1.
Government of Australia
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The Government of the Commonwealth of Australia is the government of the Commonwealth of Australia, a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The Commonwealth of Australia was formed in 1901 as a result of an agreement among six self-governing British colonies, the terms of this contract are embodied in the Australian Constitution, which was drawn up at a Constitutional Convention and ratified by the people of the colonies at referendums. Separation of powers is implied by the structure of the Constitution, the Australian system of government combines elements of the Westminster and Washington systems with unique Australian characteristics, and has been characterised as a Washminster mutation. Section 51 of the Constitution provides for the Commonwealth Governments legislative powers and allocates certain powers, all remaining responsibilities are retained by the six States. Further, each State has its own constitution, so that Australia has seven sovereign Parliaments, the High Court of Australia arbitrates on any disputes which arise between the Commonwealth and the States, or among the States, concerning their respective functions. The Commonwealth Parliament can propose changes to the Constitution, the Commonwealth Constitution also provides that the States can agree to refer any of their powers to the Commonwealth. This may be achieved by way of an amendment to the Constitution via referendum, more commonly powers may be transferred by passing other acts of legislation which authorise the transfer and such acts require the legislative agreement of all the state governments involved. This transfer legislation may have a clause, a legislative provision that nullifies the transfer of power after a specified period. In addition, Australia has several territories, two of which are self-governing, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory, Australian citizens in these territories are represented by members of both houses of the Commonwealth Parliament. The territory of Norfolk Island was self-governing from 1979 until 2016, the other territories that are regularly inhabited—Jervis Bay, Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands—have never been self-governing. The federal nature of the Commonwealth and the structure of the Parliament of Australia were the subject of protracted negotiations among the colonies during the drafting of the Constitution, the House of Representatives is elected on a basis that reflects the differing populations of the States. Thus New South Wales has 48 members while Tasmania has only five, but the Senate is elected on a basis of equality among the States, all States elect 12 Senators, regardless of population. This was intended to allow the Senators of the smaller States to form a majority, the ACT and the NT each elect two Senators. The third level of government after Commonwealth and State/Territory is Local government, in the form of shires, towns, the Councils of these areas are composed of elected representatives, usually serving part-time. Their powers are devolved to them by the State or Territory in which they are located, with this act, Australian law was made unequivocally sovereign, and the High Court of Australia was confirmed as the highest court of appeal. The theoretical possibility of the British Parliament enacting laws to override the Australian Constitution was also removed, the Legislature makes the laws, and supervises the activities of the other two arms with a view to changing the laws when appropriate. The Australian Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the Queen of Australia, a 76-member Senate, twelve Senators from each state are elected for six-year terms, using proportional representation and the single transferable vote, with half elected every three years. In addition to the state Senators, two senators are elected by voters from the Northern Territory, while another two senators are elected by the voters of the Australian Capital Territory
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Campbell, Australian Capital Territory
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Campbell is a suburb of Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia. Covering an area to the South East of the business district. On Census night 2011, Campbell had a population of 4,928 people, the suburb of Campbell is named after Robert Campbell, the owner of Duntroon station on which Campbell is now located. Many buildings built by Robert Campbell and his family are still standing around Canberra, including Blundells Cottage, St John the Baptist Church, Reid, Duntroon House and Yarralumla House. Located in Campbell are the Australian War Memorial, Royal Military College, Duntroon, the Australian Defence Force Academy, also with addresses in the suburb are the Ainslie Village accommodation centre for people with special needs and the Campbell Park Offices. Schools located in the suburb include Campbell High School, Campbell Primary School, most of Campbell is dominated by the lowest layer of the Ainslie Volcanics, a grey dacite and other erupted particles such as agglomerate and tuff. In the north is grey quartz andesite, a layer of the Ainslie Volcanics. In the north east is cream rhyolite from the highest layer of the Ainslie Volcanics, the Ainslie Volcanics were formed in the Silurian period. A layer of the Tertiary age pebbly gravels is around Anzac Parade, left over from when the Molonglo river was at a higher level
4.
Australian Capital Territory
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The Australian Capital Territory is the federal district in the south east of Australia, enclaved within New South Wales. Its only city is Canberra, the city of Australia. The ACT also has a strip of territory around the southern end of the Beecroft Peninsula. The need for a territory was flagged by colonial delegates during the Federation conventions of the late 19th century. Section 125 of the Australian Constitution provided that, following Federation in 1901, the territory was transferred to the Commonwealth by the state of New South Wales in 1911, two years prior to the naming of Canberra as the national capital in 1913. The floral emblem of the ACT is the royal bluebell and the emblem is the gang-gang cockatoo. The economic activity of the Australian Capital Territory is heavily concentrated around Canberra and this trend continued into 2016, when the territory was ranked the third best performing out of all of Australias states and territories. There is a proportion of young adults in the region compared with other Australian states or territories. Approximately one-fifth of ACT residents were born outside of Australia, mainly in the United Kingdom, almost one-fifth speak a language other than English at home, the most common being Chinese. The ACT also has a strip of territory around the southern end of the Beecroft Peninsula. Apart from the city of Canberra, the Australian Capital Territory also contains agricultural land, small townships and communities located within the ACT include Williamsdale, Naas, Uriarra, Tharwa and Hall. There are a range of mountains, rivers and creeks in the Namadgi National Park. These include the Naas and Murrumbidgee Rivers, Canberra is noted for its warm to hot, dry summers, and cold winters with occasional fog and frequent frosts. Many of the mountains in the territorys south-west are snow-covered for at least part of the winter. Thunderstorms can occur between October and March, and annual rainfall is 623 mm, with rainfall highest in spring and summer, the highest maximum temperature recorded in the ACT was 42.8 °C at Acton on 11 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was −14.6 °C at Gudgenby on 11 July 1971, notable geological formations in the Australian Capital Territory include the Canberra Formation, the Pittman Formation, Black Mountain Sandstone and State Circle Shale. In the 1840s fossils of brachiopods and trilobites from the Silurian period were discovered at Woolshed Creek near Duntroon, at the time, these were the oldest fossils discovered in Australia, though this record has now been far surpassed. Other specific geological places of interest include the State Circle cutting, the oldest rocks in the ACT date from the Ordovician around 480 million years ago
5.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
6.
Emil Sodersten
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Emil Lawrence Sodersten was an Australian architect active in the second quarter of the 20th century. His work encompassed the Australian architectural styles of Art Deco and Functionalist & Moderne and his design for the Australian War Memorial was the first national architectural monument in Australia. The Australian Institute of Architects presents the Emil Sodersten Interior Architecture Award annually in his honour, Sodersten was born in the inner-Sydney suburb of Balmain, the second of seven children born to Julia and Emil Sodersteen. Emil Junior and his brothers, Erik and Karl, later changed their surnames by deed poll to Sodersten, in 1915 Sodersten was articled in architecture to Ross & Rowe and in the ensuing five years studied at Sydney Technical College. During 1921 he attended lectures at the University of Sydney given by the new Dean of Architecture, the Queensland firm Hall & Prentice were commissioned to design Brisbane City Hall in the early 1920s and Sodersten worked on the project with Bruce Dellit and Peter Kaad. He returned to Sydney in 1923 and was registered as an architect whilst working for John P. Tate & Young, two years later Sodersten went into private practice. In 1927-28 he became a council-member of the Institute of Architects of New South Wales and was made a fellow of the Royal Australian Institute of Architects in 1931 and he entered the international competition to design the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. His design was considered exceptional but, as with most of those entered, was over budget, the only entry within budget was by John Crust and so the two architects were commissioned to work together on an amended design. Crust project managed the new building to Soderstens even more monumental design, after conflict arose with Crust, Sodersteen withdrew in 1938. In Sydney he designed numerous apartment blocks, including Birtley Towers at Elizabeth Bay, during the 1930s he worked in association with his brothers Erik Sodersten, an architect, and Karl Sodersten, a structural engineer. When Emil visited Europe in 1935 he was impressed with the work of Willem Marinus Dudok and Hendrik Petrus Berlage, in the late 1930s Nesca House, Newcastle was his major project. During World War II, Sodersten served with the Royal Australian Air Force in Papua and New Guinea, Sodersten married a 37-year-old secretary, Elsie Vera Wynn, in the Catholic Church in 1951. After World War II he designed several shopping centres for the Housing Commission of New South Wales, including the Oakes Centre in Westmead, in 1951, he designed a Canberra chancellery and residence for the High Commissioner of Pakistan but the project remains unbuilt. Sodersten designed the Reid Building for St Andrews College, University of Sydney and he died of a coronary occlusion at home in Manly and was survived by his wife
7.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
8.
Charles Bean
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Charles Edwin Woodrow Bean, usually identified as C. E. W. Bean, was an Australian World War 1 war correspondent and historian, Bean was born in Bathurst, New South Wales, a son of the Rev. Edwin Bean, headmaster of All Saints College. C. L. and was called to the bar in 1903. He returned to Australia in 1904 and taught briefly, including a stint at Sydney Grammar School and he resigned his position as barrister assisting Mr. Justice Owen in May 1907, and recounted his experiences in the The Sydney Morning Herald in a series of articles. In June 1908 he joined the Sydney Morning Herald as a reporter, by mid-1909 he was working on commissioned articles, the first being The Wool Land in three weekly instalments. In 1911 and 1912 he was the Heralds correspondent in London, again, he made good use of his opportunities, producing a series of articles which he fleshed out for his next book Flagships Three, which received favourable reviews. He was commissioned at the rank of Captain in the A. I. F. as demand for reports on the events at Gallipoli increased in the Australian home audience, domestic newspapers such as The Age and The Argus stopped carrying Beans copy due to its unappealing style. In early May, Bean travelled to Cape Helles with the 2nd Infantry Brigade to cover the Second Battle of Krithia. Here he was recommended for the Military Cross for gallantry under fire in rescuing a wounded soldier, but was ineligible as his military rank was only honorary. I. F. On the night of 6 August 1915 Bean was hit in the leg by a Turkish bullet while following the column of Brigadier-General John Monashs 4th Infantry Brigade at the opening of the Battle of Sari Bair. Bean left Gallipoli on the night of 17 December 1915 two nights before the evacuation of Anzac Cove by the A. I. F. He would return to it again after the war in 1919 with the Australian Historical Mission, in 1916 Bean went with the Australian Imperial Force as it moved from the Mediterranean theatre of operations to France after the failure of the Gallipoli campaign. It was during his time with the A. I. F, Bean had a 15-pound clothing allowance from the Australian Government, expending it upon what would become his distinctive outfit. He was also equipped with a horse and saddlery, private Arthur Bazley was assigned as Beans batman, and the two became personal friends. He disliked Monash for not fitting his ideal of Australian manhood and he had earned Monashs wrath in return for failing to give his command the publicity that Monash thought it deserved during the Gallipoli campaign. Beans brother was an anaesthetist and served as a Major in the Medical Corps on the Western Front. By the end of the war, the Committee of Imperial Defence were less willing to divulge this information. It took six years of persistence before Bean was allowed access, Bean therefore had available to him resources that were denied to all British historians who were not associated with the Historical Section of the CID. Bean was unwilling to compromise his values for personal gain or political expediency and he was not influenced by suggestions and criticism from British official historian, Sir James Edmonds about the direction of his work
9.
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
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Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh is the husband of Queen Elizabeth II. A member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, Philip was born into the Greek and he was born in Greece, but his family was exiled from the country when he was an infant. After being educated in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, he joined the Royal Navy in 1939, from July 1939, he began corresponding with the 13-year-old Princess Elizabeth, whom he had first met in 1934. During the Second World War he served with the Mediterranean and Pacific fleets, after the war, Philip was granted permission by King George VI to marry Elizabeth. After an engagement of five months, he married Elizabeth on 20 November 1947, just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh. Philip left active service when Elizabeth became Queen in 1952. He was formally made a Prince of the United Kingdom in 1957, Philip has four children with Elizabeth, Prince Charles, Princess Anne, Prince Andrew, and Prince Edward. He has eight grandchildren and five great-grandchildren, a keen sports enthusiast, Philip helped develop the equestrian event of carriage driving. He is a patron of over 800 organisations and serves as chairman of the Duke of Edinburghs Award scheme for people aged 14 to 24 and he is the longest-serving consort of a reigning British monarch and the oldest-ever male member of the British royal family. Philips four elder sisters were Margarita, Theodora, Cecilie, and he was baptised into the Greek Orthodox Church. His godparents were Queen Olga of Greece and the Mayor of Corfu, shortly after Philips birth, his maternal grandfather, Prince Louis of Battenberg, then known as Louis Mountbatten, Marquess of Milford Haven, died in London. Louis was a naturalised British citizen, who, after a career in the Royal Navy, had renounced his German titles and adopted the surname Mountbatten during the First World War. After visiting London for the memorial, Philip and his mother returned to Greece where Prince Andrew had remained behind to command an army division embroiled in the Greco-Turkish War, the war went badly for Greece and the Turks made large gains. On 22 September 1922, Philips uncle, King Constantine I, was forced to abdicate, the commander of the army, General Georgios Hatzianestis, and five senior politicians were executed. Prince Andrews life was believed to be in danger, and Alice was under surveillance, in December, a revolutionary court banished Prince Andrew from Greece for life. The British naval vessel HMS Calypso evacuated Prince Andrews family, with Philip carried to safety in a cot made from a fruit box. Philips family went to France, where settled in the Paris suburb of Saint-Cloud in a house lent to them by his wealthy aunt, Princess George of Greece. Because Philip left Greece as a baby, he not have a strong grasp of Greek
10.
Battle of Lone Pine
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The Battle of Lone Pine was fought between Australian and Ottoman Empire forces during the Gallipoli Campaign of the First World War, between 6 and 10 August 1915. The battle was part of a attack to draw Ottoman attention away from the main assaults against Sari Bair, Chunuk Bair and Hill 971. As the counterattacks intensified the Australians brought up two fresh battalions, finally, on 9 August the Ottomans called off any further attempts and by 10 August offensive action ceased, leaving the Australians in control of the position. At the rear of the Ottoman line, near Owens Gully, was a depression called The Cup that was not visible from the Australians position on The Pimple, prior to the battle, isolated fighting around Lone Pine had begun early in the Gallipoli campaign. Before the Australians could engage the battery, the Ottomans had withdrawn to a ridge to the south-west, with the objective of retaking the 400 Plateau. Rolling up the 6th Battalion, the Ottomans pushed the Australians back to Pine Ridge, taking heavy casualties, the Australians withdrew north to Lone Pine, where they were able to establish a defensive position. As reinforcements were brought up from New Zealand units, in the afternoon a second Ottoman regiment, the Australian 1st Infantry Brigade was chosen to undertake the attack, and consisted of about 3,000 men, under the command of Colonel Nevill Smyth. Along with the 2nd and 3rd Infantry Brigades, the 1st Infantry Brigade was part of the Australian 1st Division. The divisions commander was Brigadier General Harold Walker, a British officer who had replaced Major General William Bridges as temporary commander after Bridges had been killed by a sniper in May. The Ottoman forces opposing the Australians at Lone Pine consisted of two battalions from the 47th Regiment, under the command of Tevfik Bey. These battalions amounted to a total of about 1,000 men, of which 500 were positioned in the trenches along the front, while another 500 were positioned further back in depth. The positions north and south of the Ottoman line at Lone Pine were held by the 125th Regiment at Johnstons Jolly in the north, the width of the front of the attack was 160 yards and the distance between the two trench lines was about 60–100 yards. To reduce the distance to be crossed, the Australians projected a number of tunnels towards the Ottoman trenches from The Pimple, some of the attackers would have to make the advance over open ground from the Australian trench line. To provide some measure of protection for men, three mines were set by engineers to make craters in which they could seek shelter. Retreating into tunnels which had been cut as part of mining operations, while the artillery prepared the ground for the attack, behind the Australian lines the assault formations moved up towards The Pimple. Smyth sited his brigade headquarters at a position called Browns Dip, once the 1st Battalion had taken up its position, the assault battalions moved through them towards the forward line at The Pimple. Once the attack was launched, half the force would go via tunnels that had dug out into no mans land. By 5,00 p. m. all the troops had taken up their positions and as the barrage came to a conclusion, the tunnels were opened and final preparations were made
11.
Anzac Day
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Observed on 25 April each year, Anzac Day was originally to honour the members of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps who fought at Gallipoli against the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Anzac Day is also observed in the Cook Islands, Niue, Pitcairn Islands, and Tonga, Anzac Day marks the anniversary of the first campaign that led to major casualties for Australian and New Zealand forces during the First World War. The acronym ANZAC stands for Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, when war broke out in 1914, Australia and New Zealand had been dominions of the British Empire for thirteen and seven years respectively. In 1915, Australian and New Zealand soldiers formed part of an Allied expedition that set out to capture the Gallipoli Peninsula to open the way to the Black Sea for the Allied navies. The objective was to capture Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, the ANZAC force landed at Gallipoli on 25 April, meeting fierce resistance from the Ottoman Army commanded by Mustafa Kemal. What had been planned as a strike to knock the Ottomans out of the war quickly became a stalemate. At the end of 1915, the Allied forces were evacuated after both sides had suffered casualties and endured great hardships. The creation of what became known as an Anzac legend became an important part of the identity in both countries. This has shaped the way their citizens have viewed both their past and their understanding of the present, the heroism of the soldiers in the failed Gallipoli campaign made their sacrifices iconic in New Zealand memory, and is often credited with securing the psychological independence of the nation. On 30 April 1915, when the first news of the landing reached New Zealand, remnant seedlings of the original wattles still grow in Wattle Grove. Also in South Australia, Eight Hour Day,13 October 1915, was renamed Anzac Day, in New Zealand it was gazetted as a half-day holiday. This occurred in Egypt as well and he particularly feared that the universality of the ceremony would fall victim to religious sectarian disputes. In London, over 2,000 Australian and New Zealand troops marched through the streets of the city, a London newspaper headline dubbed them The Knights of Gallipoli. Marches were held all over Australia in 1916, wounded soldiers from Gallipoli attended the Sydney march in convoys of cars, over 2,000 people attended the service in Rotorua. For the remaining years of the war, Anzac Day was used as an occasion for patriotic rallies and recruiting campaigns, and marches of serving members of the AIF were held in most cities. Anzac Day was gazetted as a holiday in New Zealand in 1920, through the Anzac Day Act, after lobbying by the New Zealand Returned Soldiers’ Association. In Australia at the 1921 State Premiers Conference, it was decided that Anzac Day would be observed on 25 April each year, however, it was not observed uniformly in all the states. During the 1920s, Anzac Day became established as a National Day of Commemoration for the 60,000 Australians and 18,000 New Zealanders who died during the war
12.
Corporal
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Corporal is a military rank in use in some form by many militaries and by some police forces or other uniformed organizations. Within NATO, each member nations corresponding military rank of corporal is combined under the NATO-standard rank scale code OR-4, however, there are often differences in how each nation employs Corporals. Some militaries dont have Corporals, but may instead have a Junior Sergeant, in some militaries, the rank of corporal nominally corresponds to commanding a section or squad of soldiers. The lateral promotion is used to make the soldier a non-commissioned officer without changing the soldiers pay, as the Table of Organization & Equipment rank of a fire team leader is sergeant and that of squad leader is staff sergeant. In most countries that derive their military structure from the British military system, the word is derived from the medieval Italian phrase capo corporale. It may also be derived from an appointment as an officers bodyguard, all three branches of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic use two or three ranks of corporal, or cabo. Corporals in the Argentine military are considered suboficiales subalternos, superior only to all ranks of Volunteers, in the Argentine Army, there are two ranks of corporal, junior and senior, Cabo and cabo primero. While the Argentine Navy has three ranks, from junior to senior, Cabo segundo, Cabo primero and cabo principal. The Air Force has the number of corporal ranks as the navy. The rank is used by the Argentine National Gendarmerie and the Argentine Federal Police. Corporal is the second lowest of the officer ranks in the Australian Army. A corporal is usually appointed as a commander, and is in charge of 7-14 soldiers of private rank. They are assisted by a second-in-command, usually a lance-corporal or senior private, a Corporal within Artillery is known as a bombardier. Corporal is also a rank of the Royal Australian Air Force, with the exception Belgian Naval Component, the branches of the Belgian Armed Forces use three ranks of corporal, corporal, master corporal and 1st master corporal. Corporal is equivalent to NATO Rank Code OR-3, whereas master corporal, the rank immediately below corporal is 1st private and the rank directly above 1st master corporal is sergeant. The equivalent of these ranks in the Naval Component are quartermaster, chief quartermaster, Corporal is the first NCO rank of the Army, Navy, Air Force and states military polices. Soldiers who successfully complete the course may be promoted to the rank of corporal should they excel in the course. A corporal in the Brazilian Army will lead the smallest fractions of units as machine gun squads, mortar, Corporal is an Army and Air Force non-commissioned member rank of the Canadian Forces
13.
Ben Roberts-Smith
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The medal, together with his Medal for Gallantry awarded during a tour of Afghanistan in 2006, made Roberts-Smith the most highly decorated member of the Australian Defence Force. He was presented with the VC by the Governor-General of Australia, Quentin Bryce and he was also later awarded a Commendation for Distinguished Service for his leadership as a patrol commander during a 2012 tour of Afghanistan. Roberts-Smith left the army in 2013 to study business at the University of Queensland. In 2015 he was appointed Chair of the National Australia Day Council and he has subsequently been promoted to general manager of the rural network and of metropolitan station Seven Brisbane. Roberts-Smith joined the Australian Army in 1996, after completing his initial training at Lone Pine Barracks in Singleton, New South Wales, he was posted to the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment. Initially part of a company, he subsequently became section commander in the Direct Fire Support Weapons Platoon. With 3 RAR, Roberts-Smith was deployed to East Timor twice, after completing the Special Air Service Regiment selection course in 2003, and completing the SASR reinforcement cycle, Roberts-Smith was posted to 3 Squadron. With 3 Squadron, he was a member of training and assistance teams throughout South-East Asia and he was also part of personal security detachments in Iraq throughout 2005 and 2006. Roberts-Smith was deployed to Afghanistan on six occasions, in 2006,2007,2009,2010 and 2012, the following are extracts from the citations of the Department of Defence for Roberts-Smiths two awards for gallantry. On receiving the award, Roberts-Smith said he was honoured and humbled and this award also belongs to them and to the Regiment. To my family, my beautiful wife Emma and our baby girls, Eve and Elizabeth, thank you for your enduring support, I think for everyone there including myself whats going through your mind is you just wont let your mates down. Its just like being on a team, you dont let your mates down. Roberts-Smith noted that he—and the ADF—expected to be able to continue to fight as a patrol commander following the receipt of the Victoria Cross. He said that nce you reach patrol commander, that is the pinnacle for an SAS operator, in October 2013, Roberts-Smith formally announced that he was leaving the full-time Army for a career in business, but will continue to serve in the Army Reserve. In a press conference, Roberts-Smith stated that he was studying a Masters of Business Administration at the University of Queensland, on 26 January 2014, Roberts-Smith was awarded the Commendation for Distinguished Service as part of the 2014 Australia Day Honours. The award arose from a 2012 tour of Afghanistan, in which Roberts-Smith distinguished himself as a junior leader on more than 50 high risk operations. In April 2015, Ben Roberts-Smith was appointed deputy manager of regional television network. He was offered the job when Neil Mooney, general manager of Seven Queensland, in July that year he was promoted to general manager
14.
Victoria Cross for Australia
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The Victoria Cross for Australia is the highest award in the Australian Honours System, superseding the Victoria Cross for issue to Australians. The Victoria Cross for Australia was created by letters patent signed by Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia and it is listed equal first with the British Victoria Cross on the Australian Order of Wear with precedence in Australia over all orders, decorations and medals. The decoration may be awarded to members of the Australian Defence Force, a person to whom the Victoria Cross for Australia has been awarded is entitled to the post nominals VC placed after the person’s name. The Governor-General of Australia awards the Victoria Cross for Australia, with the approval of the Sovereign, the first medal was awarded on 16 January 2009 to Trooper Mark Donaldson, for the rescue of a coalition forces interpreter from heavy fire in Oruzgan Province in Afghanistan. Donaldsons award came almost 40 years after Warrant Officer Keith Payne became the last Australian to be awarded the Victoria Cross for gallantry on 24 May 1969 during the Vietnam War. Both VC for Australia and original Victoria Cross recipients are entitled to the Victoria Cross allowance under the Veterans’ Entitlements Act 1986, on 29 January 1856, Queen Victoria signed the Royal Warrant that officially instituted the Victoria Cross. The Warrant was backdated to 1854 to recognise acts of valour committed during the Crimean War and it was originally intended that the Victoria Crosses would be cast from the bronze cascabels of two cannon that were captured from the Russians at the Siege of Sevastopol. The barrels of the used to cast the medals are stationed outside the Officers Mess. It is estimated that 80 to 85 more Victoria Crosses could be cast from this source, a single company of jewellers, Hancocks of London, established in 1849, has been responsible for the production of every medal since its inception. Both the Australian and New Zealand Victoria Crosses are made from the same gunmetal as the originals, sixty-four awards were for action in the First World War, nine of them for action during the Gallipoli Campaign. Twenty medals were awarded for action in the Second World War, the last recipient was Warrant Officer Keith Payne, for gallantry on 24 May 1969 during the Vietnam War. Payne was awarded the medal for instigating a rescue of more than 40 men, in the past 70 years several Commonwealth countries have introduced their own honours systems, completely separate from the British Honours System. Australia, Canada and New Zealand have each introduced their own decorations for gallantry and bravery, most Commonwealth realms still recognise some form of the Victoria Cross as their highest decoration for valour. With the issuing of patent by the Queen of Australia on 15 January 1991. Although it is an award, the Victoria Cross for Australias appearance is identical to its British counterpart. Canada followed suit when in 1993, Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of Canada signed Letters Patent creating the Canadian Victoria Cross, the Canadian version has a different inscription, as well as being created from a different unspecified metal. The legend has been changed from FOR VALOUR to the Latin PRO VALORE, although one Canadian VC has been cast, none has been awarded. In 1999, New Zealand created the Victoria Cross for New Zealand, identical to the Australian and British Victoria Crosses, the Victoria Cross for Australia is identical to the original design
15.
Medal for Gallantry
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The Medal for Gallantry is a military decoration awarded to personnel of the Australian Defence Force. It recognises acts of gallantry in action in hazardous circumstances, the MG was introduced on 15 January 1991, replacing the Imperial equivalent. It is ranked third in the Gallantry Decorations in the Australian Honours System, recipients of the Medal of Gallantry are entitled to use the post-nominal letters MG. Since its inception 55 awards have been made, the Medal for Gallantry is circular and is made of gold-plated silver. It is ensigned with the Crown of Saint Edward, the obverse bears a Federation Star, which is superimposed on a circle of flames. This image represents action under fire, the reverse shows a horizontal panel superimposed on a design of fluted rays. The Medal for Gallantry is suspended from a 32 millimetre-wide ribbon by a narrow gold-plated silver suspender bar, the ribbon has a design of chevrons of light orange alternating with chevrons of deep orange angled at 60 degrees. The chevron pattern is placed as a stylised A with the points facing upwards, in May 2011, the allowance was A$2.10 per fortnight. Signalman Martin Jock Wallace MG, formerly of the 152 Signals Squadron, awarded 27 November 2002 for actions in Afghanistan on 2 March 2002. Sergeant C was subsequently Killed In Action in 2007, lance Corporal E is now known as Corporal Ben Roberts-Smith VC MG of the Special Air Service Regiment. He was awarded the MG for actions in the period May–September 2006 in Afghanistan, Corporal B, of the 2nd Commando Regiment was subsequently Killed In Action on 23 May 2011. In March 2014, only 46 recipients were listed on the Its an Honour website, a further 8 recipients have been identified from official publications of the Governor General, the Department of Defence and from special issues of the Australian Government Gazette. Many of the awards have been presented at the official Australia Day ceremonies - held on 26 January -, Australian Honours Order of Precedence Its an Honour
16.
Man in the mud
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Man in the mud is a diorama by Peter Corlett which forms part of the collection of the Australian War Memorial. It depicts an Australian soldier of World War I sitting on a battlefield in France. The diorama was commissioned by the AWM in 1986, and was placed on display in 1989, man in the mud is popular with visitors to the Memorial, and remained on display after the AWMs World War I galleries were closed for major renovations in 2013. The diorama was designed using a model, who Corlett photographed replicating the pose in the AWM photo. Corlett subsequently slightly altered the pose, however, to increase the tension of the soldiers body, the figure and the mud in which he is seated are crafted from fibreglass. The soldier wears a uniform and metal helmet, and the dioramas backing is a brown-toned photograph of a muddy battlefield. The foreground is a heap of mud, a broken duckboard and polluted water, marvellously realised in fibreglass and clear polyester resin mixes, tinted variously. On a little hummock sits a soldier in deep despair, elbows on knees, the figure is in entirely correct historical uniform and forms part of a very convincing diorama. It also alludes, in its language, to the eschatological figure of Michelangelos Last Judgement in the Sistine Chapel. Man in the mud was completed in 1989, and placed on display in the AWMs World War I galleries that year. As of 2005, the diorama was located immediately after the exit of the Memorials gallery on the Gallipoli Campaign and this placement was intended to stress the more impersonal and brutal nature of the fighting in France compared to that in Gallipoli. A1988 Canberra Times article labelled the then-incomplete diorama very fine, hutchings also judged the work to be a success. The diorama is one of the most popular items on display in the AWM, responding to the realistic appearance of the soldier and the muddy battlefield, many of the memorials visitors touch the work. Man in the mud was removed from the AWMs World War I galleries when they were closed for a redevelopment in April 2013. It was placed on display in the Memorials temporary exhibition space
17.
Diorama
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Dioramas are often built by hobbyists as part of related hobbies such as military vehicle modeling, miniature figure modeling, or aircraft modeling. The word diorama originated in 1823 as a type of picture-viewing device, the word literally means through that which is seen, from the Greek di- through + orama that which is seen, a sight. The diorama was invented by Louis Daguerre and Charles Marie Bouton, first exhibited in Paris in July 1822, the meaning small-scale replica of a scene, etc. is from 1902. Daguerres diorama consisted of a piece of material painted on both sides, when illuminated from the front, the scene would be shown in one state and by switching to illumination from behind another phase or aspect would be seen. Scenes in daylight changed to moonlight, a train travelling on a track would crash, or an earthquake would be shown in before, one of the first uses of dioramas in a museum was in Stockholm, Sweden, where the Biological Museum opened in 1893. It had several dioramas, over three floors and they were also implemented by the National Museum Grigore Antipa from Bucharest Romania and constituted a source of inspiration for many important museums in the world. Miniature dioramas are typically smaller, and use scale models. Such a scale model-based diorama is used, for example, in Chicagos Museum of Science and this diorama employs a common model railroading scale of 1,87. Hobbyist dioramas often use such as 1,35 or 1,48. An early, and exceptionally large example was created between 1830 and 1838 by a British Army officer, william Siborne, and represents the Battle of Waterloo at about 7.45 pm, on 18 June,1815. The diorama measures 8.33 by 6 metres and used around 70,000 model soldiers in its construction and it is now part of the collection of the National Army Museum in London. Sheperd Paine, a prominent hobbyist, popularized the modern miniature diorama beginning in the 1970s, modern museum dioramas may be seen in most major natural history museums. Often the distant painted background or sky will be painted upon a continuous curved surface so that the viewer is not distracted by corners, seams, all of these techniques are means of presenting a realistic view of a large scene in a compact space. A photograph or single-eye view of such a diorama can be especially convincing since in case there is no distraction by the binocular perception of depth. Carl Akeley, a naturalist, sculptor, and taxidermist, is credited with creating the first ever habitat diorama in the year 1889, akeleys diorama featured taxidermied beavers in a three-dimensional habitat with a realistic, painted background. With the support of curator Frank M. Chapman, Akeley designed the popular habitat dioramas featured at the American Museum of Natural History, combining art with science, these exhibitions were intended to educate the public about the growing need for habitat conservation. The modern AMNH Exhibitions Lab is charged with the creation of all dioramas, miniature dioramas may be used to represent scenes from historic events. A typical example of type are the dioramas to be seen at Norways Resistance Museum in Oslo
18.
War memorial
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A war memorial is a building, monument, statue or other edifice to celebrate a war or victory, or to commemorate those who died or were injured in a war. The oldest war memorial in the United Kingdom is Oxford Universitys All Souls College itself and it was founded in 1438 with the provision that its fellows should pray for those killed in the long wars with France. War memorials for the Franco-Prussian War were the first in Europe to have rank-and-file soldiers commemorated by name, every soldier that was killed was granted a permanent resting-place as part of the terms of the Treaty of Frankfurt. To commemorate the millions who died in World War I, war memorials became commonplace in communities large, in modern times the main intent of war memorials is not to glorify war, but to honor those who have died. Sometimes, as in the case of the Warsaw Genuflection of Willy Brandt, using modern technology an international project is currently archiving all post-1914 Commonwealth war graves and Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials to create a virtual memorial. During the First World War, many nations saw massive devastation, more people lost their lives in the east than in the west, but the outcome was different. Massive British monuments commemorating thousands of dead with no identified war grave, such as the Menin Gate at Ypres, the Liberty Memorial, located in Kansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in the Great War. For various reasons connected with their character, the same may be said to apply to certain governmental memorials in the United Kingdom, after World War I, some towns in France set up pacifist war memorials. Instead of commemorating the dead, these memorials denounce war with figures of grieving widows. Such memorials provoked anger among veterans and the military in general, the most famous is at Gentioux-Pigerolles in the department of Creuse. Below the column which lists the name of the stands an orphan in bronze pointing to an inscription Maudite soit la guerre. Feelings ran so high that the memorial was not officially inaugurated until 1990, another such memorial is in the small town of Équeurdreville-Hainneville in the department of Manche. Here the statue is of a widow with two small children. There seems to be no exact equivalent form of a pacifist memorial within the United Kingdom, in many cases, World War I memorials were later extended to show the names of locals who died in the World War II in addition. Since that time memorials to the dead in other such as the Korean War and Vietnam War have also noted individual contributions. War memorials can differ significantly in type and composition, many war memorials often take the form of a traditional monument or statue, while others consist of entire buildings, often containing a museum, while yet others are simple plaques. War memorials can take a variety of forms, including, but not limited to, commemorative gardens, eternal flames, urban plazas, fountains and/or pools of water, military equipment. War memorials often serve as a place for commemorative services
19.
Australian Defence Force
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The Australian Defence Force is the military organisation responsible for the defence of Australia. It consists of the Royal Australian Navy, Australian Army, Royal Australian Air Force, the ADF has a strength of just over 80,000 full-time personnel and active reservists, and is supported by the Department of Defence and several other civilian agencies. During the first decades of the 20th century, the Australian Government established the armed services as separate organisations, each service had an independent chain of command. In 1976, the government made a change and established the ADF to place the services under a single headquarters. Over time, the degree of integration has increased and tri-service headquarters, logistics, the ADF is technologically sophisticated but relatively small. Although the ADFs 58,061 full-time active-duty personnel and 19,338 active reservists make it the largest military in Oceania, nonetheless, the ADF is supported by a significant budget by worldwide standards and is able to deploy forces in multiple locations outside Australia. The ADFs legal standing draws on the executive government sections of the Australian Constitution, Section 51 gives the Commonwealth Government the power to make laws regarding Australias defence and defence forces. Section 68 of the Constitution sets out the ADFs command arrangements, the Section states that the command in chief of the naval and military forces of the Commonwealth is vested in the Governor-General as the Queens representative. In practice, the Governor-General does not play a part in the ADFs command structure. The Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control, the Minister acts on most matters alone, though the National Security Committee of Cabinet considers important matters. The Minister then advises the Governor-General who acts as advised in the form of executive government. The Commonwealth Government has never required by the Constitution or legislation to seek parliamentary approval for decisions to deploy military forces overseas or go to war. The ADFs current priorities are set out in the 2016 Defence White Paper, the first of these is to defend Australia from direct attack or coercion. The second priority is to contribute to the security of South East Asia, the third priority is to contribute to stability across the Indo-Pacific region and a rules-based global order which supports our interests. The white paper states that the government will place equal weight on the three priorities when developing the ADFs capabilities, Australia has maintained military forces since federation as a nation in January 1901. Shortly after Federation, the Australian Government established the Australian Army, in 1911, the Government established the Royal Australian Navy, which absorbed the Commonwealth Naval Force. The Army established the Australian Flying Corps in 1912 although this separated to form the Royal Australian Air Force in 1921, the services were not linked by a single chain of command, as they each reported to their own separate Minister and had separate administrative arrangements. The three services saw action around the world during World War I and World War II, the importance of joint warfare was made clear to the Australian military during World War II when Australian naval, ground and air units frequently served as part of single commands
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Military
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The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly
21.
Canberra
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Canberra is the capital city of Australia. With a population of 381,488, it is Australias largest inland city, the city is located at the northern end of the Australian Capital Territory,280 km south-west of Sydney, and 660 km north-east of Melbourne. A resident of Canberra is known as a Canberran, the site of Canberra was selected for the location of the nations capital in 1908 as a compromise between rivals Sydney and Melbourne, Australias two largest cities. It is unusual among Australian cities, being a planned city outside of any state, similar to Washington, D. C. in the United States. Following an international contest for the design, a blueprint by American architects Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin was selected. The Griffins plan featured geometric motifs such as circles, hexagons and triangles, the citys design was influenced by the garden city movement and incorporates significant areas of natural vegetation that have earned Canberra the title of the bush capital. Although the Australian Capital Territory is now self-governing, the Commonwealth Government retains some influence through the National Capital Authority, the Australian Armys officer corps is trained at the Royal Military College, Duntroon and the Australian Defence Force Academy is also located in the capital. The ACT is independent of any state to prevent any one state from gaining an advantage by hosting the seat of Commonwealth power, the ACT has voting representation in the Commonwealth Parliament, and has its own independent Legislative Assembly and government, similar to the states. Compared to the averages, the unemployment rate is lower. Property prices are high, in part due to comparatively restrictive development regulations. An 1830s map of the region by Major Mitchell indeed does mark the Sullivans Creek floodplain between two mountains as Nganbra. Nganbra or Nganbira could readily have been anglicised to the name Canberry, survey plans of the district dated 1837 refer to the area as the Canberry Plain. Although popularly pronounced /ˈkænbərə/ or /ˈkænbɛrə/, the pronunciation at its official naming in 1913 was /ˈkæn. brə/. Before white settlement, the area in which Canberra would eventually be constructed was seasonally inhabited by Indigenous Australians, archaeological evidence of settlement in the region includes inhabited rock shelters, rock paintings and engravings, burial places, camps and quarry sites, and stone tools and arrangements. Artefacts suggests early human activity occurred at some point in the area 21,000 years previously, European exploration and settlement started in the Canberra area as early as the 1820s. There were four expeditions between 1820 and 1824, white settlement of the area probably dates from 1823, when a homestead or station was built on what is now the Acton peninsula by stockmen employed by Joshua John Moore. He formally applied to purchase the site on 16 December 1826, on 30 April 1827, Moore was told by letter that he could retain possession of 1,000 acres at Canberry. The European population in the Canberra area continued to grow throughout the 19th century
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Parliament House, Canberra
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Parliament House is the meeting place of the Parliament of Australia, located in Canberra, the capital of Australia. The building was designed by Mitchell/Giurgola & Thorp Architects and opened on 9 May 1988 by Elizabeth II and it cost more than A$1.1 billion to build. Federal Parliament meetings were first held in Melbourne until 1927, between 1927 and 1988, the Parliament of Australia met in the Provisional Parliament House, which is now known as Old Parliament House. Construction of Australias permanent Parliament House was delayed while its location was debated, Construction of the new building began in 1981. The principal design of the structure is based on the shape of two boomerangs and is topped by an 81-metre flagpole, Parliament House contains 4,700 rooms, and many areas are open to the public. The main foyer contains a staircase and leads to the Great Hall. The House of Representatives chamber is decorated green, while the Senate chamber has a red colour scheme, between the two chambers is the Members Hall, which has a water feature and is not open to the public. The Ministerial Wing houses the office of the minister and other ministers. The Parliament shall sit at Melbourne until it meet at the seat of Government, in 1909, after much argument, the Parliament decided that the new capital would be in the southern part of New South Wales, on the site which is now Canberra. The Commonwealth acquired control over the land in 1911, but World War I intervened, Federal Parliament did not leave Melbourne until 1927. After World War I the Federal Capital Advisory Committee was established to prepare Canberra to be the seat of government, the committee decided that it would be best to erect a provisional building, to serve for a predicted 50 years until a new, permanent House could be built. In the event, Old Parliament House was Parliaments home for 61 years, in the last decade of its use as a parliament the building had a chronic shortage of available space. In 1978 the Fraser government decided to proceed with a new building on Capital Hill, the design competition drew 329 entries from 29 countries. The façades, however, included deliberate imitation of some of the patterns of the Old Parliament House, giurgola placed an emphasis the visual aethestics of the building by using landscape architect Peter G. Rolland to direct civil engineers, a reversal of the traditional roles in Australia. Rolland played a role in the design, development and coordination of all surface elements including pool design, paving, conceptual lighting. Horticultural experts from the Australian National Botanic Gardens and a government nursery were consulted on plant selection, permanent irrigation has been limited to only the more formal areas. Construction began in 1981, and the House was intended to be ready by Australia Day,26 January 1988 and it was expected to cost A$220 million. Neither the deadline nor the budget was met, the flag flown from the 81 metres flagpole is 12.8 by 6.4 m, about the size of half a tennis court
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Capital Hill, Australian Capital Territory
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Capital Hill, is the location of Parliament House, Canberra, at the south apex of the land axis of the Parliamentary Triangle. The proposed building is commemorated in the name of the Capitol Theatre, however, Griffins name for the hill was subsequently changed to Capital Hill. The Parliament buildings were to be located a little further down the hill towards Lake Burley Griffin at Camp Hill, between Capital Hill and the Provisional Parliament House. In fact, in the 1958 and 1964 Holford plans for the Parliamentary Triangle, Holford also reportedly said that a lakeside site would discourage politicians from seeing themselves as superior to ordinary people. However, in 1974 Parliament voted to move the Parliament to its permanent location on Capital Hill, construction of the new parliament buildings commenced in 1981 and the new building was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1988, when the Parliament relocated from the old building. Capital Hill was previously named Kurrajong Hill and is around 2.5 km², until the construction of the current Parliament House, the hill was covered with scrubby native bushland. The construction of the current parliament building required removing much of the top half of the hill, the surrounding hill is landscaped with native plants, while the soil on top of Parliament House is planted with lawn. However, on the side of the Hill, a small area of the original native bushland has been preserved. When Griffin drew up his plans in 1912, there was some optimism that New Zealand might join the Federation of Australia. Griffins plans included eight avenues radiating out from Capital Hill named after the capitals of the six states, the capital of the Northern Territory and the capital of New Zealand. Before the name Wellington Avenue was gazetted, it was realised that New Zealand was not going to part of a Confederation of Australasia. The name of the precinct of Manuka is a remnant of Griffins naming scheme, the geology of Capital Hill has been studied in great detail. Canberra Formation, calcareous Shale is found in the south west and this overlies middle Silurian Camp Hill Sandstone. The sandstone unconformably overlies the early Silurian Black Mountain Sandstone and State Circle Shale, State Circle Shale is Late Llandovery in a more finely divided time scale and has been dated to 445.7 million years old. The State Circle Shale is composed of laminated shales and siltstone, Black Mountain Sandstone is composed of a white quartz sandstone. The Deakin Fault cuts the south west of state circle, mount Painter acid volcanoes are to the south west of this fault
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Mount Ainslie
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Mount Ainslie is a hill with an elevation of 843 metres AHD that is located in the northeastern suburbs of Canberra, in the Australian Capital Territory, Australia. Mount Ainslie lies within part of the Canberra Nature Park, the Mount Ainslie tourist outlook, one of Canberras most popular, provides excellent views of central Canberra and Red Hill to the south and Black Mountain to the west especially towards sunset. An air beacon located at the summit is part of the capitals air navigation system guiding air traffic towards the nearby Canberra Airport. A walking trail leads from the back of the Australian War Memorial. The trail is used by around 200 people each day and it has a number of plaques commemorating the battles fought in World War II in the Kokoda Trail in Papua New Guinea, with the plaques set out as though it was on the Kokoda Trail. A quarry is located around 200 metres from the peak, Mount Ainslie is the northernmost point of a land axis, planned by Walter Burley Griffin, that stretches through North and South Canberra. This axis takes in the Australian War Memorial and the old, in 2016 the ACT Government and the National Capital Authority ran a design competition for, with the aim to produce a ten-year strategy for the Mount Ainslie summit. The competition winners were Sue Barnsley and Jane Irwin, who proposed new parking, signage, picnic areas, lawns, media related to Mount Ainslie at Wikimedia Commons Mount Ainslie Map
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Memorial
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A memorial is an object which serves as a focus for memory of something, usually a person or an event. Popular forms of memorials include landmark objects or art objects such as sculptures, statues or fountains, the most common type of memorial is the gravestone or the memorial plaque. Also common are war memorials commemorating those who have died in wars, memorials in the form of a cross are called intending crosses. Online memorials and tributes are becoming popular especially with the increase in natural burial where the laying of gravestones. When somebody has died, the family may request that a gift be given to a designated charity. Those temporary or makeshift memorials are also called grassroots memorials, sometimes, when a high school student has died, the memorials are placed in the form of a scholarship, to be awarded to high-achieving students in future years
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Sculpture
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Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
27.
Anzac Parade, Canberra
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Anzac Parade, a significant road and thoroughfare in the Australian capital Canberra, is used for ceremonial occasions and is the site of many major military memorials. Named in honour of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps of World War I, Anzac Parade joins Gallipoli Reach of Lake Burley Griffin in the south and the Australian War Memorial to the north. As the main axis between Parliament House and Mount Ainslie, it bisects Constitution Avenue, which one side of the Parliamentary Triangle between Civic and Russell Hill. The eucalypts are Australian, and the hebe comes from New Zealand, the Parade is also flanked by the streets of Anzac Park West and Anzac Park East on either side of Anzac Park. In the manner of interpretation of museum displays, the memorials are accompanied by several forms of signage to assist the passer-by, each memorial has various plaques or foundation stones that were laid at the time of unveiling. Anzac Parade is situated on the axis between Parliament House and Mount Ainslie. It bisects Constitution Avenue, which one side of the Parliamentary Triangle between Civic and Russell Hill. The Parade separates the residential suburbs of Campbell and Reid, the naming is significant, Robert Campbell, Sydneys first merchant, received a grant of land on the Limestone Plains as compensation for the loss of one of his ships on government charter. In 1825 he built a homestead, naming it Duntroon after the Campbell castle in Argyllshire, Duntroon House is now part of the Royal Military College, Duntroon. The Right Honourable Sir George Houstoun Reid was Australias fourth Prime Minister who formed a Government in August 1904 and held office until July 1905. A Federalist, and one of the founders of the Australian Constitution, fortuitously, the alignment of the church was such that it seems to have been designed to fit the alignment the adjoining roads, ordained in the plans by Walter Burley Griffin. The original lighting was designed to be an honour guard and was opened by then Prime Minister, Robert Menzies. The street lighting was updated and officially opened on 26 March 2001 by then Prime Minister of Australia, the design is intended to be efficient, and to reduce energy consumption and thus air pollution while also reducing skyglow/light pollution. On Anzac Day 25 April 2006 Federal Environment and Heritage Minister Ian Campbell announced that Anzac Parade along with the Australian War Memorial would be added to the National Heritage List. 1909-1981 / Richard Clough & Australian Overseas Information Service Collection of photographs of Anzac Parade, Canberra -2002 / Damian McDonald
28.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
30.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
31.
Governor-General of Australia
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The Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia is the representative in Australia of the Australian monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The Governor-General is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister of Australia, when travelling abroad, the Governor-General is seen as the representative of Australia, and of the Queen of Australia, so is treated as a head of state. The Governor-General is supported by a staff headed by the Official Secretary to the Governor-General, a Governor-General is not appointed for a specific term, but is generally expected to serve for five years subject to a possible short extension. Since 28 March 2014, the Governor-General has been General Sir Peter Cosgrove, from Federation in 1901 until 1965,11 out of the 15 Governors-General were British aristocrats, they included four barons, three viscounts, three earls, and one prince. Since then, all but one of the Governors-General have been Australian-born, as of 2017, only one Governor-General, Dame Quentin Bryce, was a woman. The selection of a Governor-General is a responsibility for the Prime Minister of Australia, the candidate is approached privately to confirm whether they are willing to accept the appointment. The prime minister advises the monarch to appoint his nominee. This has been the procedure since November 1930, when James Scullins proposed appointment of Sir Isaac Isaacs was fiercely opposed by the British government, Scullin was equally insistent that the monarch must act on the relevant prime ministers direct advice. Both of these appointments had been agreed to despite British government objections, despite these precedents, George V remained reluctant to accept Scullins recommendation of Isaacs and asked him to consider Field Marshal Sir William Birdwood. However, Scullin stood firm, and, on 29 November, the King agreed to Isaacss appointment and this right to not only advise the monarch directly, but also to expect that advice to be accepted, was soon taken up by all the other Dominion prime ministers. This, among other things, led to the Statute of Westminster 1931, having agreed to the appointment, the monarch then permits it to be publicly announced in advance, usually several months before the end of the current Governor-Generals term. During these months, the person is referred to as the Governor-General-designate, the actual appointment is made by the monarch. Governors-General have during their tenure the style His/Her Excellency the Honourable, since May 2013, the style used by a former Governor-General is the Honourable, it was at the same time retrospectively granted for life to all previous holders of the office. From the creation of the Order of Australia in 1975, the Governor-General was, ex officio, Chancellor and Principal Companion of the Order, and therefore became entitled to the post-nominal AC. In 1986 the Letters Patent were amended again, and Governors-General appointed from that time were again, ex officio, until 1989, all Governors-General were members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom and thus held the additional style the Right Honourable for life. The same individuals were also usually either peers, knights, or both, in 1989, Bill Hayden, a republican, declined appointment to the British Privy Council and any imperial honours. Dame Quentin Bryce was the first Governor-General to have had no title or pre-nominal style. Until 2015, the honour continued after the retirement from office of the Governor-General, formerly, the Governor-General automatically became a knight or dame upon being sworn in
32.
Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie
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Serving for 9 years and 7 days, he is the longest-serving governor-general in Australias history. He first worked in a tea merchants office in Glasgow and then traveled to India to work on a tea plantation in Assam, Hore-Ruthven, however, soon succumbed to malaria and he returned to England in 1892. On 19 October 1889, Hore-Ruthven was commissioned a lieutenant in the Lanarkshire Yeomanry Cavalry. After his return to England in 1892, he joined the regular army. During the Sudan Campaign, he was mentioned in despatches, on 17 May, he received a regular commission as a second lieutenant in the Queens Own Cameron Highlanders, dropping back two ranks. In late November, he was part of a Camel Corps during the leading to the defeat of the Khalifa. In 1905, Hore-Ruthven became an aide-de-camp to Lord Dudley, then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, transferring to the 1st Dragoon Guards in 1908, he was promoted to supernumerary captain in that regiment on 11 April, regaining his former rank after nine years. In 1908, Dudley was appointed Governor-General of Australia, and Hore-Ruthven went with him as military secretary, in the same year he married Zara Pollok, with whom he had two sons, one of whom died in infancy. He left Australia in 1910 and returned to service in India. On 2 April 1915, Hore-Ruthven transferred to the Welsh Guards and was promoted to major from the same date and he was appointed a GSO1 on 18 January 1916, with the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel, and was awarded the DSO on 1 January 1916. The citation reads as follows, He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel on 15 October 1917. On 1 January 1918, he was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and he was awarded a Bar to his DSO on 2 April 1919, and appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 3 June. During the First World War, he served in France and at Gallipoli and he finished the war as a brigadier general and commanded British forces in Germany between 1919 and 1920. On 14 December 1920, he was appointed the CO of his regiment, with the rank of colonel. After this he held various Army staff positions, and received command of a brigade on 1 October 1924 in the rank of colonel-commandant. When he was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George, Hore-Ruthven arrived in Adelaide in May 1928. He took to his duties with enthusiasm, visiting many areas of the State in a de Havilland DH.60 Moth owned by his ADC, together with Lady Hore-Ruthven, he was a keen supporter of the Boy Scout and Girl Guide movements. She was also president of the South Australian Red Cross, in a 1930 Anzac Day speech, Hore-Ruthven criticised the union movement for exacerbating, through strike action, the hardship suffered by returned servicemen
33.
Victoria Cross
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The Victoria Cross is the highest award of the United Kingdom honours system. It is awarded for gallantry in the face of the enemy to members of the British armed forces and it was previously awarded to Commonwealth countries, most of which have established their own honours systems and no longer recommend British honours. It may be awarded to a person of any rank in any service. Since the first awards were presented by Queen Victoria in 1857 and these investitures are usually held at Buckingham Palace. The VC was introduced on 29 January 1856 by Queen Victoria to honour acts of valour during the Crimean War, since then, the medal has been awarded 1,358 times to 1,355 individual recipients. Only 15 medals,11 to members of the British Army, the traditional explanation of the source of the metal from which the medals are struck is that it derives from Russian cannon captured at the Siege of Sevastopol. Some research has suggested a variety of origins for the material, research has established that the metal for most of the medals made since December 1914 came from two Chinese cannons that were captured from the Russians in 1855. Owing to its rarity, the VC is highly prized and the medal has fetched over £400,000 at auction, a number of public and private collections are devoted to the Victoria Cross. The private collection of Lord Ashcroft, amassed since 1986, contains over one-tenth of all VCs awarded, following a 2008 donation to the Imperial War Museum, the Ashcroft collection went on public display alongside the museums Victoria and George Cross collection in November 2010. These are unique awards of honours system, recommended, assessed, gazetted and presented by each country. In 1854, after 39 years of peace, Britain found itself fighting a war against Russia. The Crimean War was one of the first wars with modern reporting, before the Crimean War, there was no official standardised system for recognition of gallantry within the British armed forces. This structure was limited, in practice awards of the Order of the Bath were confined to officers of field rank. Brevet promotions or Mentions in Despatches were largely confined to those who were under the notice of the commanders in the field. Other European countries had awards that did not discriminate against class or rank, France awarded the Légion dhonneur and The Netherlands gave the Order of William. There was a feeling among the public and in the Royal Court that a new award was needed to recognise incidents of gallantry that were unconnected with a mans lengthy or meritorious service. Queen Victoria issued a Warrant under the Royal sign-manual on 29 January 1856 that officially constituted the VC, the order was backdated to 1854 to recognise acts of valour during the Crimean War. Queen Victoria had instructed the War Office to strike a new medal that would not recognise birth or class, the medal was meant to be a simple decoration that would be highly prized and eagerly sought after by those in the military services
34.
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
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A Tomb of the Unknown Soldier refers to a monument in dedication to the services of an unknown soldier and to the common memories of all soldiers killed in any war. Such tombs can be found in nations and are usually high-profile national monuments. Throughout history, many soldiers have died in war with their remains being unidentified, following World War I, a movement arose to commemorate these soldiers with a single tomb, containing the body of one such unidentified soldier. During the First World War, the British and French armies who were allies during the war decided to bury soldiers themselves. The idea received the support of the Dean of Westminster, Prime Minister David Lloyd George, at the same time, there was a similar undertaking in France, where the idea was debated and agreed upon in Parliament. Britain and France conducted services connected with their graves on Armistice Day 1920. In Britain, the Tomb of the Unknown Warrior was created at Westminster Abbey, the idea of a symbolic Tomb of the Unknown Soldier then spread to other countries. In 1921, the Tomb of the Unknowns, Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, other nations have followed the practice and created their own tombs. In the United States and other countries, tombs have also been created representing the fallen of other wars in their history, in Chile and Ukraine, second unknown tombs were unveiled to commemorate The Unknown Sailor. The Tombs of the Unknown Soldiers typically contain the remains of a soldier who is unidentified. These remains are considered impossible to be identified, and so serve as a symbol for all of a countrys unknown dead wherever they fell in the war being remembered. Michał Chilczuk, Chairman, Working Group on Central and Eastern Europe, SCEA Vivaboo. com, Tomb Of The Unknown Soldier Around The World
35.
Henry Gullett
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In 1908 he travelled to London as a journalist and in 1914 published a handbook on Australian rural life, The Opportunity in Australia to promote emigration to Australia. He married Elizabeth Penelope Frater in 1912 and they had a son, in 1915, Gullett became an official Australian correspondent on the Western Front. In July 1916, he joined the first Australian Imperial Force as a gunner, from early 1917 he worked with Charles Bean in collecting war records and later with the AIF as a war correspondent in Palestine. In 1919, he was director of the Australian War Museum. He started writing volume VII of The Official History of Australia in the War of 1914-1918, covering the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, which he completed in 1922. In 1920, Billy Hughes appointed him head of the Australian Immigration Bureau, Gullett failed to win a seat at the 1922 election, but he won the seat of Division of Henty for the Nationalist Party in 1925 election and held it for the rest of his life. He was Minister for Trade and Customs from November 1928 in the third Bruce Ministry until its fall in October 1929. As a result, he was made Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in January 1933, in October 1934, he became minister without portfolio, with responsibility for trade treaties, in the second Lyons Ministry and he negotiated several trade agreements. He resigned in March 1937 over disagreements with Cabinet over trade policy, in April 1939, Gullett became Minister for External Affairs in the first Menzies Ministry and Minister for Information from September 1939. He was killed in the Canberra air disaster in August 1940 and he was the father of Jo Gullett, who was Member for Henty from 1946 to 1955. He was also the grandfather of the actress Penne Hackforth-Jones
36.
John Treloar (museum administrator)
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John Linton Treloar, OBE was an Australian archivist and the second director of the Australian War Memorial. During World War I he served in staff roles and later headed the First Australian Imperial Forces record-keeping unit. From 1920 Treloar played an important role in establishing the AWM as its director and he headed an Australian Government department during the first years of World War II, and spent the remainder of the war in charge of the Australian militarys history section. Treloar returned to the AWM in 1946, and continued as its director until his death, Treloars career was focussed on the Australian military and its history. He was appointed commander of the Australian War Records Section in 1917, in this position, he improved the AIFs records and collected a large number of artefacts for later display in Australia. Treloar was appointed the director of what became the AWM in 1920. He left the AWM at the outbreak of World War II to lead the Australian Governments Department of Information, in early 1941 he was appointed to command the Australian militarys Military History and Information Section with similar responsibilities to those he had held during World War I. He attempted to intervene in the management of the AWM during his absence, however, Treloar worked intensely in all his roles and suffered periods of ill-health as a result. Following the war, he returned to the Memorial in 1946 but his performance deteriorated over time, Treloar continues to be regarded as an important figure in Australian military history. His principal achievements are seen as gathering and classifying Australias records of the world wars, the street behind the Memorial and its main storage annex were named in Treloars honour following his death. Treloar was born in Melbourne on 10 December 1894 and his father was a sales representative for Carlton & United Breweries and his mother was a strict Methodist. Treloar was educated at Albert Park State School and became a trained Sunday school teacher and he was not able to attend university, but sought self-education in Melbournes museums and libraries. Treloar also participated in his schools cadet unit, and believed that the military offered a means to follow his ambition for a career in a other than small business. He was also a footballer, cricket player, and athlete and was invited to train with the South Melbourne Football Club. He took his fathers advice to wait until he was 21 before playing senior games, however and he landed at Anzac Cove with the rest of the 1st Divisions Headquarters during the morning of 25 April 1915, and subsequently participated in the Gallipoli Campaign. Treloars duties were clerical, and included typing reports, orders. He frequently worked from 7 am to midnight, and this took a toll on his health and he contracted typhoid in late August, and was evacuated to Egypt on 4 September. Treloar came close to dying from disease, and was returned to Australia to recuperate
37.
Order of the British Empire
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There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of, the order. Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire were at first made on the nomination of the United Kingdom, the self-governing Dominions of the Empire, nominations continue today from Commonwealth countries that participate in recommending British honours. Most members are citizens of the United Kingdom or the Commonwealth realms that use the Imperial system of honours and awards. Honorary knighthoods are appointed to citizens of nations where the Queen is not head of state, occasionally, honorary appointees are, incorrectly, referred to as Sir or Dame – Bill Gates or Bob Geldof, for example. In particular, King George V wished to create an Order to honour many thousands of those who had served in a variety of non-combatant roles during the First World War, when first established, the Order had only one division. However, in 1918, soon after its foundation, it was divided into Military. The Orders motto is For God and the Empire, at the foundation of the Order, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the British Empire Medal, in addition, the BEM is awarded by the Cook Islands and by some other Commonwealth nations. The British monarch is Sovereign of the Order, and appoints all members of the Order. The next most senior member is the Grand Master, of whom there have been three, Prince Edward, the Prince of Wales, Queen Mary, and the current Grand Master, the Duke of Edinburgh. The Order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross,845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the number of members of the fourth and fifth classes. Foreign recipients, as members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the Order as full members do. Though men can be knighted separately from an order of chivalry, women cannot, and so the rank of Knight/Dame Commander of the Order is the lowest rank of damehood, and second-lowest of knighthood. Because of this, Dame Commander is awarded in circumstances in which a man would be created a Knight Bachelor, for example, by convention, female judges of the High Court of Justice are created Dames Commander after appointment, while male judges become Knights Bachelor. The Order has six officials, the Prelate, the Dean, the Secretary, the Registrar, the King of Arms, the Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England, serves as the Orders Prelate. The Dean of St Pauls is ex officio the Dean of the Order, the Orders King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. From time to time, individuals are appointed to a higher grade within the Order, thereby ceasing usage of the junior post-nominal letters
38.
Order of Australia
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Before the establishment of the order, Australian citizens received British honours. The Queen of Australia is Sovereign Head of the Order, while the Governor-General is Principal Companion/Dame/Knight, the Governor-Generals Official Secretary is Secretary of the Order. The order is divided into a general and a military division, honorary awards at all levels may be made to deserving non-citizens – these awards are made additional to the quotas. The badge of the Order of Australia is a convex disc representing the Golden Wattle flower, at the centre is a ring, representing the sea, with the word Australia below two branches of golden wattle. The whole disc is topped by the Crown of St Edward, the AC badge is decorated with citrines, blue enamelled ring and enamelled crown. The AO badge is similar, without the citrines, for the AM badge only the crown is enamelled, and the OAM badge is plain. The AK/AD badge is similar to that of the AC badge, the star for knights and dames is a convex golden disc decorated with citrines, with a blue royally crowned inner disc bearing an image of the coat of arms of Australia. The ribbon of the order is blue with a stripe of golden wattle flower designs. AKs, male ACs and AOs wear their badges on a necklet, women usually wear their badges on a bow on the left shoulder, although they may wear the same insignia as males, if so desired. The orders insignia were designed by Stuart Devlin, the Order currently consists of four levels and the medal, in both general and military divisions. Since 2015, the level has been discontinued. Awards of Knight and Dame of the Order have been made in the division only. Military Division – Not awarded in the military division. There was a quota of four per year, excluding honorary appointments, the Knight- and Damehoods were conferred between 1976 and 1983, and again from 2014 till 2015. Although this level is not awarded anymore, several knight and dames of the Order are still alive, Companion General Division – Eminent achievement and merit of the highest degree in service to Australia or to humanity at large. Military Division – Eminent service in duties of great responsibility. Excluding honorary appointments, until 2003, no more than 25 Companions were appointed in any calendar year, in 2003 this was increased to 30. This was increased in 2016 to 35, Officer General Division – Distinguished service of a high degree to Australia or to humanity at large. Military Division – Distinguished service in responsible positions. Prior to 2003, the quota was 100 Officers appointed in any calendar year, in 2003 this was increased to 125. This was increased in 2016 to 140, Member General Division – Service in a particular locality or field of activity or to a particular group. Military Division – Exceptional service or performance of duty
39.
Steve Gower
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Major General Stephen Newman Steve Gower AO is a retired Australian Army officer and former director of the Australian War Memorial. During his time in the Army he saw combat as a forward observer during the Vietnam War in 1966 and 1967. He is also the author of the books Guns of the Regiment, Gower was born on 10 June 1940 in Adelaide, South Australia, to Allan Martin and Agnes Fanny Gower. Educated at Unley High School and Prince Alfred College, he entered the Royal Military College, on graduation in 1961, he received a commission as a lieutenant in the Royal Australian Artillery. Gower wed Heather Eunice on 3 July 1965, the couple have one daughter, Options for an Australian Defence Technological Strategy. Canberra, Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Australian National University
40.
Brendan Nelson
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Brendan John Nelson AO is a former Australian politician and former federal Opposition leader. He served as a member of the Australian House of Representatives from the 1996 federal election until 19 October 2009 as the Liberal member for Bradfield, a northern Sydney seat. On 16 September 2008, in a second contest following a motion, Nelson lost the leadership of the Opposition. On 25 August 2009 he announced his retirement from politics. He remained Member for Bradfield until officially resigning on 19 October 2009, on 10 October 2012, Nelson resigned as an ambassador because he had been promoted to succeed Steve Gower as Director of the Australian War Memorial a position he took up on 17 December 2012. Nelson was born in Coburg, a suburb of Melbourne, as the eldest of three children of Des Nelson, a chief steward active in the Seamens Union, and his wife. In his infancy, his family moved to his mothers home town of Launceston, however, he dropped out in his first year, working in various casual jobs in retail and hospitality before returning to university to study medicine. He switched to Flinders University to complete his Bachelor of Medicine, Nelson married his first wife, Deanna, while a student at Flinders, but they lasted only a year together. Nelson then relocated to Hobart, Tasmania, taking up practice as a practitioner from 1985 until 1995. In 1986, he married for a time, and became a father to twins. In 1987, he and David Crean, brother of Labor politician Simon Crean and later a Tasmanian state Labor minister, in 1991, he replaced Michael Jones, a former AMA president from Western Australia, as federal AMA vice-president. On 30 May 1993, Nelson was elected unopposed as president of the Australian Medical Association. Nelson attempted to better relations with the government and its new Health Minister. Of course Aboriginal peoples health has suffered when you look at this litany of misery, Nelson took ministers and shadow ministers around Central Australia to view Aboriginal communities. In October 1994, the World Conference on Tobacco and Health in Paris unanimously adopted an AMA resolution calling for a formal United Nations strategy on tobacco control. Nelsons fathers strong involvement in the movement and the Australian Labor Party influenced his early political development. However, he resigned from the Labor Party in 1991 before accepting a role on the AMA executive, on account of his perception of it as an apolitical position. At a rowdy pre-election rally during the 1993 election campaign in Toorak, as vice-president of the AMA, on 25 November 1993, he told journalist and medical writer Steve Dow that Labor governments generally were better for Australia but not always in their handling of health care
41.
Tree
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In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, supporting branches and leaves in most species. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are usable as lumber or plants above a specified height. Trees are not a group but include a variety of plant species that have independently evolved a woody trunk. In looser senses, the palms, the tree ferns, bananas. Trees tend to be long-lived, some reaching several thousand years old, the tallest known tree, a coast redwood named Hyperion, stands 115.6 m high. Trees have been in existence for 370 million years and it is estimated that there are just over 3 trillion mature trees in the world. A tree typically has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground by the trunk and this trunk typically contains woody tissue for strength, and vascular tissue to carry materials from one part of the tree to another. For most trees it is surrounded by a layer of bark which serves as a protective barrier, below the ground, the roots branch and spread out widely, they serve to anchor the tree and extract moisture and nutrients from the soil. Above ground, the divide into smaller branches and shoots. The shoots typically bear leaves, which light energy and convert it into sugars by photosynthesis, providing the food for the trees growth. Flowers and fruit may also be present, but some trees, such as conifers, instead have pollen cones and seed cones, others, such as tree ferns, trees play a significant role in reducing erosion and moderating the climate. They remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store large quantities of carbon in their tissues, trees and forests provide a habitat for many species of animals and plants. Tropical rainforests are one of the most biodiverse habitats in the world, trees provide shade and shelter, timber for construction, fuel for cooking and heating, and fruit for food as well as having many other uses. In parts of the world, forests are shrinking as trees are cleared to increase the amount of available for agriculture. Because of their longevity and usefulness, trees have always revered, with sacred groves in various cultures. Although tree is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition of what a tree is, either botanically or in common language. In its broadest sense, a tree is any plant with the form of an elongated stem, or trunk. Trees are also defined by height, with smaller plants from 0.5 to 10 m being called shrubs
42.
Australian and New Zealand Army Corps
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The Australian and New Zealand Army Corps was a First World War army corps of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force. It was formed in Egypt in December 1914, and operated during the Battle of Gallipoli, General William Birdwood commanded the corps, which comprised troops from the First Australian Imperial Force and 1st New Zealand Expeditionary Force. The corps disbanded in 1916, following the Allied evacuation of the Gallipoli peninsula, the Corps was reestablished, briefly, in the Second World War during the Battle of Greece in 1942. Plans for the formation began in November 1914 while the first contingent of Australian and New Zealand troops were still in convoy bound for, as they thought, Birdwood arrived in Cairo on 21 December 1914 to assume command of the corps. However, protests from New Zealand led to adoption of the name Australian, the administration clerks found the title too cumbersome so quickly adopted the abbreviation A. & N. Z. A. C. or simply ANZAC. Shortly afterwards it was adopted as the codename for the corps. The 2nd and 3rd Australian Light Horse Brigades were assigned as corps level troops, despite being synonymous with Australia and New Zealand, ANZAC was a multi-national body. Following the evacuation of Gallipoli in December 1915, the Australian, the New Zealand contingent expanded to form their own division, the New Zealand Division. The First Australian Imperial Force underwent a reorganisation resulting in the formation of two new divisions, the 4th and 5th divisions. These divisions were reformed into two corps, I ANZAC Corps and II ANZAC Corps, I ANZAC Corps, under the command of General Birdwood, departed for France in early 1916. II ANZAC Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Alexander Godley, followed soon after, in January 1916, the 4th Battalion, Imperial Camel Corps with Australian and New Zealand troops was formed, the 1st and 3rd battalions were Australian and the 2nd Battalion British. Then in March 1916, the ANZAC Mounted Division with three Australian and one New Zealand brigade, was formed for service in Egypt and Palestine, there was also the 1st Wireless Signal Squadron, which served with the British expeditionary force in Mesopotamia in 1916–17. During World War II, the Australian I Corps HQ moved to Greece in April 1941, as the corps also controlled the New Zealand 2nd Division, it was officially renamed ANZAC Corps in April. The Battle of Greece was over in weeks and the corps HQ left Greece on 23–24 April, some troops evacuated to Alexandria, but the majority were sent to Crete to reinforce its garrison against an expected air and sea German invasion. Australians and New Zealanders were respectively deployed around the cities of Rethymno, the invasion began the morning of 20 May and, after the fierce Battle of Crete, which lasted ten days, Crete fell to the Germans. Most of the defenders of Chania withdrew across the island to the south coast and were evacuated by the Royal Navy from Sfakia, many others evaded capture for several months, hiding in the mountains with generous assistance from the local Cretan population. During the Vietnam War, two companies from the Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment were integrated into Royal Australian Regiment battalions and these integrated battalions had the suffix added to their name. An ANZAC battalion served as one of the battalions of the 1st Australian Task Force from early March 1968 until its withdrawal in December 1971
43.
Lake Burley Griffin
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Lake Burley Griffin is an artificial lake in the centre of Canberra, the capital of Australia. It was completed in 1963 after the Molonglo River—which ran between the city centre and Parliamentary Triangle—was dammed and it is named after Walter Burley Griffin, the American architect who won the competition to design the city of Canberra. Griffin designed the lake with many geometric motifs, so that the axes of his design lined up with natural geographical landmarks in the area, however, government authorities changed his original plans and no substantial work was completed before he left Australia in 1920. His scheme remained unfulfilled as the Great Depression and World War II intervened, after much political dispute over several proposed variations, excavation work began in 1960 with the energetic backing of Prime Minister Robert Menzies. After the completion of the bridges and dams, the dams were locked in September 1963, however, a drought meant that the target water level was not reached until April 1964. It was formally inaugurated on 17 October 1964, the lake is located in the approximate geographic centre of the city, and is the centrepiece of the capital in accordance with Griffins original designs. Its surrounds, consisting mainly of parklands, are popular with recreational users, though swimming in the lake is uncommon, it is used for a wide variety of other activities, such as rowing, fishing, and sailing. The lake is a body with a length of 11 kilometres, at its widest. It has a depth of 4 metres and a maximum depth of about 18 metres near the Scrivener Dam. Its flow is regulated by the 33-metre-tall Scrivener Dam, designed to handle floods that once in 5,000 years. In times of drought, water levels can be maintained through the release of water from Googong Dam, Charles Robert Scrivener recommended the site for Canberra in 1909, which was to be a planned capital city for the country. In 1911, a competition for the design of Canberra was launched, most of the proposals took the hint and included artificial bodies of water. Griffins proposal, which had an abundance of geometric patterns, incorporated concentric hexagonal and octagonal streets emanating from several radii, the East Lake was supposed to be 6 metres higher than the remaining components. Griffins proposal was the grandest scheme submitted, yet it had a simplicity and clarity. The lakes were designed so that their orientation was related to various topographical landmarks in Canberra. This was designed so that looking from Capital Hill, the War Memorial stood directly at the foot of Mount Ainslie, at the southwestern end of the land axis was Bimberi Peak. The straight edge of the segment that formed the central basin was designated the water axis, and it extended northwest towards Black Mountain. A line parallel to the axis, on the northern side of the city, was designated the municipal axis
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Reid, Australian Capital Territory
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Reid is a suburb of Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia. With a population of 1,583, located next to Civic. Separating the suburbs of Reid and Campbell is Anzac Parade, a ceremonial boulevarde running along Canberras primary design axis from Lake Burley Griffin to the Australian War Memorial. Located in Reid are the Canberra Institute of Technology and St John the Baptist Church, the foundation stone of St John the Baptist Church was laid in 1841 and it was consecrated on 12 March 1845. It listed by the ACT Heritage Council, most of the suburb was constructed in 1926 and 1927 to provide housing for public servants in preparation for the opening of the provisional Parliament House in 1927. It was a housing precinct planned on Garden City principles and is now heritage-listed, the Uniting Church on Coranderrk Street was built in 1927 and is also heritage listed. Reid was named in 1928 after Australias fourth Prime Minister, Sir George Reid and it was previously considered to be part of Ainslie. The streets in Reid are named after aboriginal words, the four-storey Bega flats were completed east of Cooyong street and south of Ainslie in 1957 in order to cope with a critical lack of accommodation for public servants transferred to Canberra. The ACT Heritage Council described them as having been designed in the Post-War International style similar to housing in Europe. In the 2011 Census, the population of Reid was 1,583,35. 0% of dwellings were separate houses, while 10. 3% were semi-detached, row or terrace houses and 54. 3% were flats, units or apartments. 39. 6% of the population were professionals, compared to the Australian average of 21. 3%, notably 20. 1% worked in government administration, compared to the Australian average of 1. 3%, although the Canberra-wide average was identical. Reid was favoured by students and young adults with 22. 7% of its population in the 20- to 29-year-old age group,30. 8% of the population had no religion,17. 9% were Catholic and 14. 8% were Anglican. Reid is located within the electorate of Canberra, which is currently represented by Gai Brodtmann in the House of Representatives. In the ACT Legislative Assembly, Reid is part of the electorate of Kurrajong, polling place statistics are shown to the right for the Braddon polling place at the Ainslie School, Donaldson St in the 2016 federal and 2016 ACT elections. Calcareous shale from the Canberra Formation is overlain by Quaternary alluvium and this rock is the limestone of the original title of Canberra Limestone Plains. Tertiary age pebbly gravels are around Anzac Parade left from when the Molonglo river was at a higher level
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Dickson, Australian Capital Territory
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Dickson is a suburb in the Inner North of Canberra, Australia. It is named after Sir James Dickson who was a Queensland advocate of Australian Federation, there is no specific theme for street names. Between 1926 and 1928, a small runway called Northbourne Aviation Ground was located where the Dickson Library, Dickson was gazetted on 28 September 1928, but the suburb was not settled until the 1960s. The suburb is bounded by Northbourne Avenue, Antill Street, Phillip Avenue, Majura Avenue, Limestone Avenue, Dickson contains no hills or significant slopes. The east arm of Sullivans Creek passes through the middle of Dickson draining storm water from east to west, the suburb contains the Dickson Centre, a significant commercial centre in Canberra’s Inner North containing the Woolworths Supermarkets outlet with the greatest turnover in Australia. The centre contains a station, office buildings, many shops. Outside the Dickson Centre, the contains the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Canberra radio. Two colleges are located in the suburb, Dickson College, a senior secondary school, and Daramalan College. The Daramalan Junior school was located in Dickson, which operated between 1986 and 1997. It was a school for boys in years 5 and 6, organisations calling the playing fields home including the Majura Junior Soccer Club and Corroboree Little Athletics. Near the playing fields is a track between rows of pine, oak and gum trees which leads to the Dickson shopping centre. Hawdon Street is where the Canberra Space Dome and Observatory used to be located before being destroyed by fire in 2010, the street is cut in half by the eastern branch of Sullivans Creek, which runs in a concrete drain. On the south side of Sullivans Creek at this point is the Dickson Wetlands, the suburb is characterised by leafy streets, detached single dwelling houses, and double story duplex townhouses. The western part of the suburb is beginning to be redeveloped under a policy permitting two and three-storey flats, redevelopment with eight to ten-storey flats is permitted on properties near Northbourne Avenue and one such block of flats has been built near the ABC studios. In the 2011 Census, the population of Dickson was 2,139,57. 1% of dwellings were separate houses, while 22. 5% were semi-detached, row or terrace houses and 20. 3% were flats, units or apartments. 37. 8% of the population were professionals, compared to the Australian average of 21. 3%, notably 21. 4% worked in government administration, compared to the Australian average of 1. 3%, although the Canberra-wide average is a very similar 20. 1%. OConnor is favoured by students and young adults with 17. 4% of its population in the 15- to 24-year-old age group,38. 6% of the population had no religion, compared to the ACT average of 28. 9% and the Australian average of 22. 3%. 67. 8% of people living in the suburb of Dickson were born in Australia,75. 5% of people living in Dickson speak English only
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Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
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