1.
Imperial German Navy
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The Imperial German Navy was the navy created at the time of the formation of the German Empire. It existed between 1871 and 1919, growing out of the small Prussian Navy, which primarily had the mission of coastal defence, Kaiser Wilhelm II greatly expanded the navy, and enlarged its mission. The key leader was Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, who expanded the size and quality of the navy. The result was an arms race with Britain as the German navy grew to become one of the greatest maritime forces in the world. The German surface navy proved ineffective during World War I, its only major engagement, however, the submarine fleet was greatly expanded and posed a major threat to the British supply system. The Imperial Navys main ships were turned over to the Allies, all ships of the Imperial Navy were designated SMS, for Seiner Majestät Schiff. The Imperial Navy achieved some important operational feats, the Navy also emerged from the fleet action of the Battle of Jutland having destroyed more ships than it lost, although the strategic value of both of these encounters was minimal. The Imperial Navy was the first to operate successfully on a large scale in wartime, with 375 submarines commissioned by the end of the First World War. The unification of Germany under Prussian leadership was the point for the creation of the Imperial Navy in 1871. The newly created emperor, Wilhelm I, as King of Prussia, had previously been head of state of the strongest state forming part of the new empire, supreme command was vested in the emperor, but its first appointed chief was General der Infanterie Albrecht von Stosch. Kiel on the Baltic Sea and Wilhelmshaven on the North Sea served as the Navys principal naval bases, the former Navy Ministry became the Imperial Admiralty on 1 February 1872, while Stosch became formally an admiral in 1875. Initially the main task of the new Imperial Navy was coastal protection, with France, the Imperial Navys tasks were then to prevent any invasion force from landing and to protect coastal towns from possible bombardment. In March 1872 a German Imperial Naval Academy was created at Kiel for training officers, followed in May by the creation of a Machine Engineer Corps, in July 1879 a separate Torpedo Engineer Corps was created dealing with torpedoes and mines. In May 1872 a ten-year building programme was instituted to modernise the fleet, the building plan had to be approved by the Reichstag, which controlled the allocation of funds, although one-quarter of the money came from French war reparations. In 1883 Stosch was replaced by general, Count Leo von Caprivi. At this point the navy had seven armoured frigates and four armoured corvettes,400 officers and 5,000 ratings, in October 1887 the first torpedo division was created at Wilhelmshaven and the second torpedo division based at Kiel. In 1887 Caprivi requested the construction of ten armoured frigates, greater importance was placed at this time on development of the army, which was expected to be more important in any war. This shortened the journey for commercial ships, but specifically united the two areas principally of concern to the German navy, at a cost of 150 million marks, later, the protection of German maritime trade routes became important
2.
Reichsmarine
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The Reichsmarine was the name of the German Navy during the Weimar Republic and first two years of Nazi Germany. It was the branch of the Reichswehr, existing from 1919 to 1935. In 1935, it known as the Kriegsmarine, a branch of the Wehrmacht. Many of the administrative and organizational tenets of the Reichsmarine were then carried over into the organization of the Kriegsmarine, the Vorläufige Reichsmarine was formed after the end of World War I from the Imperial German Navy. Replacements for the battleships were restricted to a maximum size of 10,000 tons. The Reichsmarine was considered the naval force of the Reichswehrministerium which was headed by a civilian minister appointed by the government of the Weimar Republic. The senior most naval officer was known until 1920 as the Chef der Admiralität, the naval commander oversaw a headquarters office known as the Marinekommandiertenabteilung which was headquartered in Berlin. The Naval Command also maintained a headquarters office and a naval archives. During the 1920s, the German flagship was the SMS Schleswig-Holstein with two officers serving as fleet commander, Vizeadmiral Hans Zenker and Konrad Mommsen, between 1923 and 1927. The fleet commander position was left vacant, but the flag staff remained. The purpose of fleet command was to oversee the four major type commanders of German naval vessels and these commands were in turn responsible for the administration of various German ship classes to include equipment development, vessel deployments, and personnel assignment. Once at sea, operational control of the vessels switched to the commanders of the two main Naval Sea Stations, the Reichsmarine did not maintain traditional at-sea fleets, but instead assigned two geographical areas which oversaw all vessels operationally deployed in the North and Baltic Seas. Each naval station maintained a staff, general naval inspectorate, training department, artillery arsenal inspector. The naval stations also served as an officer for the commanders of the various German navy ports. The restrictions were intended to prevent the German Navy from becoming a threat to the Allied powers, Germany was only allowed six battleships, six cruisers, twelve destroyers, and twelve torpedo boats. The Reichsmarine tried to meet the arms restrictions with secret armament and technical innovations such as the introduction of the pocket battleship
3.
Kriegsmarine
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The Kriegsmarine was the navy of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It superseded the Imperial German Navy of the German Empire and the inter-war Reichsmarine, the Kriegsmarine was one of three official branches—along with the Heer and the Luftwaffe —of the Wehrmacht, the armed forces of Nazi Germany. The Kriegsmarine grew rapidly during German naval rearmament in the 1930s, Kriegsmarine ships were deployed to the waters around Spain during the Spanish Civil War, under the guise of enforcing non-intervention, but in reality supporting the Franco side of the war. In January 1939 Plan Z was ordered, calling for naval parity with the Royal Navy by 1944, however, when World War II broke out in September 1939, Plan Z was shelved in favour of building submarines and prioritizing land and air forces. The Commander-in-Chief of the Kriegsmarine was Adolf Hitler, who exercised his authority through the Oberkommando der Marine, the Kriegsmarines most famous ships were the U-boats, most of which were constructed after Plan Z was abandoned at the beginning of World War II. However, the adoption of convoy escorts, especially in the Atlantic, after the Second World War, the Kriegsmarines remaining ships were divided up amongst the Allied powers and were used for various purposes including minesweeping. Adolf Hitler was the Commander-in-Chief of all German armed forces, including the Kriegsmarine and his authority was exercised through the Oberkommando der Marine, or OKM, with a Commander-in-Chief, a Chief of Naval General Staff and a Chief of Naval Operations. The first Commander-in-Chief of the OKM was Erich Raeder who was the Commander-in-Chief of the Reichsmarine when it was renamed and reorganized in 1935, Raeder held the post until falling out with Hitler after the German failure in the Battle of the Barents Sea. He was replaced by Karl Dönitz on 30 January 1943 who held the command until he was appointed President of Germany upon Hitlers suicide in April 1945, hans-Georg von Friedeburg was then Commander-in-Chief of the OKM for the short period of time until Germany surrendered in May 1945. Subordinate to these were regional, squadron and temporary flotilla commands, regional commands covered significant naval regions and were themselves sub-divided, as necessary. They were commanded by a Generaladmiral or an Admiral, there was a Marineoberkommando for the Baltic Fleet, Nord, Nordsee, Norwegen, Ost/Ostsee, Süd and West. The Kriegsmarine used a form of encoding called Gradnetzmeldeverfahren to denote regions on a map, each squadron also had a command structure with its own Flag Officer. The commands were Battleships, Cruisers, Destroyers, Submarines, Torpedo Boats, Minesweepers, Reconnaissance Forces, Naval Security Forces, Big Guns and Hand Guns, major naval operations were commanded by a Flottenchef. The Flottenchef controlled a flotilla and organized its actions during the operation, the commands were, by their nature, temporary. As a result the German surface fleet was plagued by design flaws throughout the war, military aircraft were also banned, so Germany could have no naval aviation. Under the treaty Germany could only build new ships to replace old ones, All the ships allowed and personnel were taken over from the Kaiserliche Marine, renamed Reichsmarine. From the outset, Germany worked to circumvent the restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles. The launching of the first pocket battleship, Deutschland in 1931 was a step in the formation of a modern German fleet, modern destroyers and light cruisers were also built
4.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
5.
Navy
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A navy or maritime force is a fleet of waterborne military vessels and its associated naval aviation, both sea-based and land-based. It is the branch of an armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare, namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations. The strategic offensive role of a navy is projection of force into areas beyond a countrys shores, the strategic defensive purpose of a navy is to frustrate seaborne projection-of-force by enemies. The strategic task of the navy also may incorporate nuclear deterrence by use of submarine-launched ballistic missiles. In most nations, the naval, as opposed to navy, is interpreted as encompassing all maritime military forces, e. g. navy, marine / marine corps. First attested in English in the early 14th century, the navy came via Old French navie, fleet of ships, from the Latin navigium, a vessel. The word naval came from Latin navalis, pertaining to ship, cf. Greek ναῦς, ship, ναύτης, seaman, the earliest attested form of the word is in the Mycenaean Greek compound word
6.
Marineflieger
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The Marinefliegerkommando is the naval air arm of the German Navy. During the First World War, naval aviators were part of the Kaiserliche Marine, between the wars, naval aviation, the Seeflieger was absorbed by Goerings Luftwaffe in 1935. After the Second World War, it was not until West Germanys entry into NATO in the 1950s and the establishment of the Bundesmarine, the British were largely instrumental in creation of the Marineflieger, supplying training and aircraft. A number of Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm officers operated as part of the German Navy in the process, the first aircraft included Hawker Sea Hawks which were used by Marinefliegergeschwader 1 and 2 and Fairey Gannets. Until the new bases were ready, pilots were trained with the FAA in the UK, the Marinefliegerkommando had 2,100 personnel on active duty in 2012. As of 2017, it operates 55 aircraft, the Marinefliegerkommando previously operated the following aircraft, Panavia Tornado F-104 Starfighter Hawker Sea Hawk Fairey Gannet Luftschiffer http, //www. fly-navy. de/index2. html
7.
Bundeswehr
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The Bundeswehr is the unified armed forces of Germany and their civil administration and procurement authorities. The States of Germany are not allowed to maintain armed forces of their own, the Bundeswehr is divided into a military part and a civil part with the armed forces administration. The military part of the defense force consists of the Heer, Marine, Luftwaffe, Streitkräftebasis, Zentraler Sanitätsdienst. In addition the Bundeswehr has approximately 27,600 reserve personnel. 2%, the Bundeswehr are in the process of integrating smaller NATO members Brigades into divisions of the German army. The Bundeswehr is to play a role as anchor army for smaller NATO states. 2 of 3 Royal Netherlands Army Brigades are now under German Command, in 2014 the 11th Airmobile Brigade, was integrated into the German Division of fast forces. Also the Dutch 43rd Mechanized Brigade, will be integrated into the 1st Panzer Division of the German army, with the integration starting at the beginning of 2016, and the unit becoming operational at the end of 2019. The Dutch-German military cooperation are seen as an example for setting up a European defense union, also the Czech Republics 4th Rapid Deployment Brigade, and Romania’s 81st Mechanized Brigade, will be integrated into Germany’s 10 Armoured Division and Rapid Response Forces Division. The name Bundeswehr was first proposed by the former Wehrmacht general and Liberal politician Hasso von Manteuffel, the Iron Cross is its official emblem. It is a symbol that has an association with the military of Germany. The Schwarzes Kreuz is derived from the black cross insignia of the medieval Teutonic knights, when the Bundeswehr was established in 1955, its founding principles were based on developing a completely new military force for the defence of West Germany. In this respect the Bundeswehr did not consider itself to be a successor to either the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic or Hitlers Wehrmacht, neither does it adhere to the traditions of any former German military organization. One of the most visible traditions of the modern Bundeswehr is the Großer Zapfenstreich, the FRG reinstated this formal military ceremony in 1952, three years before the foundation of the Bundeswehr. Today it is performed by a band with 4 fanfare trumpeters and timpani. The Zapfenstreich is only performed during national celebrations or solemn public commemorations and it can honour distinguished persons present such as the German federal president or provide the conclusion to large military exercises. Another important tradition in the modern German armed forces is the Gelöbnis, there are two kinds of oath, for conscripts/recruits it is a pledge but its a solemn vow for full-time personnel. The pledge is made annually on 20 July, the date on which a group of Wehrmacht officers attempted to assassinate Adolf Hitler in 1944, recruits from the Bundeswehrs Wachbataillon make their vow at the Bendlerblock in Berlin. This was the headquarters of the resistance but also where the officers were executed following its failure
8.
Rostock
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Rostock is the largest city in the north German state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Rostock is on the Warnow river, the district of Warnemünde 12 kilometres north of the city centre is directly on the Baltic Sea coast, Rostock is home to one of the oldest universities in the world, the University of Rostock, founded in 1419. The city territory of Rostock stretches for about 20 km along the Warnow to the Baltic Sea, the largest built-up area of Rostock is on the western side of the river. The eastern part of its territory is dominated by industrial estates, Rostock is considered as the only regiopolis in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. In the 11th century Polabian Slavs founded a settlement at the Warnow river called Roztoc, the Danish king Valdemar I set the town aflame in 1161. Afterwards the place was settled by German traders, initially there were three separate cities, Altstadt around the Alter Markt with St. Petri, Mittelstadt around the Neuer Markt with St. Marien and Neustadt around the Hopfenmarkt with St. Jakobi. In 1218, Rostock was granted Lübeck law city rights by Heinrich Borwin, during the first partition of Mecklenburg following the death of Henry Borwin II of Mecklenburg in 1226, Rostock became the seat of the Lordship of Rostock, which survived for almost a century. In 1251, the city became a member of the Hanseatic League, in the 14th century it was a powerful seaport town with 12,000 inhabitants and the biggest city of Mecklenburg. Ships for cruising the Baltic Sea were constructed in Rostock, the formerly independent fishing village of Warnemünde at the Baltic Sea became a part of Rostock in 1323, to secure the citys access to the Baltic Sea. In 1419, one of the earliest universities in Europe, the University of Rostock, was founded and they took advantage of a riot known as Domfehde, a failed uprising of the impoverished population. Subsequent quarrels with the dukes and persistent plundering led ultimately to a loss of economic, in 1565 there were further clashes with Schwerin that which had far-reaching consequences. Among other things, was the introduction of a beer excise that favoured the dukes. John Albert I advanced on the city with 500 horsemen, after Rostock had refused to take the oath of allegiance. The citizens slighted the fortress the following spring, from 1575 to 1577 the city walls were rebuilt, as was the Lagebusch tower and the Stein Gate in the Dutch Renaissance style. The inscription sit intra te concordia et publica felicitas, which can still be read on the gate, in 1584 it finally came to the Second Rostock Inheritance Agreement, which resulted in a further loss of former tax privileges. At the same time, these inheritance contracts put paid to Rostocks ambition of achieving imperial immediacy as Lübeck had done in 1226, the strategic location of Rostock provoked the envy of its rivals. Danes and Swedes occupied the city twice, first during the Thirty Years War, later, the French, under Napoleon, occupied the town for about a decade until 1813. In nearby Lübeck-Ratekau, Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, who was born in Rostock and this was only after furious street fighting in the Battle of Lübeck, in which he led some of the cavalry charges himself
9.
Operation Sharp Guard
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Operation Sharp Guard was a multi-year joint naval blockade in the Adriatic Sea by NATO and the Western European Union on shipments to the former Yugoslavia. Warships and maritime patrol aircraft from 14 countries were involved in searching for, the operation began on 15 June 1993. It was suspended on 19 June 1996, and was terminated on 2 October 1996, the operation replaced naval blockades Operation Maritime Guard and Sharp Fence. It put them under a single chain of command and control, some maintain that despite the nominal official joint command and control of the operation, in reality it was NATO staff that ran the operation. The Yugoslav Wars were being waged, and the participants hoped to limit the fighting by limiting supplies to it, fourteen nations contributed ships and patrol aircraft to the operation. At any given time,22 ships and 8 aircraft were enforcing the blockade, with ships from Standing Naval Force Atlantic, and eight maritime patrol aircraft, were involved in searching for and stopping blockade runners. Most contributors to the operation supplied one or two ships, the Turkish Navy, for example, participated with frigates, submarines, and tankers. The operational area was divided into a series of sea boxes, each boarding team was composed of a guard team to board and wrest control of the target ship, and a search team, to conduct the search. The ships were authorized to board, inspect, and seize both ships seeking to break the blockade and their cargo, the Combined Task Force 440 was commanded by Admiral Mario Angeli of Italy. It marked the first time since its founding in 1949 that NATO was involved in combat operations, the issue of differing views among nations in the coalition as to the use of force authorized by rules of engagement arose in April 1994. He received confirmation that he should follow the British commodores guidance from his own higher authority, under U. S. Navy standards, disabling fire means firing rounds into the ships engineering space. The U. S. cruiser was about to pass the order along to the Dutch Kortenaer-class frigate HMNLS Van Kinsbergen. However, the fact that the Dutch definition of disabling fire involves launching rounds into the bridge of the ship, with an increased risk of loss of life. The ship was boarded by Dutch Marines inserted by helicopter from HMNLS Van Kinsbergen, three Yugoslav Navy Končar-class corvettes challenged the NATO operation and one of them tried to ram the British frigate HMS Chatham as it was assisting Van Kinsberger. The corvettes eventually fled following the reaction of the British warship, lido II had to undergo repairs before being diverted to Italy, since the crew had sabotaged the ships engine room. The leaking was contained by a party from HMS Chatham. Seven Yugoslav stowaways were found on board, the NATO and WEU forces challenged more than 73,000 ships, boarded and inspected almost 6,000 at sea, and diverted 1,500 suspect ships to ports for further inspection. Of those, nearly a dozen vessels were found to be blockade runners, NATO officials said no ships were able to run the blockade successfully, and that the maritime blockade had a major effect in preventing escalation of the conflict
10.
Combined Task Force 150
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These activities are referred to as Maritime Security Operations. Countries presently contributing to CTF-150 include, Canada, Denmark, France, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, other nations who have participated include Australia, Italy, India, Malaysia, Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Singapore, Spain, Thailand and Turkey. The command of the force rotates among the different participating navies. The task force usually comprises 14 or 15 ships, CTF-150 is coordinated by the Combined Maritime Forces, a 25-nation coalition operating from the US Navy base in Manama, Bahrain. Before 11 September 2001, Task Force 150 was a U. S. Navy formation serving as part of U. S. Naval Forces Central Command, after 11 September, it became a patrol force in the Horn of Africa region. On 5 May 2002, command of the force was handed over from the United States to Germany. On 9 December 2002, the SPS Navarra intercepted and boarded the freighter So San, the ship from North Korea was carrying a cargo of 15 Scud missiles,15 conventional warheads with 250 kg of high explosive,23 fuel tanks of nitric acid and 85 drums of chemicals. Yemen subsequently reported that the cargo belonged to them and protested against interception, on 20 December 2002, a meeting was held aboard the USS Mount Whitney with military leaders from Djibouti regarding the Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa. At the time, CTF-150 was commanded by Spanish Rear Admiral Juan Moreno, and comprised ships from France, Spain, Germany, the French DEstienne dOrves-class frigate Commandant Birot performed the boarding. The captured crew were transferred to the Arleigh Burke-class destroyer USS OKane, on 17 August 2005, French Vice Admiral Jacques Mazars replaced British Royal Navy Commodore Tony Rix as commander of CTF-150. At the time, it comprised ships of Italy, France, Germany, Pakistan, Canada, the CTF-150 has been engaged in anti-piracy operations in Somalia in parallel to other independent anti-piracy operations by countries such as China, Iran, India and Russia. On 22 January 2006 USS Winston S. Churchill captured a pirate vessel in the Indian Ocean as part of an ongoing effort to help maintain law. In the action of 18 March 2006, two United States Navy ships were attacked by Somali pirates during an opposed boarding, in the ensuing gun battle, all the pirates were either killed or captured. On 4 April 2006, the South Korean fishing vessel MV Dong Won reported it had come under rocket attack off the coast of Somalia. Immediately two ships from the force, the Dutch frigate HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën and the U. S. guided-missile destroyer USS Roosevelt responded. However, the pirates had already hijacked the vessel and reached Somali territorial waters after threatening the crew members. On 22 August 2006, Rear Adm. Iqbal was relieved by German Rear Admiral Heinrich Lange, in December 2006, Lange passed control to British Royal Navy Commodore Bruce Williams. In March 2007, the Dutch frigate Hr. Ms, evertsen deployed to the waters of the Horn of Africa, as part of CTF-150, and in response to a request from the United Nations World Food Programme, against piracy off the Somalian coast
11.
UNIFIL
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The mandate had to be adjusted twice, due to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982 and after the Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon in 2000. The first UNIFIL troops were deployed in the area on 23 March 1978, during the occupation, UNIFILs function was mainly to provide humanitarian aid. UNIFILs mandate is renewed by United Nations Security Council annually, the current mandate expires on 31 August 2017. During the 1982 Lebanon War, UN positions were overrun, primarily by the SLA forces under Saad Haddad and this was the Lebanese paramilitary force supported by the IDF in Southern Lebanon. In 1999, Israel undertook a withdrawal, which concluded in 2000, UNIFIL is currently deployed in Southern Lebanon and primarily along the United Nations-drawn Blue Line, which is the border between Israel and Lebanon. The forces activities have centered around monitoring military activity between Hezbollah and the Israeli Defense Forces with the aim of reducing tensions and allaying tension along the border. UNIFIL has also played an important role in clearing landmines, assisting displaced persons, under UN Security Council Resolution 1701, which passed as a result of the 2006 Lebanon War, its mandate and rules of engagement changed. The mandate changed to allow up to 15,000 personnel in order to assist the Lebanese Armed Forces in deploying in Southern Lebanon to implement the Lebanese governments sovereignty. The rules of engagement changed to allow the troops to fire in certain cases, mostly in cases of self-defense but also in order to protect civilians, UN personnel and facilities. ”On 27 August 2006, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan said that UNIFIL would not intercept arms shipments from Syria. The Maritime Task Force is the component of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon. As of February 2012, the MTF is under the command of Rear Admiral Wagner Lopes de Moraes Zamith of Brazil, the Brazilian frigate Constituição is the flagship of the fleet comprising vessels from Brazil, Bangladesh, Germany, Greece, Indonesia and Turkey. With its establishment in October 2006, the force was led by the German Navy which was also the major contributor to the force. The Germans lead the MTF up until 29 February 2008 when they passed control over to EUROMARFOR – a force made up of ships from Portugal, Spain, Italy and France. To date UNIFIL has suffered 272 fatalities,261 troops, two observers, five international civilian staff, and four local staff. Prior to the July 2006 Lebanon War, Israel had been lobbying for UNIFIL to either take an active role vis-a-vis Hezbollah or to step out of the region. Israel was concerned when it was reported that Indonesia was being considered to replace Italy as commander of UNIFILs naval force, according to the book, in 1992, two detained Lebanese men escaped from Khiam prison. Shortly afterward, Israeli Army commander Moshe Tamir visited the Norwegian battalions camp, immediately after the confrontation, the Lebanese men were smuggled onto a bus used by Norwegian peacekeepers on leave, which took them to Beirut. Hezbollah supporters have accused UNIFIL of siding with Israel, especially since the passage of Resolution 1701 which they view as one-sided
12.
Operation Atalanta
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The operational headquarters is located at Northwood Headquarters in the UK. The mission launched in December 2008 with a focus on protecting Somalia-bound vessels and shipments belonging to the WFP and AMISOM, in addition, Operation Atalanta monitors fishing activity on the regional seaboard. On 16 July 2012, the EU also mandated the EUCAP Nestor mission to build up the capacity of regional navies. It is part of a global action by the EU to prevent. It cooperates with the multinational Combined Task Force 151 of the US-led Combined Maritime Forces, on 28 November 2016 the Council of the EU extended the Mandate of Operation ATALANTA until December 2018. Participation in EU NAVFOR goes beyond EU member states, norway was the first non-EU country to contribute to the Operation, with a warship in 2009. Thereafter, Montenegro, Serbia and Ukraine have provided staff officers to the Operational Headquarters, Ukraine contributed a warship early in 2014, and New Zealand contributed an MPRA asset later the same year. Around 1,200 personnel are involved in ATALANTA, with the size of the force typically varying between 4–6 surface combat vessels and 2–3 Maritime Patrol Aircraft, for 2016, the budget will be €6.3 million for the common costs of the mandate. Piracy has to be understood as organised criminal activity occurring at sea and it is organised on land, with kidnapping crews and ships for ransom as the business model. Prosecution of piracy suspects is a key component of the fight against piracy. The EU NAVFOR seeks, where possible, a legal finish, transfers of suspect pirates for trial to competent authorities remain necessary to put an end to impunity in the Indian Ocean. The EU is the largest contributor to the UNODC counter-piracy programme, in the short term, transfers for trial from EU NAVFOR ships remain necessary to put an end to impunity in the Indian Ocean. The measure, which was sponsored by France, the United States, on 2 January 2009, one of the Operations ships captured eight pirates who were about to board a ship. The French ship responded to the message by the 21,000 tonne Liberia flagged MV Safmarine Asia which came under small arms. The warship deployed its helicopter, which arrived on the scene, to deter the hijacking. On 26 May 2009, the EU Naval Task Force vessel HMS Malmö responded to a call from the European cargo vessel M/V Antonis. In May 2010, there were a number of incidents in the area, the Russian destroyer Marshal Shaposhnikov freed the 106, 474-ton MV Moscow University, which was about 350 miles east of Socotra, transporting crude oil from Sudan to China. Reports on these incidents, citing news reports, concluded that pirates were holding almost 20 vessels
13.
Inspector of the Navy
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The Inspector of the Navy is the commander of the Navy of the modern-day German Armed Forces, the Bundeswehr. Since the various bodies responsible for the command of the German Navy were merged in 2012. Before then, the Inspector was head of the Naval Staff of the Ministry of Defence, both the Inspector and his deputy hold the rank of vice admiral. The Inspector is responsible for the readiness of personnel and materiel in the German Navy, the Inspector commands the Navy Command, however, the subordinate departments of the Navy are led by their heads at Navy Command and do not report directly to the Inspector. The Inspector sits under the General Inspector of the Bundeswehr and is a member of the Defence Council for Bundeswehr-wide matters, Inspector of the Army Oberkommando der Marine Marineamt First Sea Lord List of admirals of the German Navy Inspekteure der Marine Inspekteure der Marine
14.
Friedrich Ruge
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Friedrich Oskar Ruge was an officer in the German Navy and recipient of the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross of Nazi Germany. He served as the first commander of the post-war German Navy, friedrich Ruge was the son and grandson of German educators. Joining the Imperial German Navy as a cadet in March 1914, he was soon a participant in the 1914,1915, in 1917 and 1918, he sailed with the destroyer raids in the North Sea and English Channel. After the armistice, Ruge was an officer aboard the German destroyer B-112, interned at Scapa Flow and in June 1919, he played a role in the scuttling of the German Fleet. Returning to Germany to continue his career in the service of the new Weimar Republic. From 1921 to 1923, he commanded a minesweeper. In the UK during the 1930s he met an ex British sailor at a regatta, Lt Aubrey Grey, whose ship, the HMS Partridge was sunk in 1917 by the SMS V100, the ship that Ruge had been serving on. The V100 was the ship that rescued Grey from the water after the sinking, after studies at Berlin Institute of Technology, he was the senior officer of a flotilla of minesweepers, and, in 1937, achieved the top post in that division. In World War II, he was a part of the Polish Campaign in 1939, from 1940 to 1943, he was stationed in France, rising through the upper ranks to become Vice Admiral in 1943. Sent to Italy in 1943, he served as Senior German Naval Officer until mid-summer and he was appointed as Naval Advisor to Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in November 1943 to supervise the defense of northern France from the predicted Allied invasion. He had no faith in land mines and artillery shells struck underwater, in August 1944, he became the Kriegsmarines Director of Ship Construction, a position in which he served till the end of World War II. At the end World War II, Ruge became a POW, in 1946, he started a new life as a translator, writer and educator in Cuxhaven. He was one of four Flag Officers who made up the Naval Historical Team at Bremerhaven and he entered politics as a political independent to the Cuxhaven Town Council. In 1950, Ruge was part of a group of former Wehrmacht high-ranking officers invited by Chancellor Konrad Adenauer to take part in the conference to discuss West Germanys rearmament. The conference resulted in the Himmerod memorandum that contributed to the creation of the myth of the clean Wehrmacht, during the early 1950s, he advised as to how the navy could be restructured in the new Bundesmarine, as detailed in Searles Wehrmacht Generals. Called out of retirement when Germany became a part of NATO, Ruge was appointed Inspector of the Navy, afterward, he became a member of the faculty at the University of Tübingen, eventually becoming an Associate Professor on 21 July 1967 there. He was a guest lecturer at universities, including the U. S. Naval War College at Newport. Admiral Ruge was one of the umpires for the 1974 Sandhurst wargame on Operation Sea Lion, Ruge was the author of several books, including The Soviets as Naval Opponents, 1941-1945, written for Annapolis Naval Institute in 1979, and Rommel in Normandy, written in 1959
15.
German Navy
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The German Navy is the navy of Germany and part of the unified Bundeswehr, the German Armed Forces. The German Navy was originally known as the Bundesmarine from 1956 until 1995 when Deutsche Marine became the name with respect to the 1990 incorporation of the East German Volksmarine. It is deeply integrated into the NATO alliance and its primary mission is protection of Germanys territorial waters and maritime infrastructure as well as sea lines of communication. Apart from this, the German Navy participates in peacekeeping operations and they also participate in Anti-Piracy operations. The German Navy traces its roots back to the Reichsflotte of the era of 1848–52. The Reichsflotte was the first German navy to sail under the black-red-gold flag, in 1956, with West Germanys accession to NATO, the Bundesmarine, as the navy was known colloquially, was formally established. In the same year the East German Volkspolizei See became the Volksmarine, during the Cold war the all of the German Navys combat vessels were assigned to NATOs Allied Forces Baltic Approachess naval command NAVBALTAP. With the accession of East Germany to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990 the Volksmarine along with the whole National Peoples Army became part of the Bundeswehr. Since 1995 the name German Navy is used in international context, as of 16 December 2016, the strength of the navy is 16,137 men and women. A number of forces have operated in different periods. The German Navy is also engaged in operations against international terrorism such as Operation Enduring Freedom, presently the largest operation the German Navy is participating in is UNIFIL off the coast of Lebanon. The German contribution to this operation is two frigates, four fast attack craft, and two auxiliary vessels, the naval component of UNIFIL has been under German command. The navy is operating a number of development and testing installations as part of an inter-service, among these is the Centre of Excellence for Operations in Confined and Shallow Waters, an affiliated centre of Allied Command Transformation. The COE CSW was established in April 2007 and officially accredited by NATO on 26 May 2009 and it is co-located with the staff of the German Flotilla 1 in Kiel whose Commander is double-hatted as Director, COE CSW. The displacement of the navy is 220,000 tonnes, in addition, the German Navy and the Royal Danish Navy are in cooperation in the Ark Project. This agreement made the Ark Project responsible for the strategic sealift of German armed forces where the charter of three roll-on-roll-off cargo and troop ships are ready for deployments. In addition, these ships are kept available for the use of the other European NATO countries. The three vessels have a displacement of 60,000 tonnes
16.
Prussian Navy
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The Prussian Navy, was the naval force of the Kingdom of Prussia. It was created from the former Brandenburg Navy, following the elevation of the Duke of Prussia to King in Prussia in 1701, at that time, Brandenburg and Prussia formed a double state ruled in personal union by the House of Hohenzollern. Throughout the centuries, Prussia’s military consistently concentrated on its land power, yet historically there were always Prussian naval forces, beginning in the days when Prussia meant only the Margraviate of Brandenburg. The Electorate of Brandenburg, the predecessor of the Kingdom of Prussia, beginning around the year 1657, under Elector Frederick William, these developed into an offensive naval force. The Elector designated navigation and commerce as the noblest undertakings of a state, Frederick William’s descendants had, however, little interest in such overseas adventures and on developing their own naval power. His son Frederick I, from 1701 the King in Prussia, was glad to sell colonial possessions to the Netherlands. At the time of Brandenburg’s elevation to the Kingdom of Prussia, the Prussian kings of the 18th century had little interest in maintaining their own navy. Due to the state’s continental position and the lack of easily defensible natural borders, besides this, the kingdom was able to rely on its many friendly connections with the neighboring naval powers of Denmark and the Netherlands. Frederick II took the view that Prussia should never seek to develop its own war fleet and he believed that naval battles would only rarely decide a conflict and preferred having the best army in Europe rather than the worst fleet among the naval powers. Prussia nevertheless built up a naval force of 13 makeshift warships during the Seven Years War. This embryonic fleet lost the battle of Frisches Haff in September 1759 to a Swedish naval force, the Prussians lost all ships and as a consequence the Swedes occupied Usedom and Wollin. However, the ships were replaced already in 1760, and the new flotilla served until the end of the war in 1763, even so, the Prussian monarch wanted to take part in international maritime commerce and therefore founded several trading firms. One of these, founded in 1772 as the Societé de Commerce maritime, after the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Prussia slowly began to build its own small fleet for coastal defense. Again, more value was placed on the development of a merchant fleet than on a navy, in this connection, the Prussian Maritime Enterprise played a significant role. Its ships were armed to protect against pirates and flew the Prussian war ensign and this protective fleet existed until around 1850. One of the first to work for the development of a Prussian Navy was Prince Adalbert of Prussia and he had made a number of journeys abroad and recognized the value of a fleet to support commercial interests and to protect one’s own navigation. The German Confederation possessed practically no fleet of its own, but relied upon the powers of Great Britain, the Netherlands. During the First War of Schleswig of 1848–1851, the failure of this became clear because Great Britain
17.
North German Federal Navy
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The North German Federal Navy, was the Navy of the North German Confederation, formed out of the Prussian Navy in 1867. It was eventually succeeded by the Imperial German Navy in 1871, in the war against France, in 1870/1871, the navy encountered enemy forces on a few occasions. In general, due to its size the navy did not play a significant role in the war. On the other hand, for organisational and political reasons the French navy found it difficult to employ its far superior fleet for an operation at the Prussian coasts. Marine-Regatta-Verein Navy League Reichsflotte Imperial German Navy Reichsmarine Kriegsmarine Bundesmarine Volksmarine German Navy since 1995
18.
Volksmarine
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The Volksmarine - VM, was the official designation of the naval forces of the German Democratic Republic. It was part of the National Peoples Army, established on 1 March 1956, soon after the end of World War II and the beginning of the Cold War the Soviet Union initiated the rearming of its satellite state in East Germany. This included the formation of maritime forces. Beginning in 1950, Soviet naval officers helped to establish the Hauptverwaltung Seepolizei, by 1952 the VP–See is estimated to have numbered some 8,000 personnel. On 1 March 1956, the GDR formally created its Nationale Volksarmee, in November 1960, these maritime forces of the National Peoples Army were officially designated Volksmarine. Over the next years the navy received a number of new ships. Only the coastal ships and some of the fast torpedo boats were provided by the Soviet Union, as were all helicopters. Following the building of the Berlin Wall on 13 August 1961 the Grenzbrigade Küste der Grenzpolizei was incorporated into the Peoples Navy. With the reorganization of 1965 all attack forces, i. e. the fast torpedo boats, were combined into a single flotilla, in the 1970s the Peoples Navy had grown to about 18,000 men. In the 1980s some of the ships were replaced and the Peoples Navy acquired Soviet-built fighter-bombers, the Peoples Navy was dissolved, like all other branches of the former National Peoples Army, on 2 October 1990 – the day before the official reunification of Germany. Some of its staff was assumed into the Bundesmarine, some by the German Border Police, most of the ships and other equipment were scrapped or sold, and few if any former Peoples Navy vessels remain in service with the modern-day German Navy. The Peoples Navy was operationally incorporated into the United Baltic Sea Fleets of the Warsaw Pact states and its designated area of operations was the Baltic Sea and the entrances to the Baltic Sea. Its task was to keep the sea lanes open for Soviet reinforcements, for these purposes, it was equipped with light forces such as anti-submarine ships, fast torpedo boats, minesweepers as well as landing craft. Routine duty was heavily focused on extensive activities, carried out mainly by the minesweepers. The 6th Border Brigade had a responsibility for the prevention of ″republikflucht″. With effect from 1 November 1961 it was subordinated to the Peoples Navy and it had a substantial number of small patrol boats and surveillance posts along the coast. It was structured as follows, 1st Flotilla in Peenemünde, 4th Flotilla in Rostock-Warnemünde, 6th Flotilla at Bug on Rügen Island, most notable is Präsentiermarsch der Volksmarine, which was composed by Ludwig Schmidt for use at ceremonial events. Unsere Volksmarine was also written for use at parades, the instrumental pieces written for the Peoples Navy fell out of use after the reunification of Germany, and are not used by the modern German Navy
19.
Badge of Honour of the Bundeswehr
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The Decorations of Honour of the Bundeswehr are a series of military decorations of the Bundeswehr, the armed forces of the Federal Republic of Germany. The first awards were made on November 6,1980, in 2008, the decorations were updated and received three grades exclusively reserved for heroic deeds. The new awards were the result of a petition by German citizens to restore the order of the Iron Cross, the decoration is awarded by the Federal Minister of Defence as a visible commendation for loyal service and exemplary execution of duties. The minister is represented by the commanding officer of the awarded soldier. Those awards made for outstanding achievements or heroic deeds, Honour Cross for Bravery, on July 6, Chancellor Angela Merkel awarded the bravery grade of the Ehrenkreuz der Bundeswehr to four troopers for valor beyond the call of duty performed in Afghanistan on October 20,2008. Receiving one grade of the award is not a requirement for receipt of the higher one. If earned, all grades of the award may be worn at the same time, the regular grades of the award for meritorious service may only be awarded after a certain time was served. In special cases they may be awarded prior to that and they are worn in full display on the day of the award or on special occasions. On regular duty they are worn as a ribbon bar, the Medal of Honour is round, shows a German eagle on a Cross pattée surrounded by a wreath of oak leaves. On the reverse it reads FÜR BESONDERE VERDIENSTE BUNDESWEHR, there is an oak leaf above the word Bundeswehr and that side is also surrounded by an oak leaves wreath. The four higher grades are in the shape of a cross and in the center is the design of the lowest medal. The ribbon is black with two red stripes beside it and golden stripes on the edges as the colors of the German flag, the new grades of the Silver Cross of Honour and the Gold Cross of Honour have a red edge. The design of the Gold Cross of Honour and the Cross of Honour for Bravery is the same, Decorations for meritorious service have been awarded since 1980 and are not rare. However, only 30 awards - of which 14 to foreign service members - have been bestowed upon soldiers for outstanding achievements, the Mungo infantry carrier the Germans had travelled in caught fire and large quantities of ammunition exploded. A German soldier and five Afghan children were killed by the blast. Three other troopers and a child were seriously injured, sergeants Berges, Dietzen, Lukács and Geist rushed to their aid and were eventually able to rescue two German soldiers and one child at the risk of their lives. They also succored another soldier who had suffered wounds and was trapped inside the destroyed vehicle. The combined forces - still greatly outnumbered - managed to fend off the attackers in a fight that partly developed into a close quarters combat, scores of insurgents were killed but thanks to Seiberts and Hechts leadership, the Germans suffered no casualties
20.
German Armed Forces Badge for Military Proficiency
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The German Armed Forces Badge for Military Proficiency is a decoration of the Bundeswehr, the armed forces of the Federal Republic of Germany. The decoration is awarded to and worn by German soldiers of all ranks, allied soldiers may also be awarded the badge, subject to their nations uniform regulations. In the United States Army, the German Armed Forces Badge for Military Proficiency is one of several hundred foreign awards approved for wear on the uniform, to earn the award one must complete the following requirements,1. Evaluation Report, Soldier evaluation report from Commanding Officer recognizing the Soldiers physical and moral standards, the purpose of the evaluation is to show evidence that the Soldier is both physically and morally fit. First Aid Course, Combat Lifesaver Training level 1 course or equivalent, NBC Test, Soldier must demonstrate that they can properly don a protective mask and all NBC protective clothing. Basic Fitness Test Three events completed within 90 minutes, 11x10-meter sprint test, in maximum time of 60 seconds b. Flexed Arm Hang keeping chin above bar, minimum time of five seconds, C.1000 meter run/sprint, maximum time of six minutes and thirty seconds The score for each event is determined using a grading point matrix. The scores are averaged to determine what level badge you qualify for. Marksmanship, In order to qualify for the German Armed Forces Badge for Military Proficiency and it does not matter which weapon is used to qualify. There are several possible shooting exercises the German Armed Forces use for each weapon which vary distance, number of targets, position of firing, for the Proficiency Badge, it is irrelevant which weapon category or exercise is used. Foot March Foot March with 15kg rucksack, for Bronze 6 km in 60 min, Silver 9 km in 90 min, Gold 12 km in 120 min, the march must be accomplished in military uniform and boots with a rucksack weighing no less than 15 kg.7. 100 meter swim in Military Uniform Swim is conducted in Military Uniform while wearing PT uniform underneath, there is a four-minute time limit for the swim. After swim is completed time stops, however you must also successfully remove your outer uniform without touching the side of the pool to pass, grade III = German Armed Forces Badge for Military Proficiency in Gold. Grade II = German Armed Forces Badge for Military Proficiency in Silver, grade I = German Armed Forces Badge for Military Proficiency in Bronze. The metallic badge is an approximately 55mm high by 43mm wide oval wreath of oak leaves with the German eagle at its center, the badge can be in gold, silver or bronze. A 1cm by 1cm square bearing a number in increments of five is added at the bottom when the gold badge is awarded for multiple years of achieving this grade. A capital letter R is added at the bottom for those who have earned the badge while a Reservist, Reservist recipients of the gold grade for multiple years receive a badge with the R at the bottom and the numbered square at the top of the badge. The ribbon is all black with a device in the shape
21.
German Armed Forces Badge of Marksmanship
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The German Armed Forces Badge for Weapons Proficiency is a decoration of the Bundeswehr, the armed forces of the Federal Republic of Germany. The decoration is awarded to German military personnel of all grades, the German armed forces regulations point out, that the Schützenschnur is a decoration for weapons proficiency for enlisted soldiers. Officers can receive the award, although it is not currently authorized to be worn on their uniforms, foreign military members also may be awarded the badge, the German military regulation on officers still applies, permitting only the enlisted members to wear the badge. The history of the Schützenschnur dates back to the Eighty Years War where Spanish troops were ordered to hang any Dutch person who carried a musket, therefore Spanish musketeers began to carry ropes which were often carried over one shoulder. Awarding a cord as a decoration began in the early 18th century in Prussia under Frederick William I of Prussia, with the reorganization of the Prussian Army under Gerhard von Scharnhorst the Schützenschnur became an official military award. The Reichswehr and later the Wehrmacht adapted the Schützenschnur as an award for proficiency in marksmanship, the award existed in 12 different levels with different versions for infantry and armored troops. In 1957 the Bundesgrenzschutz introduced the Schützenschnur, a similar decoration existed within the East German National Peoples Army and the Border Troops of the German Democratic Republic. Section 22-18 part b of the DA PAM 670-1 states the following, the German Marksmanship Award is authorized for wear only by enlisted personnel. Officers may accept, but may not wear the Schuetzenschnur, in the United States Air Force, approval needs to be obtained prior to wear on the uniform. The receipt of the decoration in this manner does not constitute official acceptance. To gain official acceptance, the recipient must forward a request to accept, manner of wear, when approved, is the same for USAF members as it is for US Army members, as outlined above. AFI 36-2903, dated 28 May 2015, paragraphs 11.2.2.3 through 11.2.2.6 state Wear only one foreign badge, when wearing more than one foreign decoration, wear them in the order earned. Do not wear foreign decorations unless wearing other US military decorations, when authorized more than one decoration, wear them in the order earned. If authorized more than one foreign decoration from the same country, on special occasions and as a matter of courtesy to a given country, Airman may wear the decorations of that country ahead of all other foreign decorations. Refers to paragraph 10.5.1.6 for wear location guidance, the previous version included verbiage to effect that foreign badges could only be worn in the theater earned, but was not included in the most recent version. Further amplification is provided on the individual approval documentation provided by the Air Force Personnel Center, German Armed Forces Badge for Weapons Proficiency in Bronze is awarded for shooting with the rifle and the pistol and the machine pistol with at least two scores in at least bronze. The admissible categories of weapon depends on the branch of the service member, the category of heavy weapons is not mandatory to earn the bronze badge. The rifle, pistol and machine pistol are the weapons that require minimally score of bronze
22.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
23.
NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved
24.
Sea lines of communication
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Sea lines of communication is a term describing the primary maritime routes between ports, used for trade, logistics and naval forces. It is generally used in reference to naval operations to ensure that SLOCs are open, or in times of war, in the American Revolutionary War and the Napoleonic Wars, the SLOCs were, for the most part, in the control of the British Navy. When the British lost control of them during the Revolution, the result was the fall of Yorktown and its biggest army and, ultimately, the war. In World War I and World War II, the Kriegsmarine attempted to close the SLOCs from North America to the British Isles with the use of submarines, in World War I, the British operated a naval blockade of Germany cutting off external trade by sea. In World War II, the Allies engaged in the Battle of the Atlantic, also, the US Navy successfully closed the SLOCs to Japan, strangling the resource-poor island nation. Had the Cold War turned hot, Europe would have required resupply, soviet Navy strategy was to close the SLOCs to maximize their numerical superiority in Europe. Choke point Line of communication String of Pearls
25.
Naval history of World War II
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In the beginning of World War II the Royal Navy was still the strongest navy in the world, with the largest number of warships built and with naval bases across the globe. Totalling over 15 battleships and battlecruisers,7 aircraft carriers,66 cruisers,164 destroyers and 66 submarines, in the course of the war the United States Navy grew tremendously as the United States was faced with a two-front war on the seas. By the end of World War II the U. S Navy was larger than any navy in the world. The United States Navy grew rapidly during World War II from 1941–45 and it also played a major supporting role, alongside the Royal Navy, in the European war against Germany. The Imperial Japanese Navy sought naval superiority in the Pacific by sinking the main American battle fleet at Pearl Harbor, which was built around its battleships. The December 1941 surprise attack on Pearl Harbor did knock out the fleet, but it did not touch the aircraft carriers. Naval doctrine had to be changed overnight, the United States Navy had followed Alfred Thayer Mahans emphasis on concentrated groups of battleships as the main offensive naval weapons. The loss of the battleships at Pearl Harbor forced Admiral Ernest J. King, the U. S. Navy grew tremendously as it faced a two-front war on the seas. It achieved notable acclaim in the Pacific War, where it was instrumental to the Allies successful island hopping campaign, after Pearl Harbor the IJN seemed unstoppable because it outnumbered and outgunned the disorganized Allies—US, Britain, Netherlands, Australia, China. London and Washington both believed in Mahanian doctrine, which stressed the need for a unified fleet, however, in contrast to the cooperation achieved by the armies, the Allied navies failed to combine or even coordinate their activities until mid-1942. Tokyo also believed in Mahan, who said command of the seas—achieved by great fleet battles—was the key to sea power. Therefore, the IJN kept its main strike force together under Admiral Yamamoto and won a series of stunning victories over the Americans, the Battle of Midway, together with the Guadalcanal campaign, marked the turning point in the Pacific. Between June 4–7,1942, the United States Navy decisively defeated a Japanese naval force that had sought to lure the U. S. carrier fleet into a trap at Midway Atoll. The Japanese fleet lost four carriers to the U. S. Navys one American carrier. Military historian John Keegan called the Battle of Midway the most stunning, Guadalcanal, fought from August 1942 to February 1943, was the first major Allied offensive of the war in the Pacific Theater. This campaign saw American air, naval and ground forces in a six months campaign slowly overwhelm determined Japanese resistance, Guadalcanal was the key to control the Solomon Islands, which both sides saw as strategically essential. Both sides won some battles but both sides were overextended in terms of supply lines, the rival navies fought seven battles, with the two sides dividing the victories. Both sides pulled out its aircraft carriers, as they were too vulnerable to land-based aviation, in preparation of the recapture of the Philippines, the Navy started the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign to retake the Gilbert and Marshall Islands from the Japanese in summer 1943
26.
Reichsflotte
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The Reichsflotte was the first pan-German navy, established by the nascent, short-lived German Empire to provide a naval force in the First Schleswig War against Denmark. The decision was made on 14 June 1848 by the Frankfurt Parliament, in 1849 the fleet was transferred to the re-established German Confederation. The German states such as Prussia, Hanover and Austria had a quarrel regarding the ships, in 1852 the Confederation decided to dissolve the fleet and sell the ships. Soon, the Danish Navy stopped all German trade in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. This newly created provisional government was headed by Archduke John of Austria as regent, i. e. as a head of state. The parliament first met in Frankfurt on 18 May 1848, only two days later, the parliament decided to spend six million Reichsthaler on a navy to be under the command of Prince Adalbert of Prussia. When he had to due to an order by the King of Prussia. In the Battle of Heligoland of 4 June 1849, the fleet under Brommy saw its only sea battle, the battle, involving five vessels altogether, was inconclusive, with no losses on either side, but after it the Danish blockade was restored. An argument arose as to whether the fleet was an institution of the Confederation or simply a property. The majority of the Bundestag argued that it was just a property so that a decision about it did not need unanimity, on 2 April 1852, the Reichsflotte was dissolved. Several names are used for this Navy, to avoid confusion with later incarnations, historians settled for Reichsflotte. The term Bundesflotte is also used, but this is misleading, Bundesflotte was also the name of an Austrian-Prussian naval project in 1865. The modern German navy since 1956 was called the Bundesmarine but now uses the name Deutsche Marine, the Verfassung des Deutschen Reichs, article III §19, states, The naval forces are the exclusive affair of the Reich. It is not allowed for any state to maintain its own warships or hire privateers. The crews of the war navy are a part of the new German defence force and they are independent of the land forces. The size of the crews to be provided for the war navy from each state, is to be calculated from the number of forces to be maintained by it. Details on this matter, as well as the balancing of costs between the Reich government and the states, will be determined by law. The commissioning of officers and officials of the forces are under the sole authority of the Reich
27.
Revolutions of 1848
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It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history. The revolutions were essentially democratic in nature, with the aim of removing the old feudal structures, the revolutionary wave began in France in February, and immediately spread to most of Europe. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation between their respective revolutionaries, the uprisings were led by shaky ad hoc coalitions of reformers, the middle classes and workers, which did not hold together for long. Tens of thousands of people were killed, and many forced into exile. Significant lasting reforms included the abolition of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of monarchy in Denmark. The revolutions were most important in France, the Netherlands, the states that would make up the German Empire in the late 19th and early 20th century, Italy, and the Austrian Empire. The revolutions arose from such a variety of causes that it is difficult to view them as resulting from a coherent movement or set of social phenomena. Numerous changes had been taking place in European society throughout the first half of the 19th century, both liberal reformers and radical politicians were reshaping national governments. Technological change was revolutionizing the life of the working classes, a popular press extended political awareness, and new values and ideas such as popular liberalism, nationalism and socialism began to emerge. Some historians emphasize the serious crop failures, particularly those of 1846, that produced hardship among peasants, large swaths of the nobility were discontented with royal absolutism or near-absolutism. In 1846, there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia, additionally, an uprising by democratic forces against Prussia, planned but not actually carried out, occurred in Greater Poland. Next, the middle classes began to agitate, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, working in Brussels, had written Manifesto of the Communist Party at the request of the Communist League. Following the March insurrection in Berlin, they began agitating in Germany, the middle and working classes thus shared a desire for reform, and agreed on many of the specific aims. Their participations in the revolutions, however, differed, while much of the impetus came from the middle classes, much of the cannon fodder came from the lower. The revolts first erupted in the cities, the population in French rural areas had risen rapidly, causing many peasants to seek a living in the cities. Many in the feared and distanced themselves from the working poor. Many unskilled laborers toiled from 12 to 15 hours per day when they had work, living in squalid, traditional artisans felt the pressure of industrialization, having lost their guilds. Revolutionaries such as Karl Marx built up a following, the situation in the German states was similar
28.
Flag of Germany
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The flag of Germany is a tricolour consisting of three equal horizontal bands displaying the national colours of Germany, black, red, and gold. The flag was first adopted as the flag of modern Germany in 1919. Germany has two competing traditions of national colours, black-red-gold and black-white-red, which have played an important role in the history of Germany. The black-red-gold tricolour first appeared in the early 19th century and achieved prominence during the 1848 Revolutions, the short-lived Frankfurt Parliament of 1848–1850 proposed the tricolour as a flag for a united and democratic German state. With the formation of the Weimar Republic after World War I, following World War II, the tricolour was designated as the flag of both West and East Germany in 1949. The two flags were identical until 1959, when the East German flag was augmented with the coat of arms of East Germany, since reunification on 3 October 1990, the black-red-gold tricolour has become the flag of reunified Germany. After the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, the Prussian-dominated North German Confederation adopted a tricolour of black-white-red as its flag and this flag later became the flag of the German Empire, formed following the unification of Germany in 1871, and was used until 1918. The colours of the flag are associated with the republican democracy formed after World War I. There are many theories in regarding the origins of the colour scheme used in the 1848 flag. Another claim goes back to the uniforms of the Lützow Free Corps, comprising mostly university students, the German national flag or Bundesflagge, containing only the black-red-gold tricolour, was introduced as part of the German constitution in 1949. Following the creation of government and military flags in later years. The government flag of Germany is officially known as the Dienstflagge der Bundesbehörden or Bundesdienstflagge for short, introduced in 1950, the government flag is the civil flag defaced with the Bundesschild, which overlaps with up to one fifth of the black and gold bands. The government flag may only be used by government authorities and its use by others is an offence. However, public use of similar to the Bundesdienstflagge is tolerated. In addition to the horizontal format, many public buildings in Germany use vertical flags. Most town halls fly their town flag together with the flag in this way. The proportions of these flags are not specified. When hung like a banner or draped, the band should be on the left
29.
Frankfurt Parliament
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The Frankfurt Parliament was the first freely elected parliament for all of Germany, elected on 1 May 1848. The session was held from 18 May 1848 to 31 May 1849 and its existence was both part of and the result of the March Revolution in the states of the German Confederation. After long and controversial debates, the assembly produced the so-called Frankfurt Constitution which proclaimed a German Empire based on the principles of parliamentary democracy, the parliament also proposed a constitutional monarchy headed by a hereditary emperor. In the 20th century, however, major elements of the Frankfurt constitution became models for the Weimar Constitution of 1919, in 1806, the Emperor, Francis II had relinquished the crown of the Holy Roman Empire and dissolved the Empire. This was the result of the Napoleonic Wars and of military pressure from Napoléon Bonaparte. After the victory of Prussia, the United Kingdom, Russia and other states over Napoléon in 1816, Austria dominated this system of loosely connected, independent states, but the system failed to account for the rising influence of Prussia. After the so-called Wars of Liberation, many contemporaries had expected a nation-state solution, apart from this nationalist component, calls for civic rights influenced political discourse. The Napoleonic Code Civil had led to the introduction of civic rights in some German states in the early 19th century, furthermore, some German states had adopted constitutions after the foundation of the German Confederacy. Between 1819 and 1830, the Carlsbad Decrees and other instances of Restoration politics limited such developments, the mid-1840s saw an increase of the frequency of internal crises. Additionally, a series of bad harvests in parts of Germany, notably the southwest, the changes caused by the beginnings of industrialisation exacerbated social and economic tensions considerably. Meanwhile, in the states, such as Baden, the development of a lively scene of Vereine provided an organisational framework for democratic, or popular. Especially in south west Germany, censorship could not effectively suppress the press, at such rallies by as the Offenburg Popular Assembly of September 1847, radical democrats called to overthrow the status quo. At the same time, the opposition had increased its networking activities. Thus, at the Heppenheim Conference on 10 October 1847, eighteen members from a variety of German states met to discuss common motions for a German nation-state. In 1847 and 1848, broader European developments aggravated this tension, in France, revolutionary workers and students deposed the Citizen King Louis-Philippe in the February Revolution, their action resulted in the declaration of the Second Republic. In many European states, the resistance against Restoration policies increased and led to revolutionary unrest, Friedrich Daniel Bassermann, a liberal deputy in the second chamber of the parliament of Baden, helped to trigger the final impulse for the election of a pan-German assembly. The Bundestag, made up of representatives of the princes, was the only institution representing the whole confederation. Two weeks later, news of the coup in France fanned the flames of the revolutionary mood
30.
German Mine Sweeping Administration
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The GMSA was formed on 21 June 1945 under Allied supervision, specifically that of the Royal Navy, to clear naval mines in the North Sea and Baltic. It was made up of 27,000 former members of the Kriegsmarine on nearly 300 vessels, for this reason, Vice Admiral Sir Harold Burrough, British Naval Commander-in-Chief, Germany, undersigned the instruction for the GMSA in June 1945. The British Admiralty preferred to risk German sailors rather than their own to do the dangerous work. The German sailors initially served in their Second World War uniforms, with the German Eagle and the Swastika removed, the sailors were paid a moderate wage and had the right to take local leave, unlike other German POWs, but service was not voluntary. Still, the daily, dangerous operations and the resulting high esprit de corps lead to increasing uneasiness about the GMSA, the service was sub-divided into six mine sweeping divisions. The German headquarters of the service were located in Glückstadt, on 25 May 1946, the GMSA was equipped with new blue work uniforms and special rank insignia, worn on the sleeve. The headquarters of the GMSA were moved to Hamburg in December 1947, the Reichsmarine had used mine sweeping operations after the First World War to preserve a talent pool of officers and the Royal Navy wanted to avoid a repeat of this experience. The German mine sweeping formation Cuxhaven, an organisation, replaced the GMSA, still under British control and using equipment. One of the few large surface ships of the Kriegsmarine to survive the war, the Royal Navy and German Naval Disarmament 1942-1947. German Minesweeping Administration 1945-1947 - List of catalogue references, forerunners to the West German Bundesmarine, The Klose Fast Patrol Group, the Naval Historical Team Bremerhaven, and the U. S. Navys Labor Service Unit
31.
West Germany
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West Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation on 23 May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. During this Cold War era, NATO-aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact-aligned East Germany were divided by the Inner German border, after 1961 West Berlin was physically separated from East Berlin as well as from East Germany by the Berlin Wall. This situation ended when East Germany was dissolved and its five states joined the ten states of the Federal Republic of Germany along with the reunified city-state of Berlin. With the reunification of West and East Germany, the Federal Republic of Germany, enlarged now to sixteen states and this period is referred to as the Bonn Republic by historians, alluding to the interwar Weimar Republic and the post-reunification Berlin Republic. The Federal Republic of Germany was established from eleven states formed in the three Allied Zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France, US and British forces remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Its population grew from roughly 51 million in 1950 to more than 63 million in 1990, the city of Bonn was its de facto capital city. The fourth Allied occupation zone was held by the Soviet Union, as a result, West Germany had a territory about half the size of the interbellum democratic Weimar Republic. At the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided among the Western and Eastern blocs, Germany was de facto divided into two countries and two special territories, the Saarland and divided Berlin. The Federal Republic of Germany claimed a mandate for all of Germany. It took the line that the GDR was an illegally constituted puppet state, though the GDR did hold regular elections, these were not free and fair. For all practical purposes the GDR was a Soviet puppet state, from the West German perspective the GDR was therefore illegitimate. Three southwestern states of West Germany merged to form Baden-Württemberg in 1952, in addition to the resulting ten states, West Berlin was considered an unofficial de facto 11th state. It recognised the GDR as a de facto government within a single German nation that in turn was represented de jure by the West German state alone. From 1973 onward, East Germany recognised the existence of two German countries de jure, and the West as both de facto and de jure foreign country, the Federal Republic and the GDR agreed that neither of them could speak in the name of the other. The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who remained in office until 1963, had worked for an alignment with NATO rather than neutrality. He not only secured a membership in NATO but was also a proponent of agreements that developed into the present-day European Union, when the G6 was established in 1975, there was no question whether the Federal Republic of Germany would be a member as well. With the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, East Germany voted to dissolve itself and accede to the Federal Republic in 1990. Its five post-war states were reconstituted along with the reunited Berlin and they formally joined the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, raising the number of states from 10 to 16, ending the division of Germany
32.
Allied Forces Baltic Approaches
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Allied Forces Baltic Approaches was a Principal Subordinate Command of the NATO Military Command Structure, with responsibility for the Baltic Sea area. It was in existence from 1962 to 2002 and consisted of the Danish Armed Forces, units of the West German Bundeswehr, the NATO command Baltic Approaches was created on 8 January 1962, with headquarters in Karup, Denmark. It was created at Germanys urging, in order to end the previous separation of the German naval forces between the NATO commands Northern Europe and Central Europe, after the changes in the international security situation in 1990, the command was restructured in 1993 and deactivated in 2002. One peculiarity was the responsibility for air defence over the German part of the BALTAP area, until 1990, the western Allies were responsible for air defence over the whole Federal Republic of Germany on the basis of the occupation statute. After France had withdrawn from the military structure of the alliance, this task was undertaken by the United States. The Second Allied Tactical Air Force was responsible for the area of Schleswig-Holstein and Hamburg, BALTAP was led by a Danish officer with the rank of a Lieutenant General or a Vice Admiral, who had the designation Commander Allied Forces Baltic Approaches. His deputy was a German officer of the same rank, from 1962 to 1993, COMBALTAP was under the NATO command Allied Forces Northern Europe in Kolsås outside Oslo in Norway. After a change in the NATO structure, it was placed under Allied Forces Central Europe on 1 October 1993. For the operational command of the air and sea forces, an assignment of these forces to Allied Forces Northwestern Europe with its component commands AIRNORTHWEST and NAVNORTHWEST was made. In case of war, COMBALTAP would have had to lead the NATO forces assigned to it, according to plans, all Danish forces with the exception of some units in the outer regions were to be placed under COMBALTAP. Germany had provided for its land and air forces stationed in the BALTAP area, in addition, external reinforcements from the United States and Britain were planned. The structure that was brought into being with the creation of BALTAP remained with few changes from 1962 to 1994, holding Jutland was crucial for the mission of NAVBALTAP to keep the Danish Straits blocked and thus prevent the Soviet Baltic Fleet from breaking out into the North Sea. In case the Jutland peninsula would fall into Soviet hands, the LANDZEALAND units defending the Danish Isles would have been dangerously flanked. Therefore LANDJUT was to be reinforced at the earliest with British and American troops to ensure that advancing Soviet forces would be prevented from crossing the Kiel Canal, British and American formations earmarked to reinforce LANDJUT included the British 1st Infantry Brigade and the American 9th Infantry Division. British infantry battalions and armoured regiments rotated every two years or so, thus locations are shown, but no unit identities, Bornholm and preventing Warsaw Pact troops from amphibious landings. Therefore Bornholm had only the Battlegroup and homeguard units of the 7th Territorial Region, the commander of AIRBALTAP was the commander in chief of the Royal Danish Air Force. AIRBALTAP commanded the Royal Danish Air Force and flying units of the German Luftwaffe and Marine, as well as air defence and radar installations manned by German. If needed AIRBALTAP would have been reinforced with units from the US Third, Eighth, Ninth and Twelfth Air Force, at the start of hostilities AIRBALTAP would have had immediately almost 300 combat planes at its disposal
33.
East Germany
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East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt
34.
National People's Army
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The National People’s Army was the name used for the armed forces of the German Democratic Republic. The NVA was first established in 1956 and disbanded in 1990 and its participation with the Soviet Armed Forces against the Czechoslovak interim government during the Prague Spring of 1968 was cancelled at the last minute. However, there were frequent reports of East German advisors working with communist African governments during the Cold War, the German Democratic Republic established the National Peoples Army on March 1,1956 from the Kasernierte Volkspolizei. During its first year, about 27 percent of the NVAs officer corps had formerly served in the Wehrmacht, of the 82 highest command positions, ex-Wehrmacht officers held 61, however, very few of them had served in high ranks. The military knowledge and combat experience of veterans were indispensable in the NVAs early years. In its first six years the NVA operated as an all-volunteer force, the GDR introduced conscription in 1962, and the NVAs strength increased to approximately 170,000 troops. The proportion of SED members in the officer corps rose steadily after the early 1960s, the NVA saw itself as the instrument of power of the working class. According to its doctrine, the NVA protected peace and secured the achievements of socialism by maintaining a deterrent to imperialist aggression. The NVAs motto, inscribed on its flag, read, For the Protection of the Workers and Farmers Power. The NVA never took part in combat, although it participated in a support role in the suppression of the Prague Spring of 1968. Instead, the NVA provided logistical help when Soviet troops advanced into Czechoslovakia, during the 1970s, and increasingly in the 1980s, the NVA achieved new standards of mobilization times and combat readiness. The North Atlantic Treaty Organisations submarine-based missiles were seen as its most potent weapon, ultimately,85 per cent of all NVA units were on constant alert, trained to depart within 25 to 30 minutes from their bases to designated areas about five to seven kilometers apart. Mobilization of reserves would have been completed two days. These unprecedented levels of combat readiness were considered the asset of GDR military deterrence but have never been proven to be accurate. These preparedness levels placed a strain on military professionals and conscripts alike. In the early 1970s the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany high command assigned to the NVA the wartime mission of capturing West Berlin. The NVA plan for the operation, designated Operation Centre, called for some 32,000 troops in two divisions, accompanied by the GSFGs Soviet 6th Guards Separate Motor Rifle Brigade. The plan was updated until 1988, when a less ambitious plan that simply aimed at containing Berlin was substituted
35.
Terrorism
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Terrorism is, in its broadest sense, the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence as a means to create terror or fear, in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim. It is classified as fourth-generation warfare and as a violent crime, in modern times, terrorism is considered a major threat to society and therefore illegal under anti-terrorism laws in most jurisdictions. It is also considered a war crime under the laws of war when used to target non-combatants, such as civilians, neutral military personnel, a broad array of political organizations have practiced terrorism to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments, there is no universally agreed upon definition of the term, and many definitions exist. According to data from the Global Terrorism Database, more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, Terrorism comes from the French word terrorisme, and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Reign of Terror. The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin verb terrere meaning to frighten, the Jacobins, coming to power in France in 1792, are said to have initiated the Reign of Terror. After the Jacobins lost power, the word terrorist became a term of abuse, although terrorism originally referred to acts committed by a government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people for political purposes in such a way as to create a spectacle. This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a terrorist, Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group Peoples Retribution in 1869. It is a form of state-terrorism, the concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by Harlan Ullman as chair of a forum of retired military personnel. The definition of terrorism has proven controversial, various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term terrorism is politically and emotionally charged, in this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian parliament, stated, The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. The international community has adopted a series of conventions that define. U. S. Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted, experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. Four years and a second later, Schmid was no closer to the goal of his quest. Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt. Hoffman believes it is possible to some key characteristics of terrorism. A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C, such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization
36.
Operation Enduring Freedom
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Operation Enduring Freedom comprises several subordinate operations, Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, lasted from October 2001 to 31 December 2014. Government used the term Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan to officially describe the War in Afghanistan, continued operations in Afghanistan by the United States military forces, both non-combat and combat, now occur under the name Operation Freedoms Sentinel. In September 2001, U. S. President George W, the term OEF-A typically refers to the phase of the War in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2014. Other operations, such as the Georgia Train and Equip Program, are loosely or nominally connected. All the operations, however, have a focus on counterterrorism activities, Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, which was a joint U. S. U. K. and Afghan operation, was separate from the International Security Assistance Force, which was an operation of North Atlantic Treaty Organization nations including the U. S. and the U. K. The two operations ran in parallel, although it had suggested that they merge. S. and British ships. The initial military objectives of OEF-A, as articulated by President George W, of those groups included are Abu Sayyaf Group, al-Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah. The operation consisted of training the AFP in counter-terrorist operations as well as supporting the people with humanitarian aid in Operation Smiles. In October 2002, the Combined Task Force 150 and United States military Special Forces established themselves in Djibouti at Camp Lemonnier, the stated goals of the operation were to provide humanitarian aid and patrol the Horn of Africa to reduce the abilities of terrorist organizations in the region. The military aspect involves coalition forces searching and boarding ships entering the region for illegal cargo as well as providing training, the humanitarian aspect involves building schools, clinics and water wells to enforce the confidence of the local people. Since 2001, the expenditure by the U. S. government on Operation Enduring Freedom has exceeded $150 billion. The operation continues, with military direction mostly coming from United States Central Command, seizing upon a power vacuum after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan after their invasion, the Taliban assumed the role of government from 1996–2001. Their extreme interpretation of Islamic law prompted them to ban music, television, sports, and dancing, amputation was an accepted form of punishment for stealing, and public executions could often be seen at the Kabul football stadium. Womens rights groups around the world were frequently critical as the Taliban banned women from appearing in public or holding many jobs outside the home and they drew further criticism when they destroyed the Buddhas of Bamyan, historical statues nearly 1500 years old, because the Buddhas were considered idols. In 1996, Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan upon the invitation of the Northern Alliance leader Abdur Rabb ur Rasool Sayyaf, when the Taliban came to power, bin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and his al-Qaeda organization. It is understood that al-Qaeda-trained fighters known as the 055 Brigade were integrated with the Taliban army between 1997 and 2001 and it has been suggested that the Taliban and bin Laden had very close connections. On 20 September 2001, the U. S. stated that Osama bin Laden was behind the 11 September attacks in 2001, the US made a five-point ultimatum to the Taliban, Deliver to the U. S
37.
United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon
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The mandate had to be adjusted twice, due to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982 and after the Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon in 2000. The first UNIFIL troops were deployed in the area on 23 March 1978, during the occupation, UNIFILs function was mainly to provide humanitarian aid. UNIFILs mandate is renewed by United Nations Security Council annually, the current mandate expires on 31 August 2017. During the 1982 Lebanon War, UN positions were overrun, primarily by the SLA forces under Saad Haddad and this was the Lebanese paramilitary force supported by the IDF in Southern Lebanon. In 1999, Israel undertook a withdrawal, which concluded in 2000, UNIFIL is currently deployed in Southern Lebanon and primarily along the United Nations-drawn Blue Line, which is the border between Israel and Lebanon. The forces activities have centered around monitoring military activity between Hezbollah and the Israeli Defense Forces with the aim of reducing tensions and allaying tension along the border. UNIFIL has also played an important role in clearing landmines, assisting displaced persons, under UN Security Council Resolution 1701, which passed as a result of the 2006 Lebanon War, its mandate and rules of engagement changed. The mandate changed to allow up to 15,000 personnel in order to assist the Lebanese Armed Forces in deploying in Southern Lebanon to implement the Lebanese governments sovereignty. The rules of engagement changed to allow the troops to fire in certain cases, mostly in cases of self-defense but also in order to protect civilians, UN personnel and facilities. ”On 27 August 2006, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan said that UNIFIL would not intercept arms shipments from Syria. The Maritime Task Force is the component of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon. As of February 2012, the MTF is under the command of Rear Admiral Wagner Lopes de Moraes Zamith of Brazil, the Brazilian frigate Constituição is the flagship of the fleet comprising vessels from Brazil, Bangladesh, Germany, Greece, Indonesia and Turkey. With its establishment in October 2006, the force was led by the German Navy which was also the major contributor to the force. The Germans lead the MTF up until 29 February 2008 when they passed control over to EUROMARFOR – a force made up of ships from Portugal, Spain, Italy and France. To date UNIFIL has suffered 272 fatalities,261 troops, two observers, five international civilian staff, and four local staff. Prior to the July 2006 Lebanon War, Israel had been lobbying for UNIFIL to either take an active role vis-a-vis Hezbollah or to step out of the region. Israel was concerned when it was reported that Indonesia was being considered to replace Italy as commander of UNIFILs naval force, according to the book, in 1992, two detained Lebanese men escaped from Khiam prison. Shortly afterward, Israeli Army commander Moshe Tamir visited the Norwegian battalions camp, immediately after the confrontation, the Lebanese men were smuggled onto a bus used by Norwegian peacekeepers on leave, which took them to Beirut. Hezbollah supporters have accused UNIFIL of siding with Israel, especially since the passage of Resolution 1701 which they view as one-sided
38.
Lebanon
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Lebanon, officially known as the Lebanese Republic, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, Lebanons location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland facilitated its rich history and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity. At just 10,452 km2, it is the smallest recognized country on the entire mainland Asian continent, the earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years, predating recorded history. Lebanon was the home of the Canaanites/Phoenicians and their kingdoms, a culture that flourished for over a thousand years. In 64 BC, the region came under the rule of the Roman Empire, in the Mount Lebanon range a monastic tradition known as the Maronite Church was established. As the Arab Muslims conquered the region, the Maronites held onto their religion, however, a new religious group, the Druze, established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well, generating a religious divide that has lasted for centuries. During the Crusades, the Maronites re-established contact with the Roman Catholic Church, the ties they established with the Latins have influenced the region into the modern era. The region eventually was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1516 to 1918, following the collapse of the empire after World War I, the five provinces that constitute modern Lebanon came under the French Mandate of Lebanon. The French expanded the borders of the Mount Lebanon Governorate, which was populated by Maronites and Druze. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, establishing confessionalism, a unique, foreign troops withdrew completely from Lebanon on 31 December 1946. Lebanon has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la francophonie since 1973, despite its small size, the country has developed a well-known culture and has been highly influential in the Arab world. Before the Lebanese Civil War, the experienced a period of relative calm and renowned prosperity, driven by tourism, agriculture, commerce. At the end of the war, there were efforts to revive the economy. In spite of troubles, Lebanon has the highest Human Development Index and GDP per capita in the Arab world. The name of Mount Lebanon originates from the Phoenician root lbn meaning white, occurrences of the name have been found in different Middle Bronze Age texts from the library of Ebla, and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where R stood for Canaanite L, the name occurs nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, as לְבָנוֹן. The borders of contemporary Lebanon are a product of the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920 and its territory was the core of the Bronze Age Phoenician city-states. After the 7th-century Muslim conquest of the Levant, it was part of the Rashidun, Umyayad, Abbasid Seljuk, with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Greater Lebanon fell under French mandate in 1920, and gained independence under president Bechara El Khoury in 1943
39.
Fast attack craft
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A fast attack craft is a small, fast, agile and offensive warship armed with anti-ship missiles, gun or torpedoes. FACs are usually operated in close proximity to land as they lack both the seakeeping and all-round defensive capabilities to survive in blue water, the size of the vessel also limits the fuel, stores and water supplies. In size they are usually between 50–800 tonnes and can reach speeds of 25–50 knots, a fast attack crafts main advantage over other warship types is its affordability. Many FACs can be deployed at a low cost, allowing a navy which is at a disadvantage to effectively defend itself against a larger adversary. A small boat, when equipped with the weapons as its larger counterpart. Their major disadvantages are poor seagoing qualities, cramped quarters and poor ability to defend themselves against aerial threat, as early as the mid-19th century, the Jeune Écoles poussiere navale theory called for a great number of small, agile vessels to break up invading fleets of larger vessels. The idea was first put into action in the 1870s with the torpedo boat. These new vessels proved especially susceptible to rough seas and to have limited utility in scouting due to their short endurance, the potential threat was entirely extinguished with the introduction of the Torpedo Boat Destroyer in 1893, a larger vessel which evolved into the modern destroyer. It could mount guns capable of destroying the boat before it was within range to use its own weapons. The idea was revived shortly before World War I with the craft using new gasoline engines, italy and Great Britain were at the forefront of this design, with the Coastal Motor Boat and the Motobarca Armata Silurante. The outstanding achievement of the class was the sinking of the Austro-Hungarian battleship SMS Szent István by MAS.15 on June 10,1918. The design matured in the mid-1930s as the Motor Torpedo Boats and Motor Gun Boats of the Royal Navy, the PT boats of the US Navy, with the development of the anti-ship missile FACs were reborn in the Soviet Union as missile boats or missile cutters. The first few boats were originally torpedo boats, with the torpedo tubes replaced by missile launchers. Again, small fast craft could attack and destroy a major warship, the idea was first tested by the Soviet Union which, in August 1957, produced the Komar class which mounted two P-15 Termit missiles on a 25-metre and a top speed of around 40 knots. Endurance was limited to 1,000 nautical miles at 12 knots,110 Komar-class vessels were produced, while over 400 examples were built of the following Osa class with a significant portion of the total being sold to pro-Soviet nations. The Soviet FACs prompted a NATO response, which became more intense after the sinking of Eilat, the Germans and French worked together to produce a new FAC, resulting in 1968 in the La Combattante class fast attack craft. Built on a 47-or-49-metre hull with four MM-38 Exocet missiles, a 76 mm gun forward and 40 mm twin guns aft, built until 1974, a total of 68 Combattante IIs were launched. The design was followed by the Combattante III, and a great many other shipyards produced their own versions of the Combattante
Germany
listen (help·info)) is the navy of Germany and part of the unified Bundeswehr ("Federal Defense"), the German Armed Forces. The German Navy was originally known as the Bundesmarine ("Federal Navy") from 1956 until 1995 when Deutsche Marine ("German Navy") became the official name with respect to the 1990 incorporation of the East German Volksmarine ("People's Navy"). It is deeply integrated into the NATO alliance, its primary mission is protection of Germany's territorial waters and maritime infrastructure as well as sea lines of communication. Apart from this, the German Navy participates in peacekeeping operations, and renders humanitarian assistance and disaster relief, they also participate in Anti-Piracy operations.[2]_of_the_German_Navy_at_RIAT_Fairford_17July2017_arp.jpg)
Germany
