1.
Peru
–
Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
Peru
–
Sculpted
Chavin head embedded in one of the walls of the temple of
Chavín de Huantar
Peru
Peru
–
A
Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head
Peru
–
The citadel of
Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru
2.
Ayacucho Region
–
Ayacucho is a region of Peru, located in the south-central Andes of the country. Its capital is the city of Ayacucho, the region was one of the hardest hit by terrorism during the 1980s during the guerrilla war waged by Shining Path known as the internal conflict in Peru. The bill failed and Ayacucho remained an independent region, the region is divided into 11 provinces, which are composed of 111 districts. The Quechua variety spoken in Ayacucho is Chanka Quechua, the following table shows the results concerning the language learnt first in the Ayacucho Region by province, Ayacucho Regional Government official website
Ayacucho Region
–
The
Andes in the Ayacucho Region
Ayacucho Region
–
Statue of
Antonio José de Sucre and obelisk near Kinwa, commemorating the Battle of Ayacucho.
Ayacucho Region
–
Hot springs in the region of Ayacucho.
Ayacucho Region
–
Obelisk near Kinwa, commemorating the Battle of Ayacucho.
3.
Demonym
–
A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
Demonym
–
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary has not adopted the term "demonyn" for these adjectives and nouns
4.
UTC-5
–
UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
UTC-5
–
Behind (−)
5.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving time
–
Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving time
–
G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving time
–
Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
Daylight saving time
–
William Willett independently proposed DST in 1907 and advocated it tirelessly.
6.
Quechua language
–
Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
Quechua language
–
Quechua
7.
Holy Week
–
Holy Week in Christianity is the week just before Easter. In the West, it is also the last week of Lent, and includes Palm Sunday, Holy Wednesday, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday. It does not include Easter Sunday, although traditions observing the Easter Triduum may overlap or displace part of Holy Week or Easter itself within that additional liturgical period, Holy Week in the Christian year is the week immediately before Easter. In this text, abstinence from flesh is commanded for all the days, dionysius Alexandrinus in his canonical epistle, refers to the 91 fasting days implying that the observance of them had already become an established usage in his time. The Codex Theodosianus, however, is explicit in ordering that all actions at law should cease, of the particular days of the great week the earliest to emerge into special prominence was naturally Good Friday. Next came the Sabbatum Magnum with its vigil, which in the church was associated with an expectation that the second advent would occur on an Easter Sunday. Other writings that refer to related traditions of the early Church include, most notably, The Pilgrimage of Etheria, today, in the Western Christian Church, among Lutherans, Anglicans, Methodists, Presbyterians and Roman Catholics, the liturgies used for Holy Week are nearly identical. Holy Week begins with Palm Sunday, which may also be known as Passion Sunday in some denominations, traditionally, Palm Sunday commemorates the Triumphal entry into Jerusalem, one of the few events described in all four canonical gospels. As described in the accounts, Jesuss entry into Jerusalem was noted by the present who shouted praises. In the Roman Rite, before 1955 it was simply as Palm Sunday. From 1955 to 1971 it was called Second Sunday in Passiontide or Palm Sunday, among Lutherans and Anglicans, the day is known as the Sunday of the Passion, Palm Sunday. In many liturgical denominations, to commemorate the Messiahs entry into Jerusalem to accomplish his paschal mystery, immediately following this great time of celebration over the entrance of Jesus into Jerusalem, he begins his journey to the cross. The blessing is followed by a procession or solemn entrance into the church. The Mass or service of worship includes a reading of the Passion. The palms were then blessed with five prayers, and a procession went out of the church and on its return included a ceremony for the reopening of the doors, after this the normal Mass was celebrated. The days between Palm Sunday and Holy Thursday are known as Holy Monday, Holy Tuesday, and Holy Wednesday. Among them On Monday, some observe the anointing of Jesus at Bethany, other events which the Gospels tell of which may have occurred on this day include cursing the fig tree and the Cleansing of the Temple. On Tuesday, some observe Jesus predictions of his own death, as described in, on Wednesday, some observe the story of Judas arranging his betrayal of Jesus with the high priests
Holy Week
–
The
entry of Jesus into Jerusalem on
Palm Sunday marks the beginning of Holy Week.
Holy Week
–
A Washing of Feet ceremony on
Holy Thursday in the Armenian Orthodox church
Holy Week
–
A Good Friday procession in
Ecuador
8.
Easter
–
It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent, a forty-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance. In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the fiftieth day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, the season of Pascha begins on Pascha and ends with the coming of the fortieth day, the Feast of the Ascension. The First Council of Nicaea established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified, these were worked out in practice and it has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March, but calculations vary. Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by much of its symbolism, in many languages, the words for Easter and Passover are identical or very similar. Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include services, exclaiming the Paschal greeting, clipping the church. The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection, traditionally decorates the area of churches on this day. Additional customs that have associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include egg hunting, the Easter Bunny, and Easter parades. There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally, however, it is possible that Bede was only speculating about the origin of the term since there is no firm evidence that such a goddess actually existed. In Greek and Latin, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called Πάσχα, Pascha, the word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt. In most of the non-English speaking world, the feast is known by names derived from Greek, Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration. The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is a foundation of the Christian faith, the resurrection established Jesus as the powerful Son of God and is cited as proof that God will judge the world in righteousness. For those who trust in Jesus death and resurrection, death is swallowed up in victory, any person who chooses to follow Jesus receives a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. Through faith in the working of God those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation. Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the room during the Last Supper he prepared himself. He identified the matzah and cup of wine as his soon to be sacrificed
Easter
–
Icon of the Resurrection, with Christ, having kicked down the gates of Hades and pulling Adam and Eve out of the tombs. Christ is flanked by saints, and Satan, depicted as an old man, is bound and chained. (See
Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art.)
Easter
–
One of the earliest known depictions of the
crucifixion and
resurrection of Jesus (
Rabbula Gospel illuminated manuscript, 6th century)
Easter
–
The
Last Supper celebrated by Jesus and his disciples. The early Christians too would have celebrated this meal to commemorate Jesus' death and subsequent resurrection.
Easter
–
A stained glass window depicting the
Passover Lamb, a concept integral to the foundation of Easter
9.
Horse racing
–
Horse racing is an equestrian performance sport, typically involving two or more horses ridden by jockeys or driven over a set distance for competition. Horse races vary widely in format, often, countries have developed their own particular horse racing traditions. Variations include restricting races to particular breeds, running over obstacles, running over different distances, running on different track surfaces, Horse racing has a long and distinguished history and has been practised in civilisations across the world since ancient times. Archaeological records indicate that horse racing occurred in Ancient Greece, Babylon, Syria and it also plays an important part of myth and legend, such as the contest between the steeds of the god Odin and the giant Hrungnir in Norse mythology. Chariot racing was one of the most popular ancient Greek, Roman, both chariot and mounted horse racing were events in the ancient Greek Olympics by 648 BC and were important in the other Panhellenic Games. This was despite the fact that racing was often dangerous to both driver and horse as they frequently suffered serious injury and even death. In the Roman Empire, chariot and mounted horse racing were major industries, fifteen to 20 riderless horses, originally imported from the Barbary Coast of North Africa, ran the length of the Via del Corso, a long, straight city street, in about 2½ minutes. In later times, Thoroughbred racing became, and remains, popular with the aristocrats and royalty of British society, historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle, Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. The various forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat. There are many different types of racing, including, Flat racing. Jump racing, or Jumps racing, also known as Steeplechasing or, in the UK and Ireland, National Hunt racing, Harness racing, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a sulky. Breeds that are used for flat racing include the Thoroughbred, Quarter Horse, Arabian, Paint, Jump racing breeds include the Thoroughbred and AQPS. In harness racing, Standardbreds are used in Australia, New Zealand and North America, light cold blood horses, such as Finnhorses and Scandinavian coldblood trotter are also used in harness racing within their respective geographical areas. There also are races for ponies, both flat and jump and harness racing, Flat racing is the most common form of racing seen worldwide. Track surfaces vary, with turf most common in Europe, dirt more common in North America and Asia, individual flat races are run over distances ranging from 440 yards up to two and a half miles, with distances between five and twelve furlongs being most common. Short races are referred to as sprints, while longer races are known as routes in the United States or staying races in Europe
Horse racing
–
Horse racing at
Arlington Park, 2007
Horse racing
–
Steeplechase racing at
Deauville
Horse racing
–
Harness racing in
Adelaide
Horse racing
–
Riderless Racers at Rome by
Théodore Géricault
10.
Peruvian Paso
–
The Peruvian Paso or Peruvian Horse is a breed of light pleasure saddle horse known for its smooth ride. It is distinguished by a natural, four-beat, lateral gait called the paso llano and it is typical of the northern Peruvian regions of the country from which it originated. Trujillo city is considered the Cradle of typical Peruvian Paso Horse, smooth-gaited horses, generally known as Palfreys, existed in the Middle Ages, and the Jennet in particular was noted for its ambling gaits. Peruvian Pasos trace their ancestry to these ambling Jennets, as well as to the Barb, which contributed strength and stamina, Horses arrived in South America during the Spanish Conquest, beginning with the arrival of Pizarro in 1531. Foundation bloodstock came from Spain, Jamaica, Panama and other areas of Central America, importations increased after 1542, when the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castilla. This later became the Viceroyalty of Peru, an important center of Spains New World colonies in the eighteenth century. Don Pedro Venturo Zapata was a breeder of the Paso horse in his Hacienda Higuereta y Anexos - Negociacion Vinicola Pedro Venturo S. A. from 1925 to 1952. Once in Peru, they were used primarily for transportation and breeding stock, in the north of Peru, the vast size of sugar and cotton plantations meant that overseers needed to travel long distances, often taking days to cross the plantation. In the south of Peru, the deserts that separated settlements required sturdy. In both cases, smooth-gaited horses with good endurance were required, on the other hand, Peru did not develop a livestock-based economy, and thus did not need to breed for the speed or agility characteristic of stock horses. Over time, Peruvian breeders kept the clean and selectively bred primarily for gait, conformation. They wanted strong, hardy animals that were comfortable to ride, over four centuries, their dedication to breeding only the best gaited bloodstock resulted in the modern Peruvian Paso. Many of the breeders in the area gave their best horses away to peasants living in the nearby quebradas. It was in one of these quebradas that breeder Gustavo de la Borda found the horse that was to become the most important modern sire in the breed, the Peruvian Paso continued to flourish in the northern regions because it was still needed for transportation on the haciendas. This changed with the harsh Agrarian Reforms instituted by the government of Juan Velasco Alvarado in the late 1960s that had an effect on the Peruvian Paso horse within Peru. Major breeding operations were broken up and breeding stock was lost, the past thirty years have seen a resurgence in the Peruvian Paso horses fortune in Peru. The annual National Show in Lima is an event in Peruvian cultural life. The Peruvian Paso has been declared a Patrimonio Cultural of Peru in an attempt to shore up the breed within the country, there are now laws in place that restrict the export of national champion horses
Peruvian Paso
–
A Peruvian Paso
Peruvian Paso
–
The gaits of the Peruvian Paso are natural, so shown by this foal
Peruvian Paso
–
Peruvian Paso in motion
Peruvian Paso
–
Peruvian Pasos showing their gait
11.
Encierro
–
The origin of this event comes from the need to transport the bulls from the fields outside the city, where they were bred, to the bullring, where they would be killed in the evening. During this run, youngsters would jump among them to show off their bravado, in Pamplona and other places, the six bulls in the event are still those that will feature in the afternoon bullfight of the same day. Spanish tradition says the origin of the run began in northeastern Spain during the early 14th century. While transporting cattle in order to them at the market, men would try to speed the process by hurrying their cattle using tactics of fear. When the popularity of this practice increased and was noticed more and more by the population of Spanish cities. The Pamplona encierro is the most popular in Spain and has been broadcast live by RTVE and it is the highest profile event of the San Fermin festival, which is held every year from 6–14 July. The first bull running is on 7 July, followed by one on each of the mornings of the festival. Among the rules to take part in the event are that participants must be at least 18 years old, run in the direction as the bulls, not incite the bulls. In Pamplona a set of fences are erected to direct the bulls along the route. A double wooden fence is used in houses where there is enough space for it. The gaps in the barricades are wide enough for a human to slip through, the fence is composed of around three thousand separate pieces and while some parts are left for the duration of the fiesta others are mounted and dismounted every morning. Spectators can only stand behind the fence, whereas the space between the two fences is reserved for security and medical personnel and also to participants who need cover during the event. The encierro begins with singing a benediction. It is sung three times, each time being both in Spanish and Basque. The singers finish by shouting Viva San Fermín, most runners dress in the traditional clothing of the festival which consists of a white shirt and trousers with a red waistband and neckerchief. Also some of them hold the days newspaper rolled to draw the attention from them if necessary. A first rocket is set off at 8 a. m. to alert the runners that the gate is open. A second rocket signals that all six bulls have been released, the third and fourth rockets are signals that all of the herd has entered the bullring and its corral respectively, marking the end of the event
Encierro
–
The bull run in
Pamplona
Encierro
–
Monument in Pamplona
Encierro
–
Saint Fermin, honored in Pamplona
Encierro
–
Pamplona, 7 July 2005. People climb to the fences as the bulls run by and cross the Town Hall Plaza
12.
Quechua languages
–
Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
Quechua languages
–
Quechua
13.
Battle of Ayacucho
–
The Battle of Ayacucho was a decisive military encounter during the Peruvian War of Independence. It was the battle that secured the independence of Peru and ensured independence for the rest of South America, as of late 1824, Royalists still had control of most of the south of Peru as well as of Real Felipe Fort in the port of Callao. On 9 December 1824, the Battle of Ayacucho took place at Pampa de Ayacucho, Independentist forces were led by Simón Bolívars lieutenant Sucre. Viceroy José de la Serna was wounded, and after the battle second commander-in-chief José de Canterac signed the capitulation of the Royalist army. The modern Peruvian Army celebrates the anniversary of this battle, in 1820 Spain began what would shortly become a political disaster. An expedition of 20,000 soldiers waiting to be sent to Río de la Plata to help the royalists of America revolted under the encouragement of General Rafael Riego. In the subsequent weeks the revolt spread and King Ferdinand VII was forced to restore the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, the royalists in each viceroyalty, however, took different paths. In Peru Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela was discredited after a royalist expedition to Chile under Mariano Osorio was defeated and advances in Peru were made by José de San Martín. The viceroy was overthrown on 29 January 1821, in Asnapukyu, in a coup by General José de la Serna, the independentists started the new year with a promising victory. At Cerro de Pasco they defeated a Peruvian royalist army commanded by Viceroy La Serna, however, the royalists had received solid military training. Their first victory came against the independentist army commanded by Domingo Tristán, a year later, San Martin had withdrawn from the scene after the Interview of Guayaquil and royalist forces had smashed Rudecindo Alvarados Liberating Expedition in campaigns in Torata and Moquegua. After scattering Santa Cruzs isolated troops, La Serna recaptured Arequipa after beating Antonio José de Sucres Gran Colombian force on 10 October. Sucre decided to evacuate the Gran Colombian troops, setting sail on 10 October 1823, saving himself and his troops, Viceroy La Serna ended the campaign after reaching Oruro in Upper Peru. On the political front, the last remnants of optimism among patriots faded away with accusations of treason against Peruvian presidents José de la Riva Agüero, Riva Agüero deported deputies of the Peruvian Congress and organized another congress in Trujillo. After being found guilty of treason by the Peruvian Congress he was banished to Chile. This act, in turn, was considered by Simón Bolívar to be treasonous, Tagle, who had earlier ordered all armies under his command to support Bolívar against the royalist enemy, was now pursued by Bolívar, who was looking to capture and execute him. Tagle took shelter with the royalists in the fortress of Callao, nevertheless, by the end of 1823, the situation had started to become critical for those who defended the kings cause. In spite of the military triumphs, Bolívars request for reinforcements from Colombia made him a threat to the royalist army
Battle of Ayacucho
–
The Battle of Ayacucho, by
Antonio Herrera Toro from studies by
Martín Tovar y Tovar
Battle of Ayacucho
–
Last
Viceroy of Perú,
José de la Serna e Hinojosa, Count of the Andes.
Battle of Ayacucho
–
Grand Marshal of Ayacucho,
Antonio José de Sucre.
Battle of Ayacucho
–
Battle of Ayacucho
14.
Wari culture
–
The Wari were a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru, from about AD500 to 1000. Wari, as the capital city was called, is located 11 km north-east of the modern city of Ayacucho. This city was the center of a civilization that covered much of the highlands, the best-preserved remnants, beside the Wari Ruins, are the recently discovered Northern Wari ruins near the city of Chiclayo, and Cerro Baul in Moquegua. Also well-known are the Wari ruins of Pikillaqta, a short distance south-east of Cuzco en route to Lake Titicaca, early on, the Wari expanded their territory to include the ancient oracle center of Pachacamac, though it seems to have remained largely autonomous. Later the Wari became dominant in much of the territory of the earlier Moche, the reason for this expansion has been debated, it is believed to have been driven by religious conversion, military conquest, or the spread of agricultural knowledge. Buildings in Wari and in other government centers had doorways that were blocked up, as if the Wari intended to return. But by the time this happened, the Wari had faded from history, in the meantime, the dwindling residents of the Wari cities ceased all major construction. Archaeological evidence shows significant levels of violence, suggesting that warfare. With the collapse of the Wari, the Late Intermediate Period is said to begin, little is known about the details of the Wari administrative structure, as they did not appear to use a form of written record. But, the emphasis on homogeneous administrative architecture and evidence for significant social stratification suggests a complex socio-political hierarchy, the discovery in early 2013 of an undisturbed royal tomb, El Castillo de Huarmey, offers new insight into the social and political influence of the Wari during this period. During its expansion period, the Wari state established architecturally distinctive administrative centers in many of its provinces and these centres are clearly different from the architecture of Tiwanaku, which is believed to have been a more federalized state by some scholars. Using these administrative centers, the Wari greatly influenced the surrounding countryside and they created new fields with terraced field technology and invested in construction of a major road network. Several centuries later, when the Inca began to expand their empire, Wari Empire Willkawayin Tiwanaku Tiwanaku empire Middle Horizon Pocra culture Chuqi Pukyu Collier, Simon et al. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Latin America and the Caribbean, bennett, Excavations at Wari, Ayachucho, Peru. Gordon F. McEwan, The Middle Horizon in the Valley of Cuzco, Peru, william H. Isbell and Gordon F. McEwan, eds. Huari Administrative Structure, Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government, katharina J. Schreiber, Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru. Violence, Ritual, and the Wari Empire, A Social Bioarchaeology of Imperialism in the Ancient Andes, bergh, by Judith H. Dobrzynski, The Wall Street Journal, October 24,2012 Who Was Who in the Middle Horizon Andean Prehistory by Patricia J. Knobloch
Wari culture
–
Four-Cornered Hat, 650-1000.
Brooklyn Museum
Wari culture
–
Huari earthenware pot with painted design, 650-800 CE (Middle Horizon)
Wari culture
–
Wari Tunic, Peru, 750-950 CE. This tunic is made of 120 separate small pieces of cloth, each individually
tie-dyed. Ceramics of the period depict high-status men wearing this style of tunic.
Wari culture
–
Monoliths Wari
15.
Andes
–
The Andes or Andean Mountains are the longest continental mountain range in the world. They are a range of highlands along the western edge of South America. This range is about 7,000 km long, about 200 to 700 km wide, the Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, the Andes are the location of several high plateaus – some of which host major cities, such as Quito, Bogotá, Arequipa, Medellín, Sucre, Mérida and La Paz. The Altiplano plateau is the worlds second-highest after the Tibetan plateau and these ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate, the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes. The Andes are the worlds highest mountain range outside of Asia, the highest mountain outside Asia, Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is farther from the Earths center than any other location on the Earths surface, the worlds highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m. The etymology of the word Andes has been debated, the majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti, which means east as in Antisuyu, one of the four regions of the Inca Empire. In the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is considered to be part of the Andes. The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel, meaning rope, the Andes range is about 200 km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres wide. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate. In the south, the Andes share a boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, from a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines, the Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile, the Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau, the specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the Arica Elbow
Andes
–
Aerial photo of a portion of the Andes between
Argentina and
Chile
Andes
Andes
–
"
Cono de Arita " in the
Puna de Atacama,
Salta (
Argentina).
Andes
–
Aerial view of Aconcagua.
16.
Inca Empire
–
The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru, the Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572, from 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the son of the sun, the Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many features associated with civilization in the Old world. In the words of one scholar, The Incas lacked the use of wheeled vehicles, the Incan economy has been described as feudal, slave, socialist. The economy functioned largely without money and without markets, instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. Taxes consisted of an obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food, the Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, the four suyu. The four suyu were, Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Qullasuyu and Kuntisuyu, the name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu, the term Inka means ruler or lord in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family. The Incas were a small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000. The Spanish adopted the term as a term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca referred to the nation that they encountered, the Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells a story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu Tuqu was named Qhapaq Tuqu, the other caves were Maras Tuqu and Sutiq Tuqu. Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave and they were, Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa and Ayar Uchu, and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura. Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans, Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live and they traveled for a long time
Inca Empire
–
Inca Empire
Inca Empire
–
Banner of the Tawantinsuyu
Inca Empire
–
The first image of the Inca in Europe,
Pedro Cieza de León, Cronica del Peru, 1553
Inca Empire
–
View of
Machu Picchu
17.
Retablo
–
A retablo in Mexican folk art is a devotional painting, especially a small popular or folk art one using iconography derived from traditional Catholic church art. Typically this includes painting, sculpture or a combination of the two, and an elaborate framework enclosing it, the Latin etymology of the Spanish word means board behind. Aside from being found behind the altar, similar structures are built and carved over facades and doorways. Small retablos are devotional or votive paintings, often on rectangular sheets of tin that illustrate holy images such as Christ and they are made as a way of thanking the sacred person for protection in precarious situations, such as surviving an illness or earthquake. Both devotional and especially ex-voto retablos may be deposited at a shrine as a votive offering, reredos of the Late Middle Ages and Renaissance in Spain grew extremely large and elaborate, typically using carved and gilded wood, and rising as high as 40 feet or more. The tradition of making them was taken to the new Spanish Empire in America, there, by the late 18th century at least, the word became used for much smaller popular religious paintings, both conventional devotional images and ex-votos. These were typically made to express gratitude towards the Virgin Mary for saving a person or a loved one from a fatal event. Labeling ex-votos as retablos can be traced back to Robert Montenegro in the early 18th century and he was thanking Nuestra Señora de Dolores de Xaltocan for renewing the peoples health after a severe illness. On the bottom of the left, he inscribed a message that read en cuia memoria dedica a su Magestad este Retablo. Not only were the retablos purchased by those wanting to show devotion to their patron saints, when people wished to express gratitude, they could give retablos that described the miraculous deed of a saint to whom the petitioner turned to in a time of need. People call upon these saints for aid with rain, harvests or other outcomes, for example, if a farmer needs rain for his crops he might pray for rain. After the rain comes, a retablo might be created to give thanks to San Ysidro Labrador and he is venerated for good weather, agricultural issues and prosperous crops. That figure would most likely be kept in the farmers house, each time rain was needed in the future, that farmer might pray in front of that retablo. These traditions are by no means exclusive to Latin America, but are found in all Roman Catholic countries, as well as in classical paganism, to judge by survivals, similar small paintings were especially common in the German-speaking Catholic areas of Europe in the Early Modern period. By the 19th century, the process of lithography became popular for devotional retablos. The way a retablo and ex-voto look is entirely up to the person designing it, the most important part of the retablo is the representation of the miraculous event. That is why most artists try to use bright, vibrant colors to portray the supremacy of the event, an ex-voto is, more often than not, reduced to a smaller size. It is usually half the size of the original, while still maintaining its rectangular shape
Retablo
–
Mexican oil paint on tin retablo of '
Our Lady of Guadalupe ', 19th century,
El Paso Museum of Art
Retablo
–
Mexican ex-voto of 1935 - survival of a stabbing;
Our Lady of San Juan de los Lagos again.
Retablo
–
A
Baroque carved wood retablo in the original Spanish sense,
Tenerife.
Retablo
–
Mexican oil on copper retablo of the traditional subject of the
Man of Sorrows, 17th century.
18.
Indigenous peoples in Peru
–
Indigenous cultures developed here for thousands of years. The first Spanish explorers called the peoples of the Americas indios, or Indians. The term is used today, although it is sometimes thought to have a derogatory connotation. In 2014, the 13,248,943 indigenous people in Peru formed about 45% of the population of Peru. Those peoples living in the Andes and to the west were dominated by the Inca Empire and it developed many cities, building major temples and monuments with techniques of highly skilled stonemasonry. Many survivors had unions with Spanish and their descendants were gradually assimilated into the general mestizo Peruvian population and they have adopted the use of firearms and other manufactured items, and trade goods at a remove from mainstream Peruvian society. These indigenous groups maintain cultural identities and practices that keep them distinct from majority Hispano-Peruvian society, the Interethnic Association for the Development of the Peruvian Rainforest is the primary indigenous rights organization in Peru defending the interests of indigenous people in Peru. Its current president is Pedro Pablo Kuczynski, migrants from that first wave are thought to have reached Peru in the 6th millennium BCE, probably entering the Amazon basin from the northwest. The sites, located 100 miles north of Lima, developed a trade between coastal fisherman and cotton growers and built monumental pyramids around the 30th century BCE. During the pre-Columbian era, the peoples who dominated the territory now known as Peru spoke languages of three groupings, Quechua in the highlands, Jivaroan, and Tsimané. The peoples had different social and organizational structures, and distinct languages and cultures, of the 29,248,943 estimated total population of Peru, the indigenous people represent about 45%. 97. 8% are Andean and 2. 1%, Amazonian, other sources indicate that the indigenous people comprise 31% of the total population. In the Amazonian region, there more than 65 ethnic groups classified into 16 language families, after Brazil in South America and New Guinea in the Pacific Ocean, Peru is believed to have the highest number of uncontacted tribes in the world. After the arrival of Spanish soldiers in Peru, local people began dying in great number from Eurasian infectious diseases that were chronic among the invaders and these spread by contact across the New World by indigenous peoples along trading routes, often years ahead of direct contact with the invaders. As the natives have no immunity, they suffered high fatalities in epidemics of the new diseases. Later more people died because of the treatment of the conquerors, they were killed in battle, forced from their lands. Many indigenous people refused to be enslaved, retreating into the backlands, or if captured, from the earliest years, Spanish soldiers and colonists intermarried with the indigenous women. The Spanish officers and elite married into the Inca elite, a sizeable portion of the Peruvian population is mixto, of indigenous and European ancestry, speaking Spanish, generally Roman Catholic, and assimilated as the majority culture
Indigenous peoples in Peru
–
Dancers at
Qoyllur Rit'i, an indigenous festival in Peru
Indigenous peoples in Peru
–
Wari culture sculpture, c. 600–1000 CE, wood with shell-and-stone inlay and silver,
Kimbell Art Museum
Indigenous peoples in Peru
–
Quechua people in
Conchucos, Peru
19.
Nazca culture
–
They also built an impressive system of underground aqueducts, known as puquios, that still function today. The Nazca Province in the Ica Region was named for this people, Nazca society developed during the Early Intermediate Period and is generally divided into the Proto Nazca, the Early Nazca, Middle Nazca and Late Nazca cultures. From 500 AD, the civilization started to decline and by 750 AD the civilization had fallen completely and this is thought to have occurred when an El Niño triggered widespread and destructive flooding. Evidence also suggests that the Nazca people may have exacerbated the effects of floods by gradually cutting down Prosopis pallida trees to make room for maize. These trees play an important role as the ecological keystone of this landscape, in particular preventing river. Gradual removal of trees would have exposed the landscape to the effects of climate perturbations such as El Niño, leading to erosion and leaving irrigation systems high and dry. Early Nazca society was made up of local chiefdoms and regional centers of power centered around Cahuachi, scholars have developed theories resulting from various excavations at Cahuachi and suggest that the site was the center for rituals and feasting relating to agriculture, water, and fertility. This may have been as a result of deterioration, the eventual collapse of the center may have also been a result of that decline. Cahuachi lies in the portion of the Nazca Valley and was initially occupied during the late Paracas phase. It is unique among all other Nazca sites in the region, the people modified the natural huacas into pyramid mounds for ceremonial and religious purposes. Excavations at Cahuachi have given archaeologists key insights into the culture, the material remains found at the site included large amounts of polychrome pottery, plain and fancy textiles, trace amounts of gold and spondylus shell, and an array of ritual paraphernalia. The remains of pottery found at Cahuachi led archaeologists to believe that the site was specifically non-urban, the ratio of plain, utilitarian pottery to fine, polychrome pottery was 30% to 70%. If it was a center, the amount of utilitarian ceramics would have probably been higher. Among the foodstuffs found were the Three Sisters, maize, squash, and beans, as well as peanuts and it appears that the site was abandoned at the very end of Nazca 3/early Nazca 4. Although there are possible reasons for the collapse of Cahuachi. Later Nazca society was structured in a fashion as it had been before. Likely related to the arid and extreme nature of the environment, Nazca religious beliefs were based upon agriculture, much as in the contemporary Moche culture based in northwest Peru, shamans apparently used hallucinogenic drugs, such as extractions from the San Pedro cactus, to induce visions. The use of substances is also depicted in art found on pottery related to the Nazca
Nazca culture
–
Nazca Female Effigy Figure, made of
sperm whale tooth, shell and hair
Nazca culture
–
Bowl with fish (
Victoria and Albert Museum)
Nazca culture
–
Nazca burials at the
Chauchilla Cemetery
Nazca culture
–
Nazca burial place
20.
Francisco Pizarro
–
Francisco Pizarro González was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that conquered the Inca Empire. He captured and killed Incan emperor Atahualpa and claimed the lands for Spain, Francisco Pizarro was born in Trujillo, Spain in modern-day Extremadura, Spain. He was the son of infantry colonel Gonzalo Pizarro and Francisca González. His date of birth is uncertain, but it is believed to be sometime in the 1470s, little attention was paid to his education and he grew up illiterate. His father was a colonel of infantry who served in Navarre and his mother married late in life and had a son Francisco Martín de Alcántara, who was at the conquest of Peru with his half-brother from its inception. Through his father, Francisco was a cousin, once removed. On 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonso de Ojeda on an expedition to Gulf of Urabá in Tierra Firme, Pizarro became a participant in Ojedas failed colony, commanding the remnants until he abandoned it with the survivors. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martín Fernández de Enciso in 1513, in 1513, Pizarro accompanied Vasco Núñez de Balboa in his crossing of the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific coast. The following year, Pedrarias Dávila became the appointed governor of Castilla de Oro. During the next five years, Pizarro became an associate of Dávila. When Dávila decided to get rid of Balboa out of distrust, he instructed Pizarro to personally arrest him, Balboa was beheaded in January 1519. For his loyalty to Dávila, Pizarro was rewarded with the positions of mayor, on 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonso de Ojeda on an expedition to Urabá. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martín Fernández de Enciso and, in 1513, reports of Perus riches and Cortéss success in Mexico tantalized Pizarro. He undertook two expeditions to conquer the Incan Empire in 1524 and in 1526, both failed as a result of native hostilities, bad weather and lack of provisions. Pedro de los Ríos, the Governor of Panama, made an effort to recall Pizarro, in April 1528, he reached northern Peru and found the natives rich with precious metals. This discovery gave Pizarro the motivation to plan an expedition to conquer the area. He returned to Panama to make arrangements, but the Governor refused to grant permission for the project, Pizarro returned to Spain to appeal directly to King Charles I. His plea was successful and he received not only a license for the proposed expedition and he was joined by family and friends and the expedition left Panama in 1530
Francisco Pizarro
–
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Francisco Pizarro
–
Marquess Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro
–
Francisco Pizarro's route of exploration during the conquest of Peru (1531–1533)
Francisco Pizarro
–
Pizarro and his followers in
Lima in 1535
21.
Manco Inca Yupanqui
–
Manco Inca Yupanqui was the founder and monarch of the independent Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba, although he was originally a puppet Inca Emperor installed by the Spaniards. He was also known as Manco II and Manco Cápac II and he was one of the sons of Huayna Cápac and a younger brother of Huascar. Túpac Huallpa was a puppet ruler crowned by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, after his death, Manco Inca joined Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro in Cajamarca. When Pizarros force arrived in Cusco, he had the caciques acknowledge Manco as their Inca, Manco Inca then joined Almagro and Hernando de Soto in pursuit of Quizquiz. The Pizarro brothers so mistreated Manco Inca that he tried to escape in 1535. He failed, was captured and imprisoned, Hernando Pizarro released him to recover a golden statue of his father Huayana Capac. Only accompanied by two Spaniards, he escaped a second time. Manco then gathered an army of 200,000 Inca warriors and laid siege to Cusco in early 1536, after ten months, Manco retreated to the nearby fortress of Ollantaytambo in 1537. Here Manco successfully defended attacks by the Spaniards in the battle of Ollantaytambo, Manco coordinated his siege of Cusco with one on Lima, led by one of his captains, Quiso Yupanqui. The Incans were able to defeat four relief expeditions sent by Francisco Pizarro from Lima and this resulted in the death of nearly 500 Spanish soldiers. Some Spaniards were captured and sent to Ollantaytambo, alonso de Alvarado was sent by Pizarro to Cusco, but upon his arrival at Abancay, he and his army were captured by Rodrigo Orgóñez in the Battle of Abancay. This was the beginning of the first civil war between the conquistadors, abandoning Ollantaytambo, Manco Inca retreated to Vitcos and finally to the remote jungles of Vilcabamba, where he founded the Neo-Inca State which lasted until the death of Túpac Amaru in 1572. From there, he continued his attacks against the Wankas, having some success after fierce battles, and to the highlands of present-day Bolivia, the Spaniards crowned his younger half brother Paullu Inca as puppet Sapa Inca after his retreat for his valuable help in that last campaign. The Spanish succeeded in capturing Mancos sister-wife, Cura Ocllo, and had her murdered in 1539. They in turn were all killed by Mancos soldiers, Manco was succeeded by his son Sayri Tupaq. Manco Inca had several sons, including Sayri Tupaq, Titu Cusi, Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire Sapa Inca Cura Ocllo
Manco Inca Yupanqui
–
Manco Inca Yupanqui (drawing by
Guaman Poma)
22.
Lima
–
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the coastal part of the country. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms an urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area. With a population of almost 10 million, Lima is the most populous area of Peru. Lima was founded by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro on January 18,1535 and it became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru, around one-third of the national population lives in the metropolitan area. Lima is home to one of the oldest higher-learning institutions in the New World, the National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12,1551 during the Spanish colonial regime, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. In October 2013 Lima was chosen to host the 2019 Pan American Games and it also hosted the December 2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference and the Miss Universe 1982 pageant. In October 2015 Lima hosted the 2015 Annual Meetings of the World Bank Group, according to early Spanish articles the Lima area was once called Itchyma, after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century and this oracle was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted, the chronicles show Límac replacing Ychma as the common name for the area. Modern scholars speculate that the word Lima originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq, linguistic evidence seems to support this theory as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position. Non-Peruvian Spanish speakers may mistakenly define the city name as the direct Spanish translation of lime, the city was founded in 1535 under the name City of the Kings because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany. This name quickly fell into disuse and Lima became the name of choice, on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru. The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac and many people assume that this is because its original Inca name is Talking River. However, the inhabitants of the valley were not Incas. This name is an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua, later, as the original inhabitants died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. Nowadays, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river runs through it. They often assume that the valley is named after the river, however, historically, the Flag of Lima has been known as the «Banner of Perus Kings City»
Lima
–
Collage of Lima
Lima
–
Flag
Lima
–
Pachacamac was an important religious centre before the arrival of Spanish conquistadors
Lima
–
Balconies were a major feature of Lima's architecture during the colonial period.
23.
Cusco
–
Cuzco, often spelled Cusco, is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region as well as the Cusco Province, in 2013, the city had a population of 435,114. Located on the end of the Knot of Cuzco, its elevation is around 3,400 m. The site was the capital of the Inca Empire from the 13th until the 16th-century Spanish conquest. In 1983 Cusco was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and it has become a major tourist destination, hosting nearly 2 million visitors a year. The Constitution of Peru designates it as the Historical Capital of Peru, the indigenous name of this city is Qusqu. Although the name was used in Quechua, its origin is found in the Aymara language, the word is derived from the phrase qusqu wanka, related to the citys foundation myth of the Ayar Siblings. According to this legend, Ayar Awqa acquired wings and flew to the site of the future city, there he was transformed into a rock to mark the possession of the land by his ayllu. Then Ayar Oche stood up, displayed a pair of large wings, then they went up on top of the hill. Now at the site where he was to remain as an idol and he returned and told Ayar Manco that from then on he was to be named Manco Capac. Ayar Oche came from where the Sun was and the Sun had ordered that Ayar Manco take that name, after this had been stated by the idol, Ayar Oche turned into a stone, just as he was, with his wings. Later Manco Capac went down with Ayar Auca to their settlement. he liked the place now occupied in this city Cuzco, Manco Capac and his companion, with the help of the four women, made a house. Having done this, Manco Capac and his companion, with the four women and it is said that they took the maize from the cave, which this lord Manco Capac named Pacaritambo, which means those of origin because. they came out of that cave. The Spanish conquistadors adopted the name, transliterating it into Spanish phonetics as Cuzco or, less often. Cuzco was the spelling on official documents and chronicles in colonial times. Cuzco, pronounced as in 16th-century Spanish, seems to have been an approximation to the Cusco Quechua pronunciation of the name at the time. As both Spanish and Quechuan pronunciation have evolved since then, the Spanish pronunciation of z is no longer close to the Quechuan pronunciation of the consonant represented by z in Cuzco. In 1976, the city signed an ordinance banning the traditional spelling and ordering the use of a new one, Cusco
Cusco
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The first image of Cuzco in Europe.
Pedro Cieza de León. Cronica del Peru, 1553.
Cusco
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Cristo Blanco in the surrounding mountains of Cusco
Cusco
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Night view of Plaza Regocijo, Cusco
Cusco
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Night view of the
Qurikancha and Convent of
St. Dominic
24.
Peruvian War of Independence
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Because of this the viceroy often had the support of the Lima oligarchy, who saw their elite interests threatened by popular rebellion and were opposed to the new commercial class in Buenos Aires. During the first decade 1800s Peru had been a stronghold for royalists, among the most important events during the war was the proclamation of independence of Peru by José de San Martín on July 28,1821. During the Peninsular War central authority in the Spanish Empire was lost, after success of the royalist armies, Abascal annexed Upper Peru to the viceroyalty, which benefited the Lima merchants as trade from the silver-rich region was now directed to the Pacific. Because of this, Peru remained strongly royalist and participated in the reforms implemented by the Cádiz Cortes. Peru was represented at the first session of the Cortes by seven deputies, therefore, Peru became the second to last redoubt of the Spanish Monarchy in South America, after Upper Peru. Peru eventually succumbed to patriot armies after the continental campaigns of José de San Martín. Some of the early Spanish conquistadors that explored Peru made the first attempts for independence from the Spanish crown and they tried to liberate themselves from the Viceroyalty, who governed for the king of Castile. Throughout the eighteenth century, there were several uprisings against colonial rule. Some of these uprisings became true rebellions and it is debated whether these movements should be considered as precedents of the emancipation that was led by chiefs, Peruvian towns, and other countries in the American continent. The independence of Peru was an important chapter in the Hispano-American wars of independence, the campaign of Sucre in Upper Peru concluded in April 1825, and in November of the same year Mexico obtained the surrender of the Spanish bastion of San Juan de Ulúa in North America. The Spanish strongholds in Callao and Chiloé in South America fell in January 1826, Spain renounced all their continental American territories ten years later in 1836 leaving very little of its vast empire intact. Despite the royalist tendencies of Peru, junta movements did emerge, there were two short-lived uprisings in the southern city of Tacna in 1811 and 1813. One significant movement, led by Natives in Huánuco, began on February 22,1812 and it involved various leaders, including curacas and township magistrates, but was suppressed within a few weeks. More enduring was the rebellion of Cuzco from 1814 to 1815, the rebellion began in a confrontation between the Constitutional Cabildo and the Audiencia of Cuzco over the administration of the city. Cabildo officials and their allies were arrested by the Audiencia, Criollo leaders appealed to retired brigadier Mateo Pumacahua, who was curaca of Chinchero, and decades earlier had been instrumental in suppressing the rebellion of Túpac Amaru II. Pumacahua joined the Criollo leaders in forming a junta on August 3 in Cuzco, in 1814, the first expedition was successful in reconquering Chile after winning the Battle of Rancagua. In 1817 following the royalist defeat in the Battle of Chacabuco, initially it was successful in the Second Battle of Cancha Rayada, the expedition was finally defeated by José de San Martín in the Battle of Maipú. To begin the liberation of Peru, Argentina and Chile signed a treaty on February 5,1819 to prepare for the invasion, General José de San Martín believed that the liberation of Argentina wouldnt be secure until the royalist stronghold in Peru was defeated
Peruvian War of Independence
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The
Battle of Ayacucho Painting by
Antonio Herrera Toro
Peruvian War of Independence
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Mateo Pumacahua
Peruvian War of Independence
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San Martín proclaims the independence of Peru. Oil painting by
Juan Lepiani.
25.
Pampas
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These vast plains are a natural region only interrupted by the low Ventana and Tandil hills near Bahía Blanca and Tandil, with a height of 1,300 m and 500 m, respectively. The climate is warm, with precipitation of 600 to 1,200 mm, more or less evenly distributed through the year and this area is also one of the distinct physiography provinces of the larger Paraná-Paraguay Plain division. These plains contain unique wildlife because of the different terrains around it, some of this wildlife includes the rhea, the pampas deer, several species of armadillos, the pampas fox, the white-eared opossum, the elegant crested tinamou, and several other species. The climate of the Pampas is generally temperate, gradually giving way to a subtropical climate in the north. Summer temperatures are more uniform than winter temperatures, generally ranging from 28 to 33 °C during the day, however, most cities in the Pampas occasionally have high temperatures that push 38 °C. This occurs when a warm, dry, northerly wind blows from southern Brazil, autumn arrives gradually in March, and peaks in April and May. In April, highs range from 20 to 25 °C and lows from 9 to 13 °C, the first frosts arrive in mid-April in the south, and in late May or early June in the north. Winters are generally mild, although cold waves do occur, normal temperatures range from 12 to 19 °C during the day, and from 1 to 6 °C at night. With strong northerly winds, days of over 25 °C can be recorded almost everywhere, whereas during cold waves, frost occurs everywhere in the Pampas, although it is much more frequent in the southwest, and less so around the Parana and Uruguay Rivers. Temperatures under −5 °C can occur everywhere, whereas values of −10 °C or lower are confined to the south, snow never falls in the northernmost third, and is rare and light elsewhere, except for exceptional events where depths have reached 30 cm. Springs are very variable, it is warmer than fall in most areas, violent storms are more common, as well as wide temperature variations, days of 35 °C can give way to nights of under 5 °C or even frost, all within only a few days. Precipitation ranges from 1,200 mm in the northeast, to about 500 mm in the southern and western edges. In the west, it is seasonal, with some places recording averages of 120 mm monthly in the summer. The eastern areas have small peaks in the fall and in the spring, however, where summer rain falls as short, heavy storms, winter rain falls mostly as cold drizzle, so that the amount of rainy days is fairly constant. Very intense thunderstorms are common in the spring and summer, and it has among the most frequent lightning, the severe thunderstorms produce intense hailstorms, and both floods and flash floods, as well as the most consistently active tornado region outside the central and southeastern US. Frequent wildfires ensure that only small plants such as grasses flourish, the dominant vegetation types are grassy prairie and grass steppe in which numerous species of the grass genus Stipa are particularly conspicuous. Pampas grass is a species of the Pampas. Vegetation typically includes perennial grasses and herbs, different strata of grasses occur because of gradients of water availability
Pampas
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Landscape in the Pampas at eye level
Pampas
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The Pampas "
Tornado Alley " of South America. The gray zone denotes high risk, red zone denotes medium risk.
Pampas
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View of the northern Pampas grain belt
Pampas
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Lake Gómez, near
Junín, in the heart of the Pampas grain belt: The Pampa extends from the foothills of the
Andes Mountains on the west to the
Atlantic Ocean on the east. The region is peppered with finger lakes, holdovers from the last ice ages.
26.
La Paz
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La Paz, officially known as Nuestra Señora de La Paz, also named Chuqi Yapu in Aymara, is the seat of government of the Plurinational State of Bolivia. With an estimated 789,541 residents as of 2015, La Paz is the third-most populous city in Bolivia. Its metropolitan area, which is formed by La Paz, El Alto and Viacha, makes up the most populous area in Bolivia. It is also the capital of the La Paz Department, the city, located in west-central Bolivia 68 km southeast of Lake Titicaca, is set in a canyon created by the Choqueyapu River. It is located in a depression surrounded by the high mountains of the Altiplano. Overlooking the city is the towering, triple-peaked Illimani and its peaks are always snow covered and can be seen from many parts of the city. At an elevation of roughly 3,650 m above sea level, due to its altitude, La Paz has an unusual subtropical highland climate, with rainy summers and dry winters. The city was moved to its present location in the valley of Chuquiago Marka. La Paz was under Spanish colonial rule as part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, since its founding, the city was the site of numerous revolts. In 1781, the leader and independence activist Túpac Katari laid siege to the city for a total of six months. Sucre is the capital of Bolivia and retains the judicial power. The city hosts numerous foreign embassies as well as missions in the country. The city is renowned for its markets, particularly the Witches Market. Its unusual topography offers unique views of the city and the mountains of the Cordillera Real from numerous natural viewing points. La Paz is also home to both the longest and highest urban cable car network in the world, in May 2015, it was officially recognized as one of the New 7 Wonders Cities together with Beirut, Doha, Durban, Havana, Kuala Lumpur and Vigan. La Paz is listed on the Global Cities Index 2015, and is considered a city type Gamma by Globalization. This area had been the site of an Inca city, located on a trading route. Although the Spanish conquistadors entered the area in 1535, they did not found La Paz until 1548, originally it was to be at the site of the Native American settlement, Laja, with the full name of the city being Nuestra Señora de La Paz
La Paz
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Government Palace of Bolivia in downtown La Paz
La Paz
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Legislative Palace of Bolivia
La Paz
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The city in winter, with
Illimani in the background.
27.
Bolivia
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Bolivia, officially known as the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country located in western-central South America. It is bordered to the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, to the southwest by Chile, and to the northwest by Peru. One-third of the country is the Andean mountain range, with one of its largest cities and principal economic centers, El Alto, Bolivia is one of two landlocked countries that lie outside Afro-Eurasia. Bolivia is geographically the largest landlocked country in the Americas, but remains a small country in economic. Before Spanish colonization, the Andean region of Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire, Spanish conquistadors arriving from Cuzco and Asunción took control of the region in the 16th century. During the Spanish colonial period Bolivia was administered by the Royal Audiencia of Charcas, spain built its empire in great part upon the silver that was extracted from Bolivias mines. After the first call for independence in 1809,16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar, on 6 August 1825. Since independence, Bolivia has endured periods of political and economic instability, including the loss of peripheral territories to its neighbors, such as Acre. The countrys population, estimated at 11 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Mestizos, the racial and social segregation that arose from Spanish colonialism has continued to the modern era. Spanish is the official and predominant language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which the most commonly spoken are Guarani, Aymara, modern Bolivia is constitutionally a unitary state, divided into nine departments. Its geography varies from the peaks of the Andes in the West, to the Eastern Lowlands and it is a developing country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index and a poverty level of 53 percent. Its main economic activities include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and manufacturing such as textiles, clothing, refined metals. Bolivia is very wealthy in minerals, especially tin, Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar, a leader in the Spanish American wars of independence. Sucre opted to create a new nation and, with local support. The original name was Republic of Bolívar, some days later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed, If from Romulus comes Rome, then from Bolívar comes Bolivia. The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825, the region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,500 years when the Aymara arrived. However, present-day Aymara associate themselves with the ancient civilization of the Tiwanaku culture which had its capital at Tiwanaku, the capital city of Tiwanaku dates from as early as 1500 BC when it was a small, agriculturally based village. The community grew to urban proportions between AD600 and AD800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes
Bolivia
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Former President, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada
Bolivia
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Flag
Bolivia
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Current President,
Evo Morales
Bolivia
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Evo Morales' inauguration as President.
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Peruvian cities with a population of over 100,000
