and reeds from Guayaquil, inside had a passenger platform and three load lines, all covered by a large shed 82 meters long by 32 meters wide. Church of San Vicente de Paul, Built in 1862 in wood, stone floor, inside there is an image of the Virgin of Sorrows, brought from Peru as spoils of war after the military campaigns during the War of the Pacific. Cave of Padre Negro, is a pilgrimage center built on a rock by the Colombian priest Crisógono Sierra -known locally as Padre Negro (Spanish for Black Father-, inside there are murals vigorous painter Luis Enrique Cerda. Municipal Cemetery of Caldera, first secular cemetery in Chile, was inaugurated on 20 September 1876, in its historical sector, mausoleums and tombs have cast iron structures made by English craftsmen and Carrara marble tombstones. Tornini House Museum, a museum, opened on 5 November 2010
24.
Tierra Amarilla, Chile
–
Tierra Amarilla is a Chilean commune and city in Copiapó Province, Atacama Region. According to the 2012 census, the population was 12,898 and has an area of 11,191 km². According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Tierra Amarilla had 12,888 inhabitants, of these,8,578 lived in urban areas and 4,310 in rural areas. The population grew by 9. 9% between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, as a commune, Tierra Amarilla is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. Within the electoral divisions of Chile, Tierra Amarilla is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Mr. Alberto Robles, the commune is represented in the Senate by Isabel Allende Bussi and Baldo Prokurica Prokurica as part of the 3rd senatorial constituency
25.
Diego de Almagro, Chile
–
Diego de Almagro is a Chilean city and commune in Chañaral Province, Atacama Region. The commune has an area of 18,663.8 km2, the area is named after Diego de Almagro. According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Diego de Almagro had 18,589 inhabitants, of these,17,674 lived in urban areas and 915 in rural areas. The population fell by 32. 4-32. 4% between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, as a commune, Diego de Almagro is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2008-2012 alcalde is Isaias Zavala Torres, the commune is represented in the Senate by Isabel Allende Bussi and Baldo Prokurica Prokurica as part of the 3rd senatorial constituency
26.
Chilean silver rush
–
Between 1830 and 1850 Chilean silver mining grew at an unprecedented space which transformed mining into one of the countrys principal sources of wealth. The rush caused rapid demographic, infrastructural, and economic expansion in the semi-arid Norte Chico mountains where the silver deposits lay, a number of Chileans made large fortunes in the rush and made investments in other areas of the economy of Chile. By the 1850s the rush was in decline and lucrative silver mining ended in the 1870s. At the same time mining activity in Chile reoriented to saltpetre operations, placer deposits of gold were exploited by the Spanish in the 16th century following their arrival in the same century. However, only after the independence in the 19th century did mining once again get prominence among economic activities in Chile, following the discovery of silver at Agua Amarga and Arqueros the Norte Chico mountains north of La Serena were exhaustively prospected. In 1832 prospector Juan Godoy found a silver outcrop 50 km south of Copiapó in Chañarcillo, Godoy successfully claimed the discovered outcrop in his name and the name of José Godoy and Miguel Gallo. The finding attracted thousands of people to the place and generated significant wealth, during the heyday of Chañarcillo it produced more than 332 tons of silver ore until the deposits begun to be exhausted in 1874. A settlement of 600 people mushroomed in Chañarcillo leading to the establishment of surveillance system to avoid disorders and theft of ore. The settlement evolved over time to a town named Juan Godoy which came to have a plaza, school, market, hospital, theater, a railroad station, following the discovery of Chañarcillo many other ores were found near Copiapó well into the 1840s. The many findings resulted in the court of Copiapó receiving numerous claims, in 1848 another large ore deposit was discovered at Tres Puntas sparkling yet another rush. Copiapó experienced a demographic and urbanistic growth during the rush. The town became a centre for trade and services of a mining district. In 1851 Copiapó was connected by railroad to Caldera, its port of export. The mining zone slowly grew northwards into the border with Bolivia. Agriculture in Norte Chico also expanded as a consequence of the rush, by 1855, Copiapó was already in decline. At the end of the rush, rich miners had diversified their assets into banking, agriculture, trade. In 1870,1570 miners worked in the Chañarcillo mines, however the mines were exhausted by 1874, despite this, Chañarcillo was the most productive mining district in 19th century Chile. A last major discovery of silver occurred 1870 in Caracoles in Bolivian territory adjacent to Chile, apart from being discovered by Chileans, the ore was also extracted with Chilean capital and miners
27.
Diaguitas
–
The Diaguita people are a group of South American indigenous people native to the Chilean Norte Chico and the Argentine Northwest. Western or Chilean Diaguitas lived mainly in the Transverse Valleys incised in a semi-arid environment, Eastern or Argentine Diaguitas lived in the provinces of La Rioja and Catamarca and part of the provinces of Salta, San Juan and Tucumán. The term Diaguita was first applied to peoples and archaeological cultures by Ricardo E. Latcham in early 20th century. Ancient Diaguitas were not a people, the language or dialects used by them seems to have varied from valley to other valleys. Coastal and inland Chilean Diaguitas traded as evidenced by the findings of mollusc shells in the upper course of Andean valleys. According to the 2010 census there are 67,410 self-identified Diaguita descendants in Argentina, early Spanish accounts, including Jerónimo de Vivar, claims the Diaguitas inhabiting the different Transverse Valleys spoke different languages. Jesuits active in western Argentina also report a number of languages. For the Chilean Diaguitas scholar Herman Carvajal claims however that they could well have spoken not different languages. According to this hypothesis the main difference between dialects could have been in the lexicon, kakán was proposed by Rodolfo Schuller and Ricardo E. Latcham to be the single language of the Diaguitas. This proposal has been questioned but is accepted among others by Sergio Villalobos, the origin of the Diaguita culture is traced back to an archaeological culture known as El Molle complex which existed from 300 to 700 CE. Later this culture was replaced in Chile by las Las Ánimas complex that developed between 800 and 1000 CE and it is from this last culture that the Archaeological Diaguita culture emerged around 1000 CE. The classical Diaguita period was characterized by advanced irrigation systems and by pottery painted in black, white and it has been claimed that the Inca Empire expanded into Diaguita lands because of its mineral wealth. This hypothesis is currently under dispute, another possibility is that the Incas invaded the relatively well-populated Eastern Diaguita valleys to obtain labor to send to Chilean mining districts. It is generally accepted that Diaguita incorporation into the Inca Empire was through warfare which caused a depopulation in the Transverse Valleys of Norte Chico. According to scholar Ana María Lorandi the Diaguitas, and specially the Calchaquí Diaguitas, once conquered the eastern Diaguitas did not unanimously accepted Inca rule. The Incas appointed kurakas and established mitmas in the Chilean Diaguita lands, the Incas did also influence the Diaguitas who adopted pottery designs from Cuzco and Inca techniques in agriculture and metalworking. The Chilean Diaguitas were conquered by Spaniards coming from Peru, the eastern Diaguitas lands were explored by Spaniards coming from Chile, Paraná River and Peru. The Spanish initially failed to conquer the fertile valleys inhabited by the Eastern Diaguitas, by founding the cities of Santiago del Estero, Tucumán, Salta, La Rioja and Jujuy the Spanish established an effective fence around the rebellious Eastern Diaguita valleys
28.
Chango people
–
The culture originated in the 8, 000-year-old Chinchorro tradition. Due to a combination of conquest and integration into other cultures and ethnicities, the term chango was first documented in the 17th century by Spanish conquistadors who perceived little in the way of cultural difference between the local native communities. Therefore, chango describes a grouping of maritime peoples who shared a similar way of life rather than a common history or ethnicity. In general, Chango culture is considered more primitive than neighbouring cultures such as the Atacameňos, Chango culture is part of the Chinchorro tradition. The Chinchorro were hunter-fisher-gatherers with a reliance on the sea. They are of special interest to modern anthropologists due to their practice of mummifying the dead, Chango communities were organised into either nomadic or sedentary groups based on nuclear family units. Each group was independent of the others, providing food and other resources for itself, the Changos were experts at exploiting the resources of the sea. Each group specialised in a type of fish, including tuna, conger eels, mullet, dart fish, mackerel. Rafts used for fishing developed from primitive reed constructions to craft made from three wooden planks, and later to seal skins fastened to wooden frames, fish were caught using nets, hooks and harpoons. The capture of seals was of importance to the Chango way of life. The meat, fat and bones were used for food and tools, the skins were used to make rafts and they also made and painted ceramic utensils. Despite their geographical isolation, the Changos traded with tribes, exchanging shellfish, dried fish, animal hide, guano, fat and shells for wool, fruit, maize. Chango cave paintings include images of men hunting and fishing and sea creatures such as seals, indigenous peoples in Chile Atacama desert Chinchorro culture
29.
Subspecies
–
In biological classification, subspecies is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, or a taxonomic unit in that rank. A subspecies cannot be recognized independently, a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or at least two, in zoology, under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, the subspecies is the only taxonomic rank below that of species that can receive a name. In botany and mycology, under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, in bacteriology and virology, under standard bacterial nomenclature and virus nomenclature, there are recommendations but not strict requirements for recognizing other important infraspecific ranks. A taxonomist decides whether to recognize a subspecies or not, the differences between subspecies are usually less distinct than the differences between species. In zoology, the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature accepts only one rank below that of species, other groupings, infrasubspecific entities do not have names regulated by the ICZN. Such forms have no official ICZN status, though they may be useful in describing altitudinal or geographical clines, pet breeds, transgenic animals, etc. While the scientific name of a species is a binomen, the name of a subspecies is a trinomen - a binomen followed by a subspecific name. A tigers binomen is Panthera tigris, so for a Sumatran tiger the trinomen is, for example, names published before 1992 in the rank of variety are taken to be names of subspecies. In botany, subspecies is one of many ranks below that of species, such as variety, subvariety, form, the subspecific name is preceded by subsp. or ssp. as Schoenoplectus californicus ssp. tatora. A botanical name consists of at most three parts, an infraspecific name includes the species binomial, and one infraspecific epithet, such as subspecies or variety. For example, Motacilla alba alba is the subspecies of the white wagtail. The subspecies name that repeats the name is referred to in botanical nomenclature as the subspecies autonym. When zoologists disagree over whether a population is a subspecies or a full species. A subspecies is a rank below species – the only recognized rank in the zoological code. Botanists and mycologists have the choice of ranks lower than subspecies, such as variety or form, in biological terms, rather than in relation to nomenclature, a polytypic species has two or more subspecies, races, or more generally speaking, populations that need a separate description. These are separate groups that are distinct from one another and do not generally interbreed. These subspecies, races, or populations, can be named as subspecies by zoologists, a monotypic species has no distinct population or races, or rather one race comprising the whole species. A taxonomist would not name a subspecies within such a species, monotypic species can occur in several ways, All members of the species are very similar and cannot be sensibly divided into biologically significant subcategories
30.
Darwin's rhea
–
Darwins rhea, also known as the lesser rhea, is a large flightless bird, but the smaller of the two extant species of rheas. It is found in the Altiplano and Patagonia in South America, the lesser rhea stands at 90 to 100 cm tall. Length is 92 to 100 cm and weight is 15 to 28.6 kg, like most ratites, it has a small head and a small bill, the latter measuring 6.2 to 9.2 cm, but has long legs and a long neck. It has relatively larger wings than other ratites, enabling it to run particularly well and it can reach speeds of 60 km/h, enabling it to outrun predators. The sharp claws on the toes are effective weapons and their feathers are similar to those of ostriches, in that they have no aftershaft. Their plumage is spotted brown and white, and the part of their tarsus is feathered. The tarsus is 28 to 32 cm long and has 18 horizontal plates on the front and its known as ñandú petiso, or ñandú del norte in Argentina where the majority live. Other names are suri and choique, the name ñandú comes from the greater rheas name in Guaraní, ñandú guazu, meaning big spider, possibly in relation to their habit of opening and lowering alternative wings when they run. In English, Darwins rhea gets its name from Rhea, a Greek goddess. As late as 2008, it was classified in the monotypic genus Pterocnemia, in 2008, the SACC subsumed Pterocnemia into the genus Rhea. Three subspecies have traditionally recognized, R. p. garleppi is found in the puna of southeastern Peru, southwestern Bolivia. R. p. tarapacensis is found in the puna of northern Chile from the region of Arica, R. p. pennata is found in the Patagonian steppes of Argentina and Chile. The IUCN considers the two northern taxa R. p. tarapacensis and R. p. garleppi as a separate species. Both garleppi and tarapacensis were described by Charles Chubb in 1913 and it is possible garleppi should be considered a junior synonym of tarapacensis. The lesser rhea is mainly an herbivore, with the odd small animal and it predominately eats saltbush and fruits from cacti, as well grasses. They tend to be birds, except as chicks when they whistle mournfully, and as males looking for a female. The males of this species become aggressive once they are incubating eggs, the females thus lay the later eggs near the nest, rather than in it. Most of the eggs are moved into the nest by the male, but some remain outside, the male, and later the chicks, eat these flies
31.
Endangered species
–
An endangered species is a species which has been categorized as likely to become extinct. In 2012, the IUCN Red List featured 3079 animal and 2655 plant species as endangered worldwide, the figures for 1998 were, respectively,1102 and 1197. Many nations have laws that protect conservation-reliant species, for example, population numbers, trends and species conservation status can be found in the lists of organisms by population. The conservation status of a species indicates the likelihood that it will become extinct, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the best-known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. Over 40% of the species are estimated to be at risk of extinction. Internationally,199 countries have signed an accord to create Biodiversity Action Plans that will protect endangered, in the United States, such plans are usually called Species Recovery Plans. Those species of Near Threatened and Least Concern status have been assessed and found to have relatively robust and healthy populations, though these may be in decline. The IUCN categories, with examples of animals classified by them, include, Extinct Extinct in the wild Captive individuals survive, critically endangered Faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the immediate future. Endangered Faces a high risk of extinction in the near future, vulnerable Faces a high risk of endangerment in the medium term. Near-threatened May be considered threatened in the near future, Least concern No immediate threat to species survival. A population size reduction of ≥ 50%, projected or suspected to be met within the next 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, based on any of to under A1. E) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20% within 20 years or five generations, there is data from the United States that shows a correlation between human populations and threatened and endangered species. Under the Endangered Species Act in the United States, species may be listed as endangered or threatened, the Salt Creek tiger beetle is an example of an endangered subspecies protected under the ESA. Some endangered species laws are controversial, also lobbying from hunters and various industries like the petroleum industry, construction industry, and logging, has been an obstacle in establishing endangered species laws. The Bush administration lifted a policy that required federal officials to consult an expert before taking actions that could damage endangered species. Under the Obama administration, this policy has been reinstated, being listed as an endangered species can have negative effect since it could make a species more desirable for collectors and poachers. This effect is potentially reducible, such as in China where commercially farmed turtles may be reducing some of the pressure to poach endangered species. Another problem with the species is its effect of inciting the use of the shoot, shovel
32.
Human overpopulation
–
Human overpopulation occurs when the ecological footprint of a human population in a specific geographical location exceeds the carrying capacity of the place occupied by that group. The term human overpopulation refers to the relationship between the human population and its environment, the Earth, or to smaller geographical areas such as countries. Overpopulation can result from an increase in births, a decline in mortality rates and it is possible for very sparsely populated areas to be overpopulated if the area has a meagre or non-existent capability to sustain life. The rate of growth has been declining since the 1980s. The United Nations has expressed concerns on continued population growth in sub-Saharan Africa, recent research has demonstrated that those concerns are well grounded. As of April 7,2017 the worlds population is estimated to be 7.496 billion by the United States Census Bureau. Most contemporary estimates for the capacity of the Earth under existing conditions are between 4 billion and 16 billion. Depending on which estimate is used, human overpopulation may or may not have already occurred, nevertheless, the rapid recent increase in human population is causing some concern. The population is expected to reach between 8 and 10.5 billion between the years 2040 and 2050, in May 2011, the United Nations increased the medium variant projections to 9.3 billion for 2050 and 10.1 billion for 2100. The recent rapid increase in population over the past three centuries has raised concerns that the planet may not be able to sustain present or future numbers of inhabitants. Wealthy but highly populated territories like Britain rely on imports from overseas. This was severely felt during the World Wars when, despite food efficiency initiatives like dig for victory and food rationing, however, many believe that waste and over-consumption, especially by wealthy nations, is putting more strain on the environment than overpopulation. Most countries have no policy of limiting their birth rates. Only China had imposed restrictions on having more than one child. Extraterrestrial settlement and other solutions have been proposed as ways to mitigate overpopulation in the future. Concern about overpopulation is an ancient topic, tertullian was a resident of the city of Carthage in the second century CE, when the population of the world was about 190 million. He notably said, What most frequently meets our view is our teeming population and our numbers are burdensome to the world, which can hardly support us. In very deed, pestilence, and famine, and wars, before that, Plato, Aristotle and others broached the topic as well
33.
Iron
–
Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series and it is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earths outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earths crust, like the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium, iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to +6, although +2 and +3 are the most common. Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen environments, but is reactive to oxygen, fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-gray, but oxidize in normal air to give hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust. Unlike the metals that form passivating oxide layers, iron oxides occupy more volume than the metal and thus flake off, Iron metal has been used since ancient times, although copper alloys, which have lower melting temperatures, were used even earlier in human history. Pure iron is soft, but is unobtainable by smelting because it is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities, in particular carbon. A certain proportion of carbon steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces, where ore is reduced by coke to pig iron, further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content to the correct proportion to make steel. Steels and iron alloys formed with metals are by far the most common industrial metals because they have a great range of desirable properties. Iron chemical compounds have many uses, Iron oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction, used in welding and purifying ores. Iron forms binary compounds with the halogens and the chalcogens, among its organometallic compounds is ferrocene, the first sandwich compound discovered. Iron plays an important role in biology, forming complexes with oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Iron is also the metal at the site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants. A human male of average height has about 4 grams of iron in his body and this iron is distributed throughout the body in hemoglobin, tissues, muscles, bone marrow, blood proteins, enzymes, ferritin, hemosiderin, and transport in plasma. The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys can be evaluated using a variety of tests, including the Brinell test, Rockwell test, the data on iron is so consistent that it is often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. An increase in the content will cause a significant increase in the hardness. Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is achieved with a 0. 6% carbon content, because of the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium. Because of its significance for planetary cores, the properties of iron at high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively
34.
Mining
–
Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner, ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times, Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines, levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer products, due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later and these were used to make early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Lion Cave in Swaziland, at this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of an age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons. Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi, at first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps, the miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust
35.
Phelps Dodge
–
Phelps Dodge Corporation was an American mining company founded in 1834 as an import-export firm by Anson Greene Phelps and his two British sons-in-law William Earle Dodge, Sr. and Daniel James. The latter two ran Phelp, James & Co. the part of the based in Liverpool. The import-export firm at first exported United States cotton from the Deep South to England, with the expansion of the western frontier in North America, the corporation acquired mines and mining companies, including the Copper Queen Mine in Arizona and the Dawson, New Mexico coal mines. It operated its own mines and acquired railroads to carry its products, by the late 19th century, it was known as a mining company. On March 19,2007, it was acquired by Freeport-McMoRan, Anson G. Phelps started a partnership in New York City during 1821 with Elisha Peck, a merchant who had been in trade in Berlin, Connecticut. In 1834 Peck left the business and was replaced in Liverpool by Daniel James and it was at this time that the concern of Phelps Dodge and Company was begun. When Anson G. Phelps passed, his sons-in-law purchased his portion of the company, but retained the name, in 1880, the company invested in the Detroit Copper Company of Clifton, AZ, at the time a very small copper camp in eastern Arizona Territory. Phelps-Dodge interested Dr. James Douglas of Phoenixville, Pennsylvania to inspect the property, Dr. Douglas inspected the Detroit Copper Co of Clifton and also ventured south to the Warren District. On his advice Phelps-Dodge began its own mining operations in the Warren District with the purchase of the Atlanta Copper Mine in 1882, when both mines discovered the same ore body, instead of fighting over it, they merged in 1885, creating the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Company. The Copper Queen Mine in Bisbee, Arizona, became one of the most productive in the state of the early 20th century, the company focused largely on providing copper wire and cables to industry, products that were in high demand as the Industrial Revolution took hold. As the company diversified, it began investing in new railroads, essential in the efforts to become established in the West. It used its own lines to transport products to and from major railroads for its markets on the eastern/northeastern shores. In 1895, the first contract was signed by Phelps Dodge and Company and this economically symbiotic relationship lasted until 1922, in which Phelps Dodge provided 90% of the blister copper Nichols Copper Company used to produce 100% pure copper. During the 1920s, Phelps Dodge invested $3.5 million in the Nichols Copper Companys plant modernization projects in exchange for stock in Nichols Copper Company and this dramatically increased copper production of the plant. In 1930, Dr. William Henry Nichols died, Phelps Dodge purchased the Laurel Hill plant that same year. During the late 19th century, in concert with its metal interests, in Tombstone, Arizona during 1900 E. B. Gage, Frank Murphy, and William Staunton consolidated their various mining properties into a single entity and they worked to drain mines that had filled with water, laid a rail spur into town, and revived mining. They experienced some success until the pumps failed in 1909, the new company filed for bankruptcy and the Phelps-Dodge Corporation acquired its claims
36.
Fruit
–
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
37.
Huasco
–
Huasco is a Chilean city and commune, in the Huasco Province, Atacama Region. The port city of Huasco is located 50 km west of Vallenar and close to the town of Huasco Bajo, the coastal route between Huasco Bajo and Carrizal Bajo provides one of the two accesses to Llanos de Challe National Park. The port was used between 1851 and 1873 to ship copper ore, copper regulus, alpaca wool and hides round Cape Horn to Swansea, Glamorgan, according to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Huasco had 7,945 inhabitants. Of these,6,445 lived in areas and 1,500 in rural areas. The population grew by 5. 7% between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, as a commune, Huasco is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2008-2012 alcalde is Rodrigo Loyola Morenilla, within the electoral divisions of Chile, Huasco is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Mr. Alberto Robles and Mr. Giovanni Calderón as part of the 6th electoral district. The commune is represented in the Senate by Isabel Allende Bussi and Baldo Prokurica Prokurica as part of the 3rd senatorial constituency
38.
Olive
–
Olea europeana sylvestris is a subspecies that corresponds to a smaller tree bearing noticeably smaller fruits. The olives fruit, also called the olive, is of agricultural importance in the Mediterranean region as the source of olive oil. The tree and its fruit give their name to the plant family, which includes species such as lilacs, jasmine, Forsythia. The word derives from Latin ŏlīva a borrowing from the Greek ἐλαία, the oldest attested forms of the Greek words are the Mycenaean
39.
Tomato
–
The tomato is the edible fruit of Solanum lycopersicum, commonly known as a tomato plant, which belongs to the nightshade family, Solanaceae. The species originated in Central and South America, the Nahuatl word tomatl gave rise to the Spanish word tomate, from which the English word tomato originates. Numerous varieties of tomato are widely grown in temperate climates across the world, with greenhouses allowing its production throughout the year, the plants typically grow to 1–3 meters in height and have a weak stem that often sprawls over the ground and vines over other plants. It is a perennial in its habitat, and grown as an annual in temperate climates. An average common tomato weighs approximately 100 grams and its use as a food originated in Mexico, and spread throughout the world following the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Tomato is consumed in diverse ways, including raw, as an ingredient in dishes, sauces, salads. While tomatoes are botanically fruits, they are considered culinary vegetables. The word tomato comes from the Spanish tomate, which in turn comes from the Nahuatl word tomatl and it first appeared in print in 1595. The native Mexican tomatillo is tomate, meaning fat water or fat thing), when Aztecs started to cultivate the Andean fruit, bigger and red, they called the new species xitomatl. It first appeared in print in 1595, the scientific species epithet lycopersicum means wolf peach, and comes from German werewolf myths. The Italian word, pomodoro was borrowed into Polish, and via Russian, the usual pronunciations of tomato are /təˈmeɪtoʊ/ and /təˈmɑːtoʊ/. The words dual pronunciations were immortalized in Ira and George Gershwins 1937 song Lets Call the Whole Thing Off and have become a symbol for nitpicking pronunciation disputes. In this capacity, it has become an American and British slang term. Or Its all the same to me, botanically, a tomato is a fruit, a berry, consisting of the ovary, together with its seeds, of a flowering plant. However, the tomato has a lower sugar content than other edible fruits. Typically served as part of a salad or main course of a meal, rather than at dessert, it is, in the US, considered a culinary vegetable. One exception is that tomatoes are treated as a fruit in home canning practices, they are acidic enough to process in a water bath rather than a pressure cooker as vegetables require. Tomatoes are not the food source with this ambiguity, bell peppers, cucumbers, green beans, eggplants, avocados
Chile
