1.
Swaminarayan
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Swaminarayan, also known as Sahajanand Swami, is the central figure in a modern branch of Hinduism known as Swaminarayan Hinduism. He is believed by followers as a manifestation of God, Swaminarayan was born Ghanshyam Pande in Chhapaiya, Uttar Pradesh, India in 1781. In 1792, he began a pilgrimage across India at the age of 11 years. During this journey, he did welfare activities and after 9 years and 11 months of this journey, in 1800, he was initiated into the Uddhav sampradaya by his guru, Swami Ramanand, and was given the name Sahajanand Swami. In 1802, his guru handed over the leadership of the Uddhav Sampraday to him before his death, Sahajanand Swami held a gathering and taught the Swaminarayan Mantra. From this point onwards, he was known as Swaminarayan, the Uddhav Sampraday became known as the Swaminarayan Sampraday. Swaminarayan developed a relationship with the British Raj. He had followers not only from Hindu denominations but also from Islam and he built six temples in his lifetime and appointed 500 paramahamsas to spread his philosophy. In 1826, Swaminarayan wrote the Shikshapatri, a book of social principles and he died on 1 June 1830 and was cremated according to Hindu rites in Gadhada, Gujarat. Before his death, Swaminarayan appointed his adopted nephews as acharyas to head the two dioceses of Swaminarayan Sampraday, Swaminarayan is also remembered within the sect for undertaking reforms for women and the poor, and performing yajñas on a large scale. Swaminarayan was born on 3 April 1781 in Chhapaiya, Uttar Pradesh, born into the brahmin or priestly caste of Sarvariya, Swaminarayan was named Ghanshyam Pande by his parents, Hariprasad Pande and Premvati Pande. The birth of Swaminarayan coincided with the Hindu festival of Rama Navami, the ninth lunar day in the fortnight of the waxing moon in the month of Chaitra, is celebrated as both Rama Navami and Swaminarayan Jayanti by Swaminarayan followers. This celebration also marks the beginning of a calendar for the followers. Swaminarayan had a brother, Rampratap Pande, and a younger brother. He is said to have mastered the scriptures, including the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Puranas, the Ramayana, after the death of his parents, Ghanshyam Pande left his home on 29 June 1792 at the age of 11. He took the name Nilkanth Varni while on his journey, to find such an ashram, Nilkanth Varni asked the following five questions on the basic Vaishnava Vedanta categories, What is Jiva. While on his journey, Nilkanth Varni mastered Astanga yoga in a span of 9 months under the guidance of a yogic master named Gopal Yogi. In Nepal, it is said that he met King Rana Bahadur Shah, as a result, the king freed all the ascetics he had imprisoned
2.
Pramukh Swami Maharaj
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Pramukh Swami Maharaj was the guru and Pramukh, or president, of the BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha, an international Hindu socio-spiritual organization. BAPS regards him as the spiritual successor of Swaminarayan, following Gunatitanand Swami, Bhagatji Maharaj, Shastriji Maharaj. He was believed by his followers to be in constant communion with Swaminarayan, and ontologically, the manifestation of Akshar, the eternal abode of Swaminarayan. Pramukh Swami Maharaj received initiation as a Hindu Swami in 1940 from Shastriji Maharaj, the founder of BAPS, Yogiji Maharaj declared Pramukh Swami Maharaj to be his spiritual successor and guru of BAPS, a role he commenced in 1971. He built more than 1,100 Hindu temples, including the Swaminarayan Akshardham temples in New Delhi and Gandhinagar and he had also spearheaded the efforts of BAPS Charities, which is the charitable service organization affiliated with BAPS. Pramukh Swami Maharaj is succeeded as the guru and President of the BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha by Mahant Swami Maharaj, Shantilal was born in the village of Chansad, Gujarat, on 7 December 1921. His parents, Motibhai and Diwaliben Patel, were disciples of Shastriji Maharaj, Motibhai and Diwaliben were both involved in the Swaminarayan fellowship, Diwaliben’s family’s association with the Swaminarayan fellowship extended to the time of Bhagatji Maharaj. Shastriji Maharaj had blessed young Shantilal at birth, and had told his father, This child is ours and he will lead thousands to the devotion of God. Through him, thousands will attain liberation, Shantilal’s mother described him as a calm and soft-spoken, yet energetic and active child. His childhood friends recall that Shantilal developed a reputation in the town and in school as an honest, reliable, mature, even as a child, he possessed an uncommon empathy that led others to seek out and trust his opinions and judgments in matters large and small. Shantilal was raised in a home environment, as his family was of modest means. Although he excelled in his studies, in the seventeen years he spent at home before becoming a sadhu, as he grew older, Shantilal helped his household by doing chores on the family farm. Shantilal was strongly inclined towards spirituality from a young age, upon completing his schoolwork, he would often rush off to the village’s Hanuman temple, where he and a childhood friend would listen to the discourses of a Hindu holy man named Haridas. Shantilal took his meals only after having darshan at the Swaminarayan temple and he used to meet other sadhus who passed through the village from the holy places of pilgrimage in North India. Swaminarayan sadhus, such as Ghanshyam Swami and Balmukund Swami, frequently visited Chansad and other nearby villages, as a teenager, Shantilal’s bond with Shastriji Maharaj deepened, and his devoutness and intellect impressed many in the fellowship. Many felt it was only a matter of time until Shantilal would embark upon a life by joining the order of Swaminarayan sadhus under Shastriji Maharaj. On 7 November 1939, when Shantilal was seventeen years old, he received a letter from his guru, Shastriji Maharaj and his parents gave their permission and blessings, and Shantilal left home that day to join Shastriji Maharaj and his sadhus. Shastriji Maharaj gave Shantilal primary initiation, parshad diksha, at Ambli-Vadi Pol in Ahmedabad on 22 November 1939, one of Shastriji Maharaj’s first requests to the newly initiated Shanti Bhagat was for him to study Sanskrit, Shanti Bhagat complied with this wish, and excelled in his studies
3.
Hindu temple
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A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all faiths where a specific term such as church. These include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers, the form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the house of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, the degree to which the whole population of believers can access the building varies significantly, often parts or even the whole main building can only be accessed by the clergy. Temples typically have a building and a larger precinct, which may contain many other buildings. The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest and it has the same root as the word template, a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur. Templa also became associated with the places of a god or gods. Hindu temples are large and magnificent with a rich history, there is evidence of use of sacred ground as far back as the Bronze Age and later the Indus Valley Civilization. Hindu temples have been built in countries around the world, including Cambodia, Nepal, Mauritius, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Great Britain. They include the structures called stupa, wat and pagoda in different regions, Temples in Buddhism represent the pure land or pure environment of a Buddha. Traditional Buddhist temples are designed to inspire inner and outer peace, a Jain temple is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of Jainism. Some famous Jain temples are Shikharji, Palitana Jain Temples, Ranakpur Jain Temple, Shravan Belgola, Dilwara Temples, Jain temples are built with various architectural designs. Jain temples in North India are completely different from the Jain temples in South India, additionally, a Manastambha is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. The temple of Mesopotamia derived from the cult of gods and deities in the Mesopotamian religion and it spanned several civilizations, from Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian. Ancient Egyptian temples were meant as places for the deities to reside on earth, indeed, the term the Egyptians most commonly used to describe the temple building, ḥwt-nṯr, means mansion of a god. A gods presence in the temple linked the human and divine realms and these rituals, it was believed, sustained the god and allowed it to continue to play its proper role in nature. They were therefore a key part of the maintenance of maat, maintaining maat was the entire purpose of Egyptian religion, and thus it was the purpose of a temple as well. Ancient Egyptian temples were also of significance to Egyptian society
4.
Sadhu
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In Hinduism, a sādhu is a religious ascetic or holy person. It literally means one who practises a ″sadhana″ or keenly follows a path of spiritual discipline. Although the vast majority of sādhus are yogīs, the sādhu is solely dedicated to achieving mokṣa, the fourth and final aśrama, through meditation and contemplation of Brahman. Sādhus often wear saffron-coloured clothing, symbolising their sannyāsa and this way of life is open to women, the female form of the word is sādhvī. The Sanskrit terms sādhu and sādhvī refer to renouncers who have chosen to live apart from or on the edges of society to focus on their own spiritual practices. The words come from the root sādh, which means reach ones goal, make straight, the same root is used in the word sādhanā, which means spiritual practice. It literally means one who practises a ″sadhana″ or a path of spiritual discipline, there are 4 to 5 million sadhus in India today and they are widely respected for their holiness. It is also thought that the practices of the sadhus help to burn off their karma. Thus seen as benefiting society, sadhus are supported by donations from many people, however, reverence of sadhus is by no means universal in India. Historically and contemporarily, sadhus have often been viewed with a degree of suspicion. Today, especially in popular pilgrimage cities, posing as a sadhu can be a means of acquiring income for non-devout beggars, there are naked sadhus who wear their hair in thick dreadlocks called jata. Aghori sadhus may claim to keep company with ghosts and live in cemeteries as part of their holy path, indian culture tends to emphasise an infinite number of paths to God, such that sadhus, and the varieties of tradition they continue, have their place. The plant is used during the celebration of Maha Shivaratri. Sadhus engage in a variety of religious practices. Some practice extreme asceticism while others focus on praying, chanting or meditating, less numerous are Shakta sadhus, who are devoted to Shakti. Within these general divisions are numerous sects and subsects, reflecting different lineages and philosophical schools, the Dashanami Sampradaya are Smartists, sadhus in the sect take one of the ten names as an appellation upon initiation. The sect is said to have formed by the philosopher and renunciant Adi Shankara, believed to have lived in the 8th century CE. Among them are the Naga, naked sadhu known for carrying weapons like tridents, swords, canes, said to have once functioned as an armed order to protect Hindus from the Mughal rulers, they were involved in a number of military defence campaigns. Generally in the ambit of non-violence at present, some sections are known to practice wrestling and their retreats are still called chhaavni or armed camps, and mock duels are still sometimes held between them
5.
Carrara marble
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Carrara marble is a type of white or blue-grey marble of high quality, popular for use in sculpture and building decor. It is quarried in the city of Carrara located in the province of Massa and Carrara in the Lunigiana, Carrara marble has been used since the time of Ancient Rome. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the quarries were monitored by the Cybo and Malaspina families who ruled over Massa. The family created the Office of Marble in 1564 to regulate the mining industry. The city of Massa, in particular, saw much of its plan redesigned in order to make it worthy of an Italian countrys capital, following the extinction of the Cybo-Malaspina family, the state was ruled by the House of Austria and management of the mines rested with them. The Basilica of Massa is built entirely of Carrara marble and the old Ducal Palace of Massa was used to showcase the precious stone, by the end of the 19th century, Carrara had become a cradle of anarchism in Italy, in particular among the quarry workers. According to a New York Times article of 1894, workers in the quarries were among the most neglected labourers in Italy. Many of them were ex-convicts or fugitives from justice, the work at the quarries was so tough and arduous that almost any aspirant worker with sufficient muscle and endurance was employed, regardless of their background. The quarry workers and stone carvers had radical beliefs that set apart from others. Anarchism and general radicalism became part of the heritage of the stone carvers, many violent revolutionists who had been expelled from Belgium and Switzerland went to Carrara in 1885 and founded the first anarchist group in Italy. In Carrara, the anarchist Galileo Palla remarked, “even the stones are anarchists. ”The quarry workers were the protagonists of the Lunigiana revolt in January 1894. It was unveiled by future UK Prime Minister Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery on 6 April 1882. Marble Arch, London Some sections of the Palace of the Marqués de Dos Aguas, Valencia, Spain Prem Mandir, Vrindavan, Uttar Pradesh, India Duomo di Siena, Siena, the Carrara quarries have produced more marble than any other place on earth. Working the quarries has been dangerous and continues so to this day, in September 1911, a collapsing cliff face at the Bettogli Quarry crushed 10 workers who were on lunch break under a precipice. A2014 video made at a Carrara quarry shows workers with missing fingers, the prized yield from Carrara quarries through millennia has been Statuario, a pure white marble. However, by the end of the 20th century, the deposits of Statuario near Carrara are played out. The quarries continue to remove and ship up to a million tons/year of less-esteemed marble, calcite, obtained from an 80 kg sample of Carrara marble, is used as the IAEA-603 isotopic standard in mass spectrometry for the calibration of δ18O and δ13C. List of types of marble Lizza di Piastreta Marmifera di Carrara railway Lardo, the Economy of Renaissance Florence, JHU Press, ISBN0801889820 Newman, Cathy
6.
Limestone
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Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate, about 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778, like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts and these organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragment, some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i. e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters and this produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular appearance, the primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments, calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits a characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Impurities will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces, Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock, when conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly there are waterfalls. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls, coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the building process, limestone recrystallizes into marble
7.
Gujarati people
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Gujarati people or Gujaratis are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of India that traditionally speaks Gujarati, an Indo-Aryan language. Albeit with huge migration for economic reasons, most Gujaratis in India live in the state of Gujarat in Western India, Gujaratis also form a significant part of the populations in the small union territories of Daman and Diu, and Dadra Nagar Haveli, both being former Portuguese colonies. There are very large Gujarati immigrant communities in parts of India, most notably in Mumbai, Delhi, Calcutta, Madras, Bangalore and other metropolitan areas like Kollam. Diasporas and transnational networks in many of these date back to more than a century. In recent decades, larger numbers of Gujaratis have migrated to English speaking countries such as the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Early European travelers like Ludovico di Varthema traveled to Gujarat and wrote on the people of Gujarat. He noted that Jainism had a presence in Gujarat and opined that Gujaratis were deprived of their kingdom by Mughals because of their kind heartedness. This led to religious interdependence, tolerance, assimilation and community cohesion ultimately becoming the hallmark of modern-day Gujarati society, the Gujarati people are predominantly Hindu. There are also significant populations of Muslims, Christians and Jains, and minor populations of Buddhists, Zoroastrians, Sikhs, the major communities that Gujaratis belong to are Brahmins, Rajputs, Vaishyas, Patidars, Ahirs, Maldharis and Lohana. Today, Gujaratis can be found in all inhabited continents of the world, the countries with the largest Gujarati populations are Pakistan, United Kingdom, United States, Canada and many countries in Southern and East Africa. Globally, Gujaratis are estimated to comprise around 33% of the Indian diaspora worldwide, non Resident Gujaratis maintain active links with the homeland in the form of business, remittance, philanthropy, and through their political contribution to state governed domestic affairs. The second largest overseas diaspora of Gujaratis, after Pakistan, is in the UK, at a population of around 615,000 Gujaratis form almost half of the Indian community who live in the UK. Gujaratis first went to the UK in the 19th century with the establishment of the British Raj in India, prominent members of this community such as Shyamji Krishna Varma played a vital role in exerting political pressure upon colonial powers during the struggle for Indian Independence. Now this community is mostly the second and third generation descendants of immigrants from the former British colonies of East Africa, Portugal. Most of them despite being British Subjects had restricted access to Britain after successive Immigration acts of 1962,1968 and 1971. Most were, however, eventually admitted on the basis of a Quota voucher system or, in case of Uganda, as refugees after the order by the Ugandan ruler. Gujaratis in Britain are regarded as affluent middle-class peoples who have assimilated into the milieu of British society and they are celebrated for revolutionizing the corner shop, and energising the British economy which changed Britains antiquated retail laws forever. Demographically, Hindus form a majority along with a significant number of Jains and Muslims and they are predominantly settled in metropolitan areas like Greater London, East Midlands, West Midlands, Lancashire and Yorkshire. Cities with significant Gujarati populations include Leicester and London boroughs of Brent, Barnet, Harrow, both Hindus and Muslims have established caste or community associations, temples, and mosques to cater for the needs of their respective communities
8.
Haveli
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Haveli is generic term used for a traditional townhouse and mansions in India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh usually one with historical and architectural significance. The word haveli is derived from Arabic haveli, meaning partition or private space popularised under Mughal Empire and was devoid of any architectural affiliations. Later, the word came to be used as generic term for various styles of regional mansions, townhouse and temples found in India, Pakistan, Nepal. The traditional courtyard homes in South Asia is built on the ancient principles of Vastu Shastra, which state that all spaces emerge from a single point, that is the centre of the house. Courtyards are common feature in south Asian architecture, the earliest archaeological evidence of courtyard homes in the region dates back to 2600–2450 BCE. Traditional homes in South Asia are built around courtyard and all family activities revolved around chowk or courtyard, additionally, the courtyard serves as a light well and an effective ventilation strategy for hot and dry climates of South Asia. During medieval period, the term Haveli was first applied in Rajputana by the Vaishnava sect to refer to their temples in Gujarat under the Mughal Empire, later, the generic term haveli eventually came to be identified with townhouse and mansions of the merchant class. Socio-Cultural Aspects, The chowk or courtyard served as the centre for various ceremonies, the sacred tulsi plant was placed here and worshipped daily to bring prosperity to the house. Security and Privacy, The chowk, at times, separated areas for men and women, climate, Treating open space in building design to respond to the local climate. Air movement caused by temperature differences is utilized in the ventilation of building. Different Activities At Different Times, The use of the court in the day time, mostly by women to carry out their work, mansions of merchant class had more than one courtyard. Articulation Of Space, In Mor chowk, City Palace, Udaipur, similarly, in havelis, a courtyard has several functions, commonly used for weddings and festive occasions. Materials, baked bricks, sandstone, marble, wood, plaster, decorative aspects are influenced by various local culture and traditions. All these elements join to form an enclosure and give the chowk a composed secured feel, the architectural built form of havelis has evolved in response to the climate, lifestyle and availability of material. In hot climates where cooling is a necessity, buildings with courtyards were considered the most appropriate. It acted as a perfect shading technique, while allowing light inside. The arcade along the court, or the wall around it. Many of the havelis of India and Pakistan were influenced by Rajasthani architecture and they usually contain a courtyard often with a fountain in the centre
9.
Sardinia
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Sardinia is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and an autonomous region of Italy. It is located in the Western Mediterranean, just south of the French island of Corsica, the regions official name is Regione Autonoma della Sardegna / Regione Autònoma de Sardigna, and its capital and largest city is Cagliari. It is divided into four provinces and a metropolitan city and its indigenous language and the other minority languages spoken by the Sardinians enjoy equal dignity with Italian under regional law. The name Sardinia is from the pre-Roman noun *srd-, later romanised as sardus and it makes its first appearance on the Nora Stone, where the word Šrdn testifies to the names existence when the Phoenician merchants first arrived. According to Timaeus, one of Platos dialogues, Sardinia and its people as well might have named after Sardò. There has also been speculation that identifies the ancient Nuragic Sards with the Sherden, in Classical antiquity, Sardinia was called Ichnusa, Σανδάλιον Sandal, Sardinia and Sardó. Sardinia is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 24,100 square kilometres and it is situated between 38°51 and 41°18 latitude north and 8°8 and 9°50 east longitude. To the west of Sardinia is the Sea of Sardinia, a unit of the Mediterranean Sea, to Sardinias east is the Tyrrhenian Sea, the nearest land masses are the island of Corsica, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Tunisia, the Balearic Islands, and Provence. The Tyrrhenian Sea portion of the Mediterranean Sea is directly to the east of Sardinia between the Sardinian east coast and the west coast of the Italian mainland peninsula, the Strait of Bonifacio is directly north of Sardinia and separates Sardinia from the French island of Corsica. The island has an ancient geoformation and, unlike Sicily and mainland Italy, is not earthquake-prone and its rocks date in fact from the Palaeozoic Era. Due to long erosion processes, the highlands, formed of granite, schist, trachyte, basalt, sandstone and dolomite limestone. The highest peak is Punta La Marmora, part of the Gennargentu Ranges in the centre of the island. The islands ranges and plateaux are separated by wide valleys and flatlands. Sardinia has few rivers, the largest being the Tirso,151 km long, which flows into the Sea of Sardinia, the Coghinas. There are 54 artificial lakes and dams that supply water and electricity, the main ones are Lake Omodeo and Lake Coghinas. The only natural lake is Lago di Baratz. A number of large, shallow, salt-water lagoons and pools are located along the 1,850 km of the coastline, the climate of the island is variable from area to area, due to several factors including the extension in latitude and the elevation. During the year there is a concentration of rainfall in the winter and autumn, some heavy showers in the spring
10.
Murti
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A Murti literally means any form, embodiment or solid object, and typically refers to an image, statue or idol of a deity or person in Indian culture. By the Prana Pratishtha ceremony, the idol becomes identical with the deity, murtis are also found in some nontheistic Jainism traditions, where they serve as symbols of revered persons inside Jain temples, and are worshipped in Murtipujaka rituals. A Murti is typically made by carving stone, wood working, medieval era texts describing their proper proportions, positions and gestures include the Puranas, Agamas and Samhitas. The expressions in a Murti vary in diverse Hindu traditions, ranging from Ugra symbolism to express destruction, fear and violence, as well as Saumya symbolism to express joy, knowledge, Saumya images are most common in Hindu temples. Other Murti forms found in Hinduism include the Linga, a Murti is an embodiment of the divine, the Ultimate Reality or Brahman to some Hindus. In religious context, they are found in Hindu temples or homes, in other occasions, it serves as the center of attention in annual festive processions and these are called Utsava Murti. Murti is sometimes referred to as murthi, or vigraha or pratima, Murti literally means any solid body or form with definite shape or limits produced from material elements. It contrasts with mind, thought and the immaterial in ancient Indian literature, the term also refers to any embodiment, manifestation, incarnation, personification, appearance, image, idol or statue of a deity. For example, the Maitrayaniya Upanishad uses the term to mean a form, non-Time is indivisible, Time is divisible, and the Maitri Upanishad then asserts that Year is the Murti of time. Robert Hume translates the discussion of Murti of time, in verse 6.14 of the Maitri Upanishad, as form. Most scholars, such as Jan Gonda, Max Muller, PV Kane and Stephanie Jamison, the Vedic Hinduism rituals were directed at nature and abstract deities called during yajna with hymns. However, there isnt universal consensus, with such as AC Das. This word may refer to Deva who is fixed or Deva who is foolish, one of the earliest firm textual evidence of Deva images, in the sense of Murti, is found in Jivikarthe Capanye by the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini who lived about 4th century BCE. He mentions Acala and Cala, with former referring to images in a shrine, in ancient Sanskrit texts that follow Paninis work, numerous references are found to divine images with terms such as Devagrha, Devagara, Devakula, Devayatana and others. These texts, states Noel Salmond, strongly suggest that temples, recent archaeological evidence confirms that the knowledge and art of sculpture was established in India by the Maurya Empire period. The term Murti has been a generic term referring to an idol or statue of anyone, either a deity, of any human being. Pratima includes Murti as well as painting of any non-anthropomorphic object, in contrast, Bera or Bimba meant idol of god only, and Vigraha was synonymous with Bimba. A Murti in contemporary usage is any image or statue and it may be found inside or outside a temple or home, installed to be moved with a festive procession, or just be a landmark
11.
Ashram
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Traditionally, an ashram is a spiritual hermitage or a monastery in Indian religions. The word ashram comes from the Sanskrit root śram- which means to toil, according to S. S. Chandra, the term means a step in the journey of life. In contrast, according to George Weckman, the term ashram connotes a place where one strives towards a goal in a disciplined manner, such a goal could be ascetic, spiritual, yogic or any other. The residents of an ashram regularly performed spiritual and physical exercises, other sacrifices and penances, such as yajnas were also performed. Many ashrams also served as gurukulas, residential schools for children under the guru-shishya tradition, sometimes, the goal of a pilgrimage to the ashram was not tranquility, but instruction in some art, especially warfare. In the Ramayana, the protagonist princes of ancient Ayodhya, Rama and Lakshmana, after they prove their mettle, the princes receive martial instruction from the sage, especially in the use of divine weapons. In the Mahabharata, Krishna, in his youth, goes to the ashram of Sandipani to gain knowledge of intellectual and spiritual matters. Residential schools, especially in the areas of Maharashtra and elsewhere in India, are called ashram shala or ashram schools. One such school is the Lok Biradari Prakalp Ashram Shala, in recent years, a number of ashrams have been established outside of India. Typically, these ashrams are connected to Indian lineages, focus on imparting Yoga-related teachings and are headed by spiritual teachers
12.
Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
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