1.
Wilhelmshaven
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Wilhelmshaven is a coastal town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated on the side of the Jade Bight. Wilhelmshaven is the centre of the JadeBay business region, the adjacent Lower Saxony Wadden Sea National Park provides the basis for the major tourism industry in the region. The Siebethsburg castle, built before 1383, operated as a pirate stronghold, four centuries later, the Kingdom of Prussia planned a fleet and a harbour on the North Sea.13 square kilometres of its territory at the Jade Bight to Prussia. In 1869 King William I of Prussia founded the town as an exclave of the Province of Hanover, all the hinterland of the city remained as part of the Duchy of Oldenburg. A shipbuilding yard developed at Wilhelmshaven, the Kaiserliche Werft Wilhelmshaven, on 30 June 1934 the pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee was launched at Wilhelmshaven. In 1937 Wilhelmshaven and Rüstringen merged and the city, named Wilhelmshaven. In World War II, Allied bombing destroyed two thirds of the towns buildings, on 28 April 1945, the Canadian First Army captured Emden and Wilhelmshaven, Germany, and took the surrender of the entire garrison, including some 200 ships of the Kriegsmarine. The Poles remained as part of the occupation forces until 1947. During World War II Alter Banter Weg functioned as a subcamp of the Neuengamme concentration camp, in 1947 the city council decided to seek a new emblem for the city. Between 1947 and 1972 Wilhelmshaven was the home of PRINCE RUPERT SCHOOL, the school relocated to Rinteln in 1972. There is an association of former Wilhelmshaven pupils called The Wilhelmshaven Association. Wilhelmshaven is Germanys only deep-water port, and its largest naval base, the benefits of the deep shipping channel were already recognised at the end of the 1950s with the construction of the first oil tanker jetty. Wilhelmshaven has been the most important German import terminal for crude oil ever since, pipelines from here supply refineries in the Rhine-Ruhr region and Hamburg. Other major business operations followed, and constructed jetties for crude oil and oil products, coal, the JadeWeserPort – Container Terminal Wilhelmshaven and the development of the neighbouring Freight Village provide prospects for employment in areas such as logistics and distribution. Another element of the Wilhelmshaven energy hub programme is the chemical industry, the German defence forces together with the public sector, are the main pillars of the local employment market. The Jadestadion, the stadium of Regionalliga Nord club SV Wilhelmshaven Aquarium Wilhelmshaven, located on the Helgolandkai – a view of the oceans, the Botanischer Garten der Stadt Wilhelmshaven, a municipal botanical garden. UNESCO World Heritage Site Wadden Sea Visitor center, the large permanent interactive exhibition provides insight into the wadden sea environment
2.
Sachsen-class frigate
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The F124 Sachsen class is Germanys latest class of highly advanced air-defense frigates. The design of the Sachsen-class frigate is based on that of the F123 Brandenburg class but with enhanced stealth features designed to deceive an opponents radar and acoustic sensors. The class incorporates an advanced multifunction radar APAR and a SMART-L long-range radar which is purported to be capable of detecting stealth aircraft, although designated as frigates, they are comparable to destroyers in capability and size and were intended to replace the Navys Lütjens class. The German government contracted for three ships in June 1996 with an option on a fourth that was provisionally to have been named Thüringen, at €2.1 billion for the three ships, the class was one of the most expensive ship building programs of the German Navy. The Sachsen class was the group of frigates to be built in the post-unification era. The three Sachsens were ordered to replace the old Lütjens-class destroyers that were then over thirty years old, the ships of the Sachsen class are 132.15 meters long at the waterline and 143 m long overall. They have a beam of 17.44 m and a draft of 5 m and they displace 5,690 long tons at full load. Steering is controlled by a single roll-stabilized rudder, the ships have a radius of 570 m. The frigates have a crew of 38 officers,64 petty officers and they have accommodations for an additional thirteen officers and sailors as part of a squadron commanders staff, and they have crew provisions for female sailors. The ships can remain at sea for 21 days at a time, the primary improvement over the earlier vessels is the significantly reduced radar signature. The ships were designed with a capacity for an extra 270 long tons of weight, to allow for additions of new weapons. The ships of the Sachsen class are equipped with a combined diesel, the two operating shafts work independently. The diesel engines are installed in a non-walkable sound-proof capsule, the shafts drive two five-bladed variable-pitch propellers. The General Electric LM2500 PF/MLG gas turbine is rated at 31,500 shaft horsepower and the MTU 20V1163 TB93 diesels provide a combined 20,100 brake horsepower. The total 51,600 hp propulsion system provides a top speed of 29 knots, while operating the diesels only, the ships are equipped with four 1,000 Kilowatt diesel generators that operate at 400 Volts and 115 V. These ships were optimized for the anti-air warfare role, the primary anti-air weapons are the 32-cell Mk 41 Mod 10 vertical launching system, equipped with twenty-four SM-2 Block IIIA missiles and thirty-two Evolved Sea Sparrow missiles. Point-defense against cruise missiles is provided by a pair of 21-round Rolling Airframe Missile launchers, the ships are also equipped with two four-cell RGM-84 Harpoon anti-ship missile launchers. For defense against submarines, the frigates carry two triple-launchers for the 324 mm MU90 Impact torpedoes, the ships also carry a variety of guns, including one dual-purpose 62-caliber 76-millimeter gun manufactured by OTO Melara
3.
Frigate
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A frigate /ˈfrɪɡᵻt/ is any of several types of warship, the term having been used for ships of various sizes and roles over the last few centuries. In the 17th century, this term was used for any warship built for speed and maneuverability and these could be warships carrying their principal batteries of carriage-mounted guns on a single deck or on two decks. The term was used for ships too small to stand in the line of battle. In the late 19th century, the frigate was a type of ironclad warship that for a time was the most powerful type of vessel afloat. The term frigate was used because such ships still mounted their principal armaments on a continuous upper deck. Ship classes dubbed frigates have more closely resembled corvettes, destroyers, cruisers. The rank frigate captain derives from the name of type of ship. The term frigate originated in the Mediterranean in the late 15th century, referring to a lighter galleass type ship with oars, sails and a light armament, built for speed and maneuverability. The etymology of the word is unknown, although it may have originated as a corruption of aphractus, aphractus was, in turn, derived from the Ancient Greek phrase ἄφρακτος ναῦς, or undefended ship. In 1583, during the Eighty Years War, Habsburg Spain recovered the Southern Netherlands from the rebellious Dutch and this soon led to the occupied ports being used as bases for privateers, the Dunkirkers, to attack the shipping of the Dutch and their allies. To achieve this they developed small, maneuverable, sailing vessels that came to be referred to as frigates, in French, the term frigate became a verb, meaning to build long and low, and an adjective, adding further confusion. Even the huge English Sovereign of the Seas could be described as a frigate by a contemporary after her upper decks were reduced in 1651. The navy of the Dutch Republic was the first navy to build the larger ocean-going frigates, the first two tasks required speed, shallowness of draft for the shallow waters around the Netherlands, and the ability to carry sufficient supplies to maintain a blockade. The third task required heavy armament, sufficient to fight against the Spanish fleet, the first of these larger battle-capable frigates were built around 1600 at Hoorn in Holland. The effectiveness of the Dutch frigates became most visible in the Battle of the Downs in 1639, encouraging most other navies, especially the English, to adopt similar designs. The fleets built by the Commonwealth of England in the 1650s generally consisted of ships described as frigates, the largest of which were two-decker great frigates of the third rate. Carrying 60 guns, these vessels were as big and capable as great ships of the time, however, most other frigates at the time were used as cruisers, independent fast ships. The term frigate implied a long hull design, which relates directly to speed and also, in turn, in Danish, the word fregat is often applied to warships carrying as few as 16 guns, such as HMS Falcon which the British classified as a sloop
4.
Gas turbine
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A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a turbine. The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of the power plant except that the working fluid is air instead of water. Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it to higher pressure, energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so the combustion generates a high-temperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands down to the exhaust pressure, the turbine shaft work is used to drive the compressor and other devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft. The energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in the exhaust gases, the purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most desirable energy form is maximized. Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators,50, Heros Engine — Apparently, Heros steam engine was taken to be no more than a toy, and thus its full potential not realized for centuries. 1000, The Trotting Horse Lamp was used by the Chinese at lantern fairs as early as the Northern Song dynasty. When the lamp is lit, the heated airflow rises and drives an impeller with horse-riding figures attached on it,1629, Jets of steam rotated an impulse turbine that then drove a working stamping mill by means of a bevel gear, developed by Giovanni Branca. 1678, Ferdinand Verbiest built a model carriage relying on a jet for power. 1791, A patent was given to John Barber, an Englishman and his invention had most of the elements present in the modern day gas turbines. The turbine was designed to power a horseless carriage,1861, British patent no.1633 was granted to Marc Antoine Francois Mennons for a Caloric engine. The patent shows that it was a gas turbine and the show it applied to a locomotive. Also named in the patent was Nicolas de Telescheff, a Russian aviation pioneer,1872, A gas turbine engine was designed by Franz Stolze, but the engine never ran under its own power. 1894, Sir Charles Parsons patented the idea of propelling a ship with a turbine, and built a demonstration vessel. This principle of propulsion is still of some use,1895, Three 4-ton 100 kW Parsons radial flow generators were installed in Cambridge Power Station, and used to power the first electric street lighting scheme in the city. 1899, Charles Gordon Curtis patented the first gas engine in the USA. 1900, Sanford Alexander Moss submitted a thesis on gas turbines, in 1903, Moss became an engineer for General Electrics Steam Turbine Department in Lynn, Massachusetts
5.
Electric motor
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An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
6.
Drive shaft
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As torque carriers, drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the difference between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be enough to bear the stress, whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia. The term drive shaft first appeared during the mid 19th century, in Stovers 1861 patent reissue for a planing and matching machine, the term is used to refer to the belt-driven shaft by which the machine is driven. The term is not used in his original patent, another early use of the term occurs in the 1861 patent reissue for the Watkins and Bryson horse-drawn mowing machine. Here, the term refers to the transmitting power from the machines wheels to the gear train that works the cutting mechanism. In the 1890s, the term began to be used in a closer to the modern sense. In 1899, Bukey used the term to describe the shaft transmitting power from the wheel to the machinery by a universal joint in his Horse-Power. In the same year, Clark described his Marine Velocipede using the term to refer to the shaft transmitting power through a universal joint to the propeller shaft. Crompton used the term to refer to the shaft between the transmission of his steam-powered Motor Vehicle of 1903 and the driven axle, an automobile may use a longitudinal shaft to deliver power from an engine/transmission to the other end of the vehicle before it goes to the wheels. A pair of short drive shafts is commonly used to power from a central differential, transmission. In front-engined, rear-drive vehicles, a drive shaft is also required to send power the length of the vehicle. Two forms dominate, The torque tube with a universal joint. This system became known as Système Panhard after the automobile company Panhard et Levassor patented it, most of these vehicles have a clutch and gearbox mounted directly on the engine, with a drive shaft leading to a final drive in the rear axle. When the vehicle is stationary, the drive shaft does not rotate, some vehicles, seeking improved weight balance between front and rear, use a rear-mounted transaxle. This places the clutch and transmission at the rear of the car, in this case the drive shaft rotates continuously with the engine, even when the car is stationary and out of gear. A drive shaft connecting a rear differential to a wheel may be called a half-shaft. The name derives from the fact that two such shafts are required to one rear axle. Early automobiles often used chain drive or belt drive mechanisms rather than a drive shaft, some used electrical generators and motors to transmit power to the wheels
7.
Containerization
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Containerization is a system of intermodal freight transport using intermodal containers made of weathering steel. The handling system is completely mechanized so that all handling is done with cranes, all containers are numbered and tracked using computerized systems. The system, developed after World War II, dramatically reduced the costs of transport, supported the boom in international trade. Containerization did away with the sorting of most shipments and the need for warehousing. It displaced many thousands of workers who formerly handled break bulk cargo. Containerization also reduced congestion in ports, significantly shortened shipping time and reduced losses from damage, before containerization, goods were usually handled manually as break bulk cargo. Typically, goods would be loaded onto a vehicle from the factory, when the vessel arrived, they would be moved to the side of the ship along with other cargo to be lowered or carried into the hold and packed by dock workers. The ship might call at other ports before off-loading a given consignment of cargo. Each port visit would delay the delivery of other cargo, delivered cargo might then have been offloaded into another warehouse before being picked up and delivered to its destination. Multiple handling and delays made transport costly, time consuming and unreliable, containerization has its origins in early coal mining regions in England beginning in the late 18th century. In 1766 James Brindley designed the box boat Starvationer with 10 wooden containers, in 1795, Benjamin Outram opened the Little Eaton Gangway, upon which coal was carried in wagons built at his Butterley Ironwork. The horse-drawn wheeled wagons on the gangway took the form of containers, which, loaded coal, could be transshipped from canal barges on the Derby Canal. By the 1830s, railroads on several continents were carrying containers that could be transferred to other modes of transport, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in the United Kingdom was one of these. Simple rectangular timber boxes, four to a wagon, they were used to convey coal from the Lancashire collieries to Liverpool, originally used for moving coal on and off barges, loose boxes were used to containerize coal from the late 1780s, at places like the Bridgewater Canal. By the 1840s, iron boxes were in use as well as wooden ones, the early 1900s saw the adoption of closed container boxes designed for movement between road and rail. Later in 1919, his system was extended to over 200 containers serving 21 railway stations with 14 freight trucks, prior to the Second World War, many European countries independently developed container systems. In 1919, Stanisław Rodowicz, an engineer, developed the first draft of the system in Poland. In 1920, he built a prototype of the biaxial wagon, the Polish-Bolshevik War stopped development of the container system in Poland
8.
Active electronically scanned array
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AESAs main use is in radar, and these are known as active phased array radar. The AESA is an advanced, sophisticated, second-generation of the original PESA phased array technology. PESAs can only emit a beam of radio waves at a single frequency at a time. The AESA can radiate multiple beams of radio waves at multiple frequencies simultaneously, most of the radar systems used in modern combat aircraft are AESA systems. Bell Labs proposed replacing the Nike Zeus radars with a phased array system in 1960, the result was the Zeus Multi-function Array Radar, an early example of an active electronically steered array radar system. MAR was made of a number of small antennas, each one connected to a separate computer-controlled transmitter or receiver. MAR allowed the battle over a wide space to be controlled from a single site. Each MAR, and its associated battle center, would process tracks for hundreds of targets, the system would then select the most appropriate battery for each one, and hand off particular targets for them to attack. One battery would normally be associated with the MAR, while others would be distributed around it, remote batteries were equipped with a much simpler radar whose primary purpose was to track the outgoing Sprint missiles before they became visible to the potentially distant MAR. These smaller Missile Site Radars were passively scanned, forming only a single instead of the MARs multiple beams. First Soviet APA radar was developed in 1963-1965 as a part of S-225 ABM system, after some modifications in the system concept in 1967 it was built at Sary Shagan Test Range in 1970-1971 and nicknamed Flat Twin in the West. Four years later another radar of this design was built on Kura Test Range, the first military ground-based AESA was the J/FPS-3 which became fully operational with the 45th Aircraft Control and Warning Group of the Japan Self-Defense Forces in 1995. The first series production ship-based AESA was the OPS-24 Fire-control radar introduced on the Asagiri-class destroyer DD-155 Hamagiri launched in 1988, the first airborne series production AESA was the EL/M-2075 Phalcon on a Chilean Air Force Boeing 707 that entered service in 1994. The first AESA on an aircraft was the J/APG-1 introduced on the Mitsubishi F-2 in 1995. The first AESA on a missile is the head for the AAM-4B air-to-air missile. US based manufacturers of the AESA radars used in the F-22 and Super Hornet include Northrop Grumman and these companies also design, develop and manufacture the transmit/receive modules which comprise the building blocks of an AESA radar. The requisite electronics technology was developed in-house via Department of Defense research programs such as MMIC Program, Radar systems generally work by connecting an antenna to a powerful radio transmitter to emit a short pulse of signal. The transmitter is disconnected and the antenna is connected to a sensitive receiver which amplifies any echos from target objects
9.
Radar
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Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, Radio waves from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver, giving information about the objects location and speed. Radar was developed secretly for military use by several nations in the period before, the term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging or RAdio Direction And Ranging. The term radar has since entered English and other languages as a common noun, high tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing, machine learning and are capable of extracting useful information from very high noise levels. Other systems similar to make use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. One example is lidar, which uses ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared light from lasers rather than radio waves, as early as 1886, German physicist Heinrich Hertz showed that radio waves could be reflected from solid objects. In 1895, Alexander Popov, an instructor at the Imperial Russian Navy school in Kronstadt. The next year, he added a spark-gap transmitter, in 1897, while testing this equipment for communicating between two ships in the Baltic Sea, he took note of an interference beat caused by the passage of a third vessel. In his report, Popov wrote that this phenomenon might be used for detecting objects, the German inventor Christian Hülsmeyer was the first to use radio waves to detect the presence of distant metallic objects. In 1904, he demonstrated the feasibility of detecting a ship in dense fog and he obtained a patent for his detection device in April 1904 and later a patent for a related amendment for estimating the distance to the ship. He also got a British patent on September 23,1904 for a radar system. It operated on a 50 cm wavelength and the radar signal was created via a spark-gap. In 1915, Robert Watson-Watt used radio technology to advance warning to airmen. Watson-Watt became an expert on the use of direction finding as part of his lightning experiments. As part of ongoing experiments, he asked the new boy, Arnold Frederic Wilkins, Wilkins made an extensive study of available units before selecting a receiver model from the General Post Office. Its instruction manual noted that there was fading when aircraft flew by, in 1922, A. Hoyt Taylor and Leo C. Taylor submitted a report, suggesting that this might be used to detect the presence of ships in low visibility, eight years later, Lawrence A. Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa followed prewar Great Britain, and Hungary had similar developments during the war. Hugon, began developing a radio apparatus, a part of which was installed on the liner Normandie in 1935
10.
Identification friend or foe
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Identification, friend or foe is an identification system designed for command and control. It enables military and national interrogation systems to identify aircraft, vehicles or forces as friendly and to determine their bearing, IFF may be used by both military and civilian aircraft. IFF was first developed during the Second World War, with the arrival of radar, despite the name, IFF can only positively identify friendly targets, not hostile ones. If an IFF interrogation receives no reply or a reply, the object cannot be identified as friendly. There are in addition many reasons that friendly aircraft may not properly reply to IFF, the broadest characterization is that of friend, enemy, neutral, or unknown. CID not only can reduce friendly fire incidents, but also contributes to overall tactical decision-making and this led to incidents such as the battle of Barking Creek, over Britain, and the air attack on the fortress of Koepenick, over Germany. Already before the deployment of their Chain Home radar system, the RAF had considered the problem of IFF, robert Watson-Watt had filed patents on such systems in 1935 and 1936 respectively. By 1938, researchers at Bawdsey Manor began experiments with reflectors consisting of a dipole antennas tuned to resonate at the frequency of the CH radars. When a pulse from the CH transmitter hit the aircraft, the antennas would resonate for a short time, the antenna was connected to a motorized switch that periodically shorted it out, preventing it from producing a signal. This caused the return on the CH set to periodically lengthen and shorten as the antenna was turned on and off. It was suspected this system would be of use in practice. This consisted of a set of tracking stations using HF/DF radio direction finders and their aircraft radios were modified to send out a 1 kHz tone for 14 seconds every minute, allowing the tracking stations ample time to measure the aircrafts bearing. Known as pip-squeak, the system worked but was labour-intensive and did not display its information directly to the radar operators, a system that worked directly with the radar was clearly desirable. The first active IFF transponder was the IFF Mark I and was put into operation in 1939, on receipt of a signal from the CH radar, an oscillator in the system began to ring with the same frequency. This signal was amplified and sent out an omnidirectional monopole antenna, the oscillator circuit rang only for a short time, causing the signal to quickly disappear again. Since the signal was received at the time as the original reflection of the CH signal. Mark I was technically complete as the war began, but a lack of sets meant it was not available in quantity, pip-squeak was kept in operation during this period, but as the Battle ended, IFF Mark I was quickly put into operation. Pip-squeak was still used for areas over land where CH did not cover, the primary problem with the Mark I was that it operated at a single set frequency
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German Navy